317:, which can have glide ratios almost 60 to 1 (60 units of distance forward for each unit of descent) in the best cases, but with 30:1 being considered good performance for general recreational use. Achieving a glider's best L/D in practice requires precise control of airspeed and smooth and restrained operation of the controls to reduce drag from deflected control surfaces. In zero wind conditions, L/D will equal distance traveled divided by altitude lost. Achieving the maximum distance for altitude lost in wind conditions requires further modification of the best airspeed, as does alternating cruising and thermaling. To achieve high speed across country, glider pilots anticipating strong thermals often load their gliders (sailplanes) with
146:
981:
31:
204:
138:
173:
279:. Speed is shown increasing from left to right. The lift/drag ratio is given by the slope from the origin to some point on the curve and so the maximum L/D ratio does not occur at the point of least drag coefficient, the leftmost point. Instead, it occurs at a slightly greater speed. Designers will typically select a wing design which produces an L/D peak at the chosen
520:. One method for estimating the zero-lift drag coefficient of an aircraft is the equivalent skin-friction method. For a well designed aircraft, zero-lift drag (or parasite drag) is mostly made up of skin friction drag plus a small percentage of pressure drag caused by flow separation. The method uses the equation
87:
The term is calculated for any particular airspeed by measuring the lift generated, then dividing by the drag at that speed. These vary with speed, so the results are typically plotted on a 2-dimensional graph. In almost all cases the graph forms a U-shape, due to the two main components of drag. The
680:
is the wing reference area. The equivalent skin friction coefficient accounts for both separation drag and skin friction drag and is a fairly consistent value for aircraft types of the same class. Substituting this into the equation for maximum lift-to-drag ratio, along with the equation for aspect
325:
means optimum glide ratio at greater airspeed, but at the cost of climbing more slowly in thermals. As noted below, the maximum L/D is not dependent on weight or wing loading, but with greater wing loading the maximum L/D occurs at a faster airspeed. Also, the faster airspeed means the aircraft
176:
Polar curve showing glide angle for the best glide speed (best L/D). It is the flattest possible glide angle through calm air, which will maximize the distance flown. This airspeed (vertical line) corresponds to the tangent point of a line starting from the origin of the graph. A glider flying
828:
440:
313:, which is the ratio of an (unpowered) aircraft's forward motion to its descent, is (when flown at constant speed) numerically equal to the aircraft's L/D. This is especially of interest in the design and operation of high performance
594:
726:
233:). For this reason profile drag is more pronounced at greater speeds, forming the right side of the lift/velocity graph's U shape. Profile drag is lowered primarily by streamlining and reducing cross section.
963:
1669:
107:
The L/D ratio is affected by both the form drag of the body and by the induced drag associated with creating a lifting force. It depends principally on the lift and drag coefficients,
874:
721:
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651:
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129:
The L/D ratio can also be used for water craft and land vehicles. The L/D ratios for hydrofoil boats and displacement craft are determined similarly to aircraft.
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122:
for a given flightpath, so that doubling the L/D ratio will require only half of the energy for the same distance travelled. This results directly in better
1323:
the lift to drag determines the required thrust to maintain altitude (given the aircraft weight), and the SFC permits calculation of the fuel burn rate.
876:
is known as the wetted aspect ratio. The equation demonstrates the importance of wetted aspect ratio in achieving an aerodynamically efficient design.
526:
513:
Most importantly, the maximum lift-to-drag ratio is independent of the weight of the aircraft, the area of the wing, or the wing loading.
823:{\displaystyle (L/D)_{\text{max}}={\frac {1}{2}}{\sqrt {{\frac {\pi \varepsilon }{C_{\text{fe}}}}{\frac {b^{2}}{S_{\text{wet}}}}}},}
1862:
80:
For an aerofoil wing or powered aircraft, the L/D is specified when in straight and level flight. For a glider it determines the
309:
and control surfaces will also add drag and possibly some lift, it is fair to consider the L/D of the aircraft as a whole. The
900:
287:, the lift-to-drag ratio is not the only consideration for wing design. Performance at a high angle of attack and a gentle
1600:
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200:, which results in a greater induced drag. This term dominates the low-speed side of the graph of lift versus velocity.
17:
1918:
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It can be shown that two main drivers of maximum lift-to-drag ratio for a fixed wing aircraft are wingspan and total
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Lift can be created when an aerofoil-shaped body travels through a viscous fluid such as air. The aerofoil is often
1724:
1320:
1633:
1349:"Accurate calculation of aerodynamic coefficients of parafoil airdrop system based on computational fluid dynamic"
77:
under given flight conditions. The L/D ratio for any given body will vary according to these flight conditions.
1972:
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435:{\displaystyle (L/D)_{\text{max}}={\frac {1}{2}}{\sqrt {\frac {\pi \varepsilon {\text{AR}}}{C_{D,0}}}},}
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Dominique Paul
Bergmann, Jan Denzel, Ole Pfeifle, Stefan Notter, Walter Fichter and Andreas Strohmayer
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had a lift/drag ratio of about 7 at Mach 2, whereas a 747 has about 17 at about mach 0.85.
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264:. The varying ratio of lift to drag with AoA is often plotted in terms of these coefficients.
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The rates of change of lift and drag with angle of attack (AoA) are called respectively the
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2002:
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Wu, Wannan; Sun, Qinglin; Luo, Shuzhen; Sun, Mingwei; Chen, Zengqiang; Sun, Hao (2018).
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developed an empirical relationship for predicting L/D ratio for high Mach numbers:
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is the Mach number. Windtunnel tests have shown this to be approximately accurate.
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for a powered fixed-wing aircraft, thereby maximizing economy. Like all things in
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is caused by movement of the body through air. This type of drag, known also as
1779:
1190:
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at takeoff and landing 4:1, increasing to 12:1 at Mach 0.95 and 7.5:1 at Mach 2
288:
280:
222:
141:
Drag vs Speed. L/DMAX occurs at minimum Total Drag (e.g. Parasite plus
Induced)
1610:
589:{\displaystyle C_{D,0}=C_{\text{fe}}{\frac {S_{\text{wet}}}{S_{\text{ref}}}},}
196:
or induced drag. At low speeds an aircraft has to generate lift with a higher
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on any aerodynamic body thus has two components, induced drag and form drag.
230:
1391:
473:, a number less than but close to unity for long, straight-edged wings, and
177:
faster or slower than this airspeed will cover less distance before landing.
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In-flight Lift and Drag
Estimation of an Unmanned Propeller-Driven Aircraft
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1408:. Minneapolis: Bob Wander's Soaring Books & Supplies. pp. 7–10.
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to the airflow. The lift then increases as the square of the airspeed.
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The maximum lift-to-drag ratio of the complete helicopter is about 4.5
1445:"Quest for performance: The evolution of modern aircraft. NASA SP-468"
1380:
Validation of software for the calculation of aerodynamic coefficients
1012:
314:
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1422:. U.S. Department of Transportation, FAA. 2003. p. 5-6 to 5-9.
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can have an effective lift to drag ratio while maintaining altitude.
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1670:"Historical evolution of air transport productivity and efficiency"
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Mathematically, the maximum lift-to-drag ratio can be estimated as
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For any given value of lift, the AoA varies with speed. Graphs of C
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Whenever an aerodynamic body generates lift, this also creates
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At very great speeds, lift-to-drag ratios tend to be lower.
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caused by moving through air. It describes the aerodynamic
1702:
958:{\displaystyle L/D_{\text{max}}={\frac {4(M+3)}{M}},}
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1668:Rodrigo MartĂnez-Val; et al. (January 2005).
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210:for light aircraft. The tangent gives the maximum
1353:International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems
1964:
1674:43rd AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit
84:, of distance travelled against loss of height.
118:The L/D ratio is inversely proportional to the
1718:
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626:is the equivalent skin friction coefficient,
243:
96:. It is measured empirically by testing in a
1648:
65:generated by an aerodynamic body such as an
1561:. Cambridge University Press. p. 230.
1406:Glider Polars and Speed-To-Fly...Made Easy!
1382:Ramón López Pereira, Linköpings Universitet
1346:
1725:
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1479:Aerospaceweb.org Hypersonic Vehicle Design
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330:and this will usually bring about a lower
1587:Cessna Skyhawk II Performance Assessment
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1517:. Cambridge University Press. p. 4.
988:has the best glide ratio for a sailplane
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1466:Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach
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1558:Principles of helicopter aerodynamics
1555:Leishman, J. Gordon (24 April 2006).
1548:
1420:Glider Flying Handbook, FAA-H-8083-13
1317:range depends on the lift/drag ratio.
1077:Computed aerodynamic characteristics
1046:at 100 kn (190 km/h) 4.5:1
229:varies with the square of speed (see
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869:{\displaystyle b^{2}/S_{\text{wet}}}
716:{\displaystyle b^{2}/S_{\text{ref}}}
41:are the two components of the total
1863:California–Nevada Interstate Maglev
1483:
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1534:. Osprey Publishing. p. 116.
1412:
45:acting on an aerofoil or aircraft.
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2014:
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301:Gliding flight § Glide ratio
27:Measure of aerodynamic efficiency
1321:Thrust specific fuel consumption
132:
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1589:http://temporal.com.au/c172.pdf
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1496:Advanced topics in aerodynamics
1468:(5th ed.). New York: AIAA.
1649:David Noland (February 2005).
1632:. June 4, 2013. Archived from
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673:{\displaystyle S_{\text{ref}}}
646:{\displaystyle S_{\text{wet}}}
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1919:Shanghai–Hangzhou Maglev Line
1698:Lift-to-drag ratio calculator
1332:
879:
619:{\displaystyle C_{\text{fe}}}
275:vs. speed are referred to as
1907:Qingyuan Maglev Tourist Line
1806:High Speed Surface Transport
1528:Christopher Orlebar (1997).
462:{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
111:to the airflow and the wing
90:computational fluid dynamics
88:L/D may be calculated using
69:or aircraft, divided by the
7:
1630:Central Intelligence Agency
1607:Central Intelligence Agency
1288:
1069:Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer
342:
10:
2019:
1758:Electromagnetic suspension
1732:
1602:U2 Developments transcript
1513:Cumpsty, Nicholas (2003).
508:zero-lift drag coefficient
332:zero-lift drag coefficient
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244:Lift and drag coefficients
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1764:Electrodynamic suspension
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1366:10.1177/1729881418766190
285:aeronautical engineering
1869:Changsha Maglev Express
1464:Raymer, Daniel (2012).
1136:McDonnell Douglas MD-11
1108:McDonnell Douglas DC-10
723:), yields the equation
653:is the wetted area and
499:{\displaystyle C_{D,0}}
1943:Lathen train collision
1879:Incheon Airport Maglev
1748:Linear induction motor
1609:. 1960. Archived from
1327:Thrust-to-weight ratio
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976:Examples of L/D ratios
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471:span efficiency factor
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1492:"Lift-to-Drag Ratios"
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1983:Aircraft wing design
1978:Aircraft performance
1954:Proposals in italics
1620:– via YouTube.
1404:Wander, Bob (2003).
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326:will fly at greater
291:are also important.
150:Coefficients of drag
1936:Transport Accidents
1753:Magnetic levitation
1651:"The Ultimate Solo"
1490:Antonio Filippone.
1315:Range (aeronautics)
1078:
94:computer simulation
1998:Gliding technology
1993:Engineering ratios
1790:Lift-to-drag ratio
1785:Eddy current brake
1682:10.2514/6.2005-121
1531:The Concorde Story
1502:on March 28, 2008.
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1857:Birmingham Maglev
1655:Popular Mechanics
1626:"U2 Developments"
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16:(Redirected from
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1636:on 2013-08-16.
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1741:Technologies
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1634:the original
1629:
1615:. Retrieved
1611:the original
1601:
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1500:the original
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1448:. Retrieved
1438:
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1387:
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1342:
1336:
1295:Gravity drag
1254:Apr 1, 1992
1240:Nov 2, 1992
1185:Feb 9, 1969
1171:Apr 3, 1982
1057:Lockheed U-2
1019:Wright Flyer
1001:Herring gull
969:
967:
890:
883:
831:
598:
515:
512:
447:aspect ratio
444:
346:
323:wing loading
304:
266:
247:
235:
227:profile drag
217:
191:
180:
128:
124:fuel economy
117:
113:aspect ratio
106:
86:
79:
58:
54:
51:aerodynamics
48:
1816:Launch loop
1260:Airbus A340
1246:Airbus A340
1232:Airbus A310
1218:Airbus A320
1163:Airbus A310
1122:Airbus A300
1032:Airbus A380
1007:Common tern
518:wetted area
311:glide ratio
295:Glide ratio
277:drag curves
102:flight test
100:or in free
98:wind tunnel
82:glide ratio
2003:Wind power
1967:Categories
1901:ODU maglev
1831:Transrapid
1811:Inductrack
1617:2016-03-05
1568:0521858607
1450:2006-04-22
1333:References
1274:Boeing 777
1204:Boeing 757
1177:Boeing 747
1149:Boeing 767
1085:cruise L/D
1050:Cessna 172
1044:Helicopter
1025:Boeing 747
880:Supersonic
315:sailplanes
299:See also:
238:total drag
208:Drag curve
75:efficiency
1055:Cruising
1030:Cruising
1013:Albatross
776:ε
773:π
457:ε
402:ε
399:π
219:Form drag
61:) is the
59:L/D ratio
1836:SCMaglev
1826:StarTram
1821:Vactrain
1770:Guideway
1289:See also
1082:Jetliner
1038:Concorde
886:Concorde
343:Subsonic
307:fuselage
183:cambered
67:aerofoil
1799:Systems
1299:rockets
681:ratio (
1889:M-Bahn
1884:Linimo
1734:Maglev
1565:
1538:
1426:
1151:-200ER
1059:25.6:1
968:where
830:where
599:where
338:Theory
214:point.
53:, the
1845:Lines
1766:(EDS)
1760:(EMS)
1359:(2).
1021:8.3:1
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289:stall
271:and C
260:and C
1563:ISBN
1536:ISBN
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1124:-600
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506:the
469:the
252:and
250:lift
236:The
158:lift
156:and
63:lift
57:(or
39:drag
37:and
35:Lift
1678:doi
1361:doi
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986:eta
918:max
862:wet
809:wet
750:max
709:ref
666:ref
639:wet
577:ref
567:wet
377:max
225:or
212:L/D
164:vs
92:or
49:In
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