1034:
5313:, so different lichen species show different levels of sensitivity to specific atmospheric pollutants. The sensitivity of a lichen to air pollution is directly related to the energy needs of the mycobiont, so that the stronger the dependency of the mycobiont on the photobiont, the more sensitive the lichen is to air pollution. Upon exposure to air pollution, the photobiont may use metabolic energy for repair of its cellular structures that would otherwise be used for maintenance of its photosynthetic activity, therefore leaving less metabolic energy available for the mycobiont. The alteration of the balance between the photobiont and mycobiont can lead to the breakdown of the symbiotic association. Therefore, lichen decline may result not only from the accumulation of toxic substances, but also from altered nutrient supplies that favor one symbiont over the other.
4315:
737:
5335:
1065:. The algae or cyanobacteria benefit by being protected from the environment by the filaments of the fungi, which also gather moisture and nutrients from the environment, and (usually) provide an anchor to it. Although some photosynthetic partners in a lichen can survive outside the lichen, the lichen symbiotic association extends the ecological range of both partners, whereby most descriptions of lichen associations describe them as symbiotic. Both partners gain water and mineral nutrients mainly from the atmosphere, through rain and dust. The fungal partner protects the alga by retaining water, serving as a larger capture area for mineral nutrients and, in some cases, provides minerals obtained from the
1254:. A few lichen species are eaten by insects or larger animals, such as reindeer. Lichens are widely used as environmental indicators or bio-indicators. When air is very badly polluted with sulphur dioxide, there may be no lichens present; only some green algae can tolerate those conditions. If the air is clean, then shrubby, hairy and leafy lichens become abundant. A few lichen species can tolerate fairly high levels of pollution, and are commonly found in urban areas, on pavements, walls and tree bark. The most sensitive lichens are shrubby and leafy, while the most tolerant lichens are all crusty in appearance. Since industrialisation, many of the shrubby and leafy lichens such as
4900:
799:
81:
173:
4811:, and independent lichenization events may have occurred multiple times. In 1995, Gargas and colleagues proposed that there were at least five independent origins of lichenization; three in the basidiomycetes and at least two in the Ascomycetes. Lutzoni et al. (2001) suggest lichenization probably evolved earlier and was followed by multiple independent losses. Some non-lichen-forming fungi may have secondarily lost the ability to form a lichen association. As a result, lichenization has been viewed as a highly successful nutritional strategy.
58:
5917:
4882:. Discovery of these fossils suggest that fungi developed symbiotic partnerships with photoautotrophs long before the evolution of vascular plants, though the Ediacaran lichen hypothesis is largely rejected due to an inappropriate definition of lichens based on taphonomy and substrate ecology. However, a 2019 study by the same scientist who rejected the Ediacaran lichen hypothesis, Nelsen, used new time-calibrated phylogenies to conclude that there is no evidence of lichen before the existence of vascular plants.
5461:
40:
1646:
5473:
5497:. Measuring the diameter (or other size measurement) of the largest lichen of a species on a rock surface indicates the length of time since the rock surface was first exposed. Lichen can be preserved on old rock faces for up to 10,000 years, providing the maximum age limit of the technique, though it is most accurate (within 10% error) when applied to surfaces that have been exposed for less than 1,000 years. Lichenometry is especially useful for dating surfaces less than 500 years old, as
5257:
127:
150:
1721:) as the fungus species in the lichen. Lichens are being integrated into the classification schemes for fungi. The alga bears its own scientific name, which bears no relationship to that of the lichen or fungus. There are about 20,000 identified lichen species, and taxonomists have estimated that the total number of lichen species (including those yet undiscovered) might be as high as 28,000. Nearly 20% of known fungal species are associated with lichens.
1449:
4589:). This is especially the case when combining the same fungus with different algae or cyanobacteria produces dramatically different lichen organisms, which would be considered different species by any measure other than the DNA of the fungal component. If the whole lichen produced by the same fungus growing in association with different algae or cyanobacteria, were to be classified as different "species", the number of "lichen species" would be greater.
1805:
1501:
104:
5931:
5829:
5726:
9498:
4974:
5174:
954:) grow from the lower cortex to attach or anchor the lichen to the substrate. Fruticose lichens have a single cortex wrapping all the way around the "stems" and "branches". The medulla is the lowest layer, and may form a cottony white inner core for the branchlike thallus, or it may be hollow. Crustose and squamulose lichens lack a lower cortex, and the medulla is in direct contact with the
5886:, were not so quick to reject Schwendener's ideas and the concept soon spread into other areas of study, such as microbial, plant, animal and human pathogens. When the complex relationships between pathogenic microorganisms and their hosts were finally identified, Schwendener's hypothesis began to gain popularity. Further experimental proof of the dual nature of lichens was obtained when
912:) fungal filaments. The dense packing makes the cortex act like a protective "skin", keeping other organisms out, and reducing the intensity of sunlight on the layers below. The cortex layer can be up to several hundred micrometers (μm) in thickness (less than a millimeter). The cortex may be further topped by an epicortex of secretions, not cells, 0.6–1 μm thick in
4573:
cyanobacterial component of a lichen can be grown by itself in culture. When growing by themselves, the fungus, algae, or cyanobacteria have very different properties than those of the lichen. Lichen properties such as growth form, physiology, and biochemistry, are very different from the combination of the properties of the fungus and the algae or cyanobacteria.
1435:—were sealed in a capsule and launched on a Russian Soyuz rocket 31 May 2005. Once in orbit, the capsules were opened and the lichens were directly exposed to the vacuum of space with its widely fluctuating temperatures and cosmic radiation. After 15 days, the lichens were brought back to earth and were found to be unchanged in their ability to photosynthesize.
728:), with only the sexual fruiting part visible growing outside the rock. These may be dramatic in color or appearance. Forms of these sexual parts are not in the above growth form categories. The most visually noticeable reproductive parts are often circular, raised, plate-like or disc-like outgrowths, with crinkly edges, and are described in sections below.
1340:, with some considered to be among the oldest living organisms. Lifespan is difficult to measure because what defines the "same" individual lichen is not precise. Lichens grow by vegetatively breaking off a piece, which may or may not be defined as the "same" lichen, and two lichens can merge, then becoming the "same" lichen. One specimen of
927:. The symbiont layer has less densely packed fungal filaments, with the photosynthetic partner embedded in them. The less dense packing allows air circulation during photosynthesis, similar to the anatomy of a leaf. Each cell or group of cells of the photobiont is usually individually wrapped by hyphae, and in some cases penetrated by a
1147:. In a few remarkable cases, a single lichen fungus can develop into two very different lichen forms when associating with either a green algal or a cyanobacterial symbiont. Quite naturally, these alternative forms were at first considered to be different species, until they were found growing in a conjoined manner.
9193:
752:) to become more transparent, exposing the green photobiont layer. Different colored lichens covering large areas of exposed rock surfaces, or lichens covering or hanging from bark can be a spectacular display when the patches of diverse colors "come to life" or "glow" in brilliant displays following rain.
1728:" may refer to the entire lichen, or to just the fungus. This may cause confusion without context. A particular fungus species may form lichens with different algae species, giving rise to what appear to be different lichen species, but which are still classified (as of 2014) as the same lichen species.
748:, give lichens a variety of colors, including reds, oranges, yellows, and browns, especially in exposed, dry habitats. In the absence of special pigments, lichens are usually bright green to olive gray when wet, gray or grayish-green to brown when dry. This is because moisture causes the surface skin (
4885:
Lecanoromycetes, one of the most common classes of lichen-forming fungi, diverged from its ancestor, which may have also been lichen forming, around 258 million years ago, during the late
Paleozoic period. However, the closely related clade Euritiomycetes appears to have become lichen-forming only 52
888:
Fruticose lichens have one cortex layer wrapping around the "branches". Foliose lichens have an upper cortex on the top side of the "leaf", and a separate lower cortex on the bottom side. Crustose and squamulose lichens have only an upper cortex, with the "inside" of the lichen in direct contact with
5093:
In addition to distinct physical mechanisms by which lichens break down raw stone, studies indicate lichens attack stone chemically, entering newly chelated minerals into the ecology. The substances exuded by lichens, known for their strong ability to bind and sequester metals, along with the common
1226:
Symbiosis in lichens is so well-balanced that lichens have been considered to be relatively self-contained miniature ecosystems in and of themselves. It is thought that lichens may be even more complex symbiotic systems that include non-photosynthetic bacterial communities performing other functions
961:
In crustose areolate lichens, the edges of the areolas peel up from the substrate and appear leafy. In squamulose lichens the part of the lichen thallus that is not attached to the substrate may also appear leafy. But these leafy parts lack a lower cortex, which distinguishes crustose and squamulose
5850:
proposed his dual theory of lichens, that lichens are a combination of fungi with algae or cyanobacteria, whereby the true nature of the lichen association began to emerge. Schwendener's hypothesis, which at the time lacked experimental evidence, arose from his extensive analysis of the anatomy and
5181:
Lichens do not have roots and do not need to tap continuous reservoirs of water like most higher plants, thus they can grow in locations impossible for most plants, such as bare rock, sterile soil or sand, and various artificial structures such as walls, roofs, and monuments. Many lichens also grow
4576:
The same fungus growing in combination with different algae or cyanobacteria, can produce lichens that are very different in most properties, meeting non-DNA criteria for being different "species". Historically, these different combinations were classified as different species. When the fungus is
1158:
In a case where one fungal partner simultaneously had two green algae partners that outperform each other in different climates, this might indicate having more than one photosynthetic partner at the same time might enable the lichen to exist in a wider range of habitats and geographic locations.
767:
Color is used in identification. The color of a lichen changes depending on whether the lichen is wet or dry. Color descriptions used for identification are based on the color that shows when the lichen is dry. Dry lichens with a cyanobacterium as the photosynthetic partner tend to be dark grey,
5126:, among the first living things to grow on bare rock or areas denuded of life by a disaster. Lichens may have to compete with plants for access to sunlight, but because of their small size and slow growth, they thrive in places where higher plants have difficulty growing. Lichens are often the
4572:
Depending on context, "lichenized fungus" may refer to the entire lichen, or to the fungus when it is in the lichen, which can be grown in culture in isolation from the algae or cyanobacteria. Some algae and cyanobacteria are found naturally living outside of the lichen. The fungal, algal, or
1844:
Thalli produced by a given fungal symbiont with its differing partners may be similar, and the secondary metabolites identical, indicating that the fungus has the dominant role in determining the morphology of the lichen. But the same mycobiont with different photobionts may also produce very
4957:
on the plants they grow on, but only use them as a substrate. The fungi of some lichen species may "take over" the algae of other lichen species. Lichens make their own food from their photosynthetic parts and by absorbing minerals from the environment. Lichens growing on leaves may have the
716:
These growth form groups are not precisely defined. Foliose lichens may sometimes branch and appear to be fruticose. Fruticose lichens may have flattened branching parts and appear leafy. Squamulose lichens may appear where the edges lift up. Gelatinous lichens may appear leafy when dry.
311:
and act as producers which many higher trophic feeders feed on, such as reindeer, gastropods, nematodes, mites, and springtails. Lichens have properties different from those of their component organisms. They come in many colors, sizes, and forms and are sometimes plant-like, but are not
1519:
Structures involved in reproduction often appear as discs, bumps, or squiggly lines on the surface of the thallus. Though it has been argued that sexual reproduction in photobionts is selected against, there is strong evidence that suggests meiotic activities (sexual reproduction) in
755:
Different colored lichens may inhabit different adjacent sections of a rock face, depending on the angle of exposure to light. Colonies of lichens may be spectacular in appearance, dominating much of the surface of the visual landscape in forests and natural places, such as the
1475:
containing a few algal cells surrounded by fungal cells. Because of the relative lack of differentiation in the thallus, the line between diaspore formation and vegetative reproduction is often blurred. Fruticose lichens can fragment, and new lichens can grow from the fragment
9165:
4514:
The lichen association is a close symbiosis. It extends the ecological range of both partners but is not always obligatory for their growth and reproduction in natural environments, since many of the algal symbionts can live independently. A prominent example is the alga
5109:
to soils in some deserts through being eaten, along with their rock substrate, by snails, which then defecate, putting the nitrogen into the soils. Lichens help bind and stabilize soil sand in dunes. In deserts and semi-arid areas, lichens are part of extensive, living
4528:
The same cyanobiont species can occur in association with different fungal species as lichen partners. The same phycobiont species can occur in association with different fungal species as lichen partners. More than one phycobiont may be present in a single thallus.
5212:
is a major factor of lichen habitats. Most lichens grow on stable rock surfaces or the bark of old trees, but many others grow on soil and sand. In these latter cases, lichens are often an important part of soil stabilization; indeed, in some desert ecosystems,
467:, with some considered to be among the oldest living things. They are among the first living things to grow on fresh rock exposed after an event such as a landslide. The long life-span and slow and regular growth rate of some species can be used to date events (
962:
lichens from foliose lichens. Conversely, foliose lichens may appear flattened against the substrate like a crustose lichen, but most of the leaf-like lobes can be lifted up from the substrate because it is separated from it by a tightly packed lower cortex.
5170:) in which the cells of the lichen symbionts are dehydrated to a degree that halts most biochemical activity. In this cryptobiotic state, lichens can survive wider extremes of temperature, radiation and drought in the harsh environments they often inhabit.
1177:
in contact with the wall of the algal cells. The appressoria or haustoria may produce a substance that increases permeability of the algal cell walls, and may penetrate the walls. The algae may contribute up to 80% of their sugar production to the fungus.
5130:
in places lacking soil, constituting the sole vegetation in some extreme environments such as those found at high mountain elevations and at high latitudes. Some survive in the tough conditions of deserts, and others on frozen soil of the Arctic regions.
1300:
Moisture makes the cortex become more transparent. This way, the algae can conduct photosynthesis when moisture is available, and is protected at other times. When the cortex is more transparent, the algae show more clearly and the lichen looks greener.
7700:
Spribille, Toby; Tuovinen, Veera; Resl, Philipp; Vanderpool, Dan; Wolinski, Heimo; Aime, M. Catherine; Schneider, Kevin; Stabentheiner, Edith; Toome-Heller, Merje; Thor, Göran; Mayrhofer, Helmut; Johannesson, Hanna; McCutcheon, John P. (29 July 2016).
1154:
is the fact that lichens can be found in almost every habitat and geographic area on the planet. Two species in two genera of green algae are found in over 35% of all lichens, but can only rarely be found living on their own outside of a lichen.
1131:. The absence of this third partner could explain why growing lichen in the laboratory is difficult. The yeast cells are responsible for the formation of the characteristic cortex of the lichen thallus, and could also be important for its shape.
883:
cells, often enclosing them within complex fungal tissues that are unique to lichen associations. The thallus may or may not have a protective "skin" of densely packed fungal filaments, often containing a second fungal species, which is called a
4564:
ancestral lineage from each other. By convention, lichens are still called "species" anyway, and are classified according to the species of their fungus, not the species of the algae or cyanobacteria. Lichens are given the same scientific name
1139:) of most lichens is different from those of either the fungus or alga growing separately. When grown in the laboratory in the absence of its photobiont, a lichen fungus develops as a structureless, undifferentiated mass of fungal filaments (
931:. In crustose and foliose lichens, algae in the photobiontic layer are diffuse among the fungal filaments, decreasing in gradation into the layer below. In fruticose lichens, the photobiontic layer is sharply distinct from the layer below.
7656:
Pogoda, C. S.; Keepers, K. G.; Lendemer, J. C.; Kane, N. C.; Tripp, E. A. (2018). "Reductions in complexity of mitochondrial genomes in lichen-forming fungi shed light on genome architecture of obligate symbioses – Wiley Online
Library".
4718:
The fossil record for lichens is poor. The extreme habitats that lichens dominate, such as tundra, mountains, and deserts, are not ordinarily conducive to producing fossils. There are fossilized lichens embedded in amber. The fossilized
893:). Even if the edges peel up from the substrate and appear flat and leaf-like, they lack a lower cortex, unlike foliose lichens. Filamentous, byssoid, leprose, gelatinous, and other lichens do not have a cortex; in other words, they are
1134:
The lichen combination of alga or cyanobacterium with a fungus has a very different form (morphology), physiology, and biochemistry than the component fungus, alga, or cyanobacterium growing by itself, naturally or in culture. The body
688:
There are variations in growth types in a single lichen species, grey areas between the growth type descriptions, and overlapping between growth types, so some authors might describe lichens using different growth type descriptions.
4581:
species under the current (2014) convention for classification by fungal component. This has led to debate about this classification convention. These apparently different "species" have their own independent evolutionary history.
1084:
In three different lineages the fungal partner has independently lost the mitochondrial gene atp9, which has key functions in mitochondrial energy production. The loss makes the fungi completely dependent on their symbionts.
1668:. Since it is part of the reproductive tissue, podetia are not considered part of the main body (thallus), but may be visually prominent. The podetium may be branched, and sometimes cup-like. They usually bear the fungal
4945:
by which rocks are gradually turned into soil. While this contribution to weathering is usually benign, it can cause problems for artificial stone structures. For example, there is an ongoing lichen growth problem on
1162:
At least one form of lichen, the North
American beard-like lichens, are constituted of not two but three symbiotic partners: an ascomycetous fungus, a photosynthetic alga, and, unexpectedly, a basidiomycetous yeast.
1576:(plural: perithecia). Apothecia are usually cups or plate-like discs located on the top surface of the lichen thallus. When apothecia are shaped like squiggly line segments instead of like discs, they are called
7797:
Spribille, Toby; Tuovinen, Veera; Resl, Philipp; Vanderpool, Dan; Wolinski, Heimo; Aime, M. Catherine; Schneider, Kevin; Stabentheiner, Edith; Toome-Heller, Merje; Thor, Göran; Mayrhofer, Helmut (29 July 2016).
5480:
Lichenometry is a technique used to determine the age of exposed rock surfaces based on the size of lichen thalli. Introduced by
Beschel in the 1950s, the technique has found many applications. it is used in
8232:
Hauck, Markus; Jürgens, Sascha-René; Leuschner, Christoph (2010). "Norstictic acid: Correlations between its physico-chemical characteristics and ecological preferences of lichens producing this depsidone".
692:
When a crustose lichen gets old, the center may start to crack up like old-dried paint, old-broken asphalt paving, or like the polygonal "islands" of cracked-up mud in a dried lakebed. This is called being
12189:
8407:
775:), often brown or black, sometimes white. A fruticose lichen may have flattened "branches", appearing similar to a foliose lichen, but the underside of a leaf-like structure on a fruticose lichen is the
610:. Lichens are grouped by thallus type, since the thallus is usually the most visually prominent part of the lichen. Thallus growth forms typically correspond to a few basic internal structure types.
11531:
Curry, R. R. (1969) "Holocene climatic and glacial history of the central Sierra Nevada, California", pp. 1–47, Geological
Society of America Special Paper, 123, S. A. Schumm and W. C. Bradley, eds.
10256:
843:, surrounded by filaments of a fungus. Generally, most of a lichen's bulk is made of interwoven fungal filaments, but this is reversed in filamentous and gelatinous lichens. The fungus is called a
1206:
surrounds the algal cells, often enclosing them within complex fungal tissues unique to lichen associations. In many species the fungus penetrates the algal cell wall, forming penetration pegs (
8556:
Sancho, L. G.; De La Torre, R.; Horneck, G.; Ascaso, C.; De Los Rios, A.; Pintado, A.; Wierzchos, J.; Schuster, M. (2007). "Lichens survive in space: results from the 2005 LICHENS experiment".
1580:. Perithecia are shaped like flasks that are immersed in the lichen thallus tissue, which has a small hole for the spores to escape the flask, and appear like black dots on the lichen surface.
11431:
Beltman IH, de Kok LJ, Kuiper PJC, van
Hasselt PR (1980). "Fatty acid composition and chlorophyll content of epiphytic lichens and a possible relation to their sensitivity to air pollution".
4354:. About 90% of all known lichens have phycobionts, and about 10% have cyanobionts. Approximately 100 species of photosynthetic partners from 40 genera and five distinct classes (prokaryotic:
1743:
lineages in their respective fungal phyla, but they do form several major solely or primarily lichen-forming groups within each phylum. Even more unusual than basidiolichens is the fungus
1198:
under circumstances where the photosynthetic partner can exist in nature independently of the fungal partner, but not vice versa. Photobiont cells are routinely destroyed in the course of
4346:. In some lichens both types are present; in such cases, the alga is typically the primary partner, with the cyanobacteria being located in cryptic pockets. Algal photobionts are called
373:, but they are not closely related to mosses or any plant. Lichens do not have roots that absorb water and nutrients as plants do, but like plants, they produce their own nutrition by
5963:- a symbiosis where a fungus lives in the macroscopic thallus of fresh water and marine algae; technically not a lichen but a similar phenomenon where fungi and algae are in symbiosis
5640:
There are reports dating almost 2,000 years old of lichens being used to make purple and red dyes. Of great historical and commercial significance are lichens belonging to the family
8900:
Lücking, Robert; Hodkinson, Brendan P.; Leavitt, Steven D. (2017). "The 2016 classification of lichenized fungi in the
Ascomycota and Basidiomycota–Approaching one thousand genera".
4120:
Ekman, Stefan; Andersen, Heidi L.; Wedin, Mats (2008). "The limitations of ancestral state reconstruction and the evolution of the ascus in the
Lecanorales (lichenized Ascomycota)".
1848:
Although each lichen thallus generally appears homogeneous, some evidence seems to suggest that the fungal component may consist of more than one genetic individual of that species.
11948:
9482:
8943:
Lücking, Robert; Hodkinson, Brendan P.; Leavitt, Steven D. (2017). "Corrections and amendments to the 2016 classification of lichenized fungi in the
Ascomycota and Basidiomycota".
4910:
Lichens grow on and in a wide range of substrates and habitats, including some of the most extreme conditions on earth. They are abundant growing on bark, leaves, and hanging from
4419:. Overall, about 100 species of eukaryotes are known to occur as photobionts in lichens. All the algae are probably able to exist independently in nature as well as in the lichen.
5993:
Spribille, Toby; Tuovinen, Veera; Resl, Philipp; Vanderpool, Dan; Wolinski, Heimo; Aime, M. Catherine; Schneider, Kevin; Stabentheiner, Edith; Toome-Heller, Merje (21 July 2016).
5208:(reindeer lichens), produce allelopathic chemicals that leach into the soil and inhibit the germination of seeds, spruce and other plants. Stability (that is, longevity) of their
709:. When a crustose lichen grows from a center and appears to radiate out, it is called crustose placodioid. When the edges of the areolas lift up from the substrate, it is called
11698:
Johnson, Cristopher J; Bennet, James P; Biro, Steven M; Duque-Velasquez, Juan Camilo; Rodriguez, Cynthia M.; Bessen, Richard A; Rocke, Tonie E (May 2011). Bartz, Jason C (ed.).
4548:. But what is meant by "species" is different from what is meant by biological species in plants, animals, or fungi, where being the same species implies that there is a common
10940:
Song, Hyeunjeong; Kim, Ki-Tae; Park, Sook-Young; Lee, Gir-Won; Choi, Jaeyoung; Jeon, Jongbum; Cheong, Kyeongchae; Choi, Gobong; Hur, Jae-Seoun; Lee, Yong-Hwan (24 June 2022).
4941:
When growing on mineral surfaces, some lichens slowly decompose their substrate by chemically degrading and physically disrupting the minerals, contributing to the process of
1484:(singular: "soredium") are small groups of algal cells surrounded by fungal filaments that form in structures called soralia, from which the soredia can be dispersed by wind.
10742:
5294:
is the air, and therefore elemental levels in lichens often reflect the accumulated composition of ambient air. The processes by which atmospheric deposition occurs include
4585:
There is also debate as to the appropriateness of giving the same binomial name to the fungus, and to the lichen that combines that fungus with an alga or cyanobacterium (
4252:
Schmitt, I.; Yamamoto, Y.; Lumbsch, H. T. (2006). "Phylogeny of
Pertusariales (Ascomycotina): Resurrection of Ochrolechiaceae and new circumscription of Megasporaceae".
4525:) typically contain cells from both partners, although the fungal components of so-called "fringe species" rely instead on algal cells dispersed by the "core species".
1492:) typically contain cells from both partners, although the fungal components of so-called "fringe species" rely instead on algal cells dispersed by the "core species".
1788:, where the algae are the dominant components. The fungi is thought to help the rockweeds to resist desiccation when exposed to air. In addition, lichens can also use
1423:
has discovered that lichens can survive unprotected in space. In an experiment led by Leopoldo Sancho from the Complutense University of Madrid, two species of lichen—
12000:
10280:"A phylogeny of the highly diverse cup-fungus family Pyronemataceae (Pezizomycetes, Ascomycota) clarifies relationships and evolution of selected life history traits"
4043:
Anderson, Heidi L.; Ekman, Stefan (2005). "Disintegration of the Micareaceae (lichenized Ascomycota): a molecular phylogeny based on mitochondrial rDNA sequences".
9142:
3127:
12181:
5146:- relating to water), meaning that though they have little control over the status of their hydration, they can tolerate irregular and extended periods of severe
4511:. Strains of cyanobacteria found in various cyanolichens are often closely related to one another. They differ from the most closely related free-living strains.
1328:
In crustose lichens, the area along the margin is where the most active growth is taking place. Most crustose lichens grow only 1–2 mm in diameter per year.
604:. The shape of a lichen is usually determined by the organization of the fungal filaments. The nonreproductive tissues, or vegetative body parts, are called the
10799:
Retallack, G.J.; Krull, E.S.; Thackray, G.D.; Parkinson, D. (2013). "Problematic urn-shaped fossils from a Paleoproterozoic (2.2 Ga) paleosol in South Africa".
4569:) as the fungus in them, which may cause some confusion. The alga bears its own scientific name, which has no relationship to the name of the lichen or fungus.
8338:"Quaternary History of Northern Cumberland Peninsula, East Baffin Island, N.W.T., Canada Part VI: Preliminary Lichen Growth Curve for Rhizocarpon geographicum"
4536:. These multiple genotypes may better enable response to adaptation to environmental changes, and enable the lichen to inhabit a wider range of environments.
1841:
in a lichen appears to be a successful way for a fungus to derive essential nutrients, since about 20% of all fungal species have acquired this mode of life.
8337:
5051:
5045:
3266:
3177:
2749:
866:. The thallus form is very different from any form where the fungus or alga are growing separately. The thallus is made up of filaments of the fungus called
8479:
7367:
McCune, B.; Grenon, J.; Martin, E.; Mutch, L.S.; Martin, E.P. (March 2007). "Lichens in relation to management issues in the Sierra Nevada national parks".
5316:
This interaction between lichens and air pollution has been used as a means of monitoring air quality since 1859, with more systematic methods developed by
4265:
Staiger, Bettina; Kalb, Klaus; Grube, Martin (2006). "Phylogeny and phenotypic variation in the lichen family Graphidaceae (Ostropomycetidae, Ascomycota)".
5002:
4760:
has also been interpreted as a lichen on morphological and isotopic grounds, although the isotopic basis is decidedly shaky. It has been demonstrated that
4723:
is found in pieces of amber in northern Europe and dates back approximately 40 million years. Lichen fragments are also found in fossil leaf beds, such as
3142:
10252:
8369:"Direct Measurement of Lichen Growth in the Central Brooks Range, Alaska, U.S.A., and Its Application to Lichenometric Dating, Arctic and Alpine Research"
4645:). Overall, about 98% of lichens have an ascomycetous mycobiont. Next to the Ascomycota, the largest number of lichenized fungi occur in the unassigned
3117:
3112:
3092:
2163:
5693:
being researched for their potential therapeutic or diagnostic value. Some metabolites produced by lichens are structurally and functionally similar to
4405:
is the most common genus of green algae in lichens, occurring in about 40% of all lichens. "Trebouxioid" means either a photobiont that is in the genus
11365:
Knops, J.M.H.; Nash, T. H. III; Boucher, V.L.; Schlesinger, W.H. (1991). "Mineral cycling and epiphytic lichens: Implications at the ecosystem level".
3248:
3187:
1691:
produce no symbiotic vegetative propagules. Instead, the lichen-forming fungi of these species reproduce sexually by self-fertilization (i.e. they are
1166:
Phycobionts can have a net output of sugars with only water vapor. The thallus must be saturated with liquid water for cyanobionts to photosynthesize.
1143:). If combined with its photobiont under appropriate conditions, its characteristic form associated with the photobiont emerges, in the process called
7396:
4391:
3353:
3291:
3240:
3202:
3097:
2193:
8194:
Odabasoglu F, Aslan A, Cakir A, et al. (March 2005). "Antioxidant activity, reducing power and total phenolic content of some lichen species".
6973:. Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series. Vol. 1. With the assistance of Lucien van Beek. Leiden, Boston: Brill. pp. 846–47.
5739:
Colonies of lichens may be spectacular in appearance, dominating the surface of the visual landscape as part of the aesthetic appeal to visitors of
4922:. They grow on bare rock, walls, gravestones, roofs, and exposed soil surfaces. They can survive in some of the most extreme environments on Earth:
779:
color as the top side. The leaf-like lobes of a foliose lichen may branch, giving the appearance of a fruticose lichen, but the underside will be a
10476:"Saprotrophy and lichenization as options for the same fungl species on different substrata: environmental plasticity and fungal lifestyles in the
7263:
3335:
3182:
3107:
3077:
3067:
2944:
1886:
11474:
Emmerich R, Giez I, Lange OL, Proksch P (1993). "Toxicity and antifeedant activity of lichen compounds against the polyphagous herbivorous insect
7758:
Skaloud, P; Peksa, O (2010). "Evolutionary inferences based on ITS rDNA and actin sequences reveal extensive diversity of the common lichen alga
4203:
3386:
3327:
3281:
3207:
3152:
701:, and the "island" pieces separated by the cracks are called areolas. The areolas appear separated, but are (or were) connected by an underlying
628:– growing like a tuft or multiple-branched leafless mini-shrub, upright or hanging down, 3-dimensional branches with nearly round cross section (
7021:
5887:
3276:
3122:
1614:(singular: ascus), and is usually a different color from the thallus tissue. When the apothecium has an outer margin, the margin is called the
11052:
4601:, with about 40% of species forming such an association. Some of these lichenized fungi occur in orders with nonlichenized fungi that live as
4079:
Ertz, Damien; Lawrey, James D.; Sikaroodi, Masoumeh; Gillevet, Patrick M.; Fischer, Eberhard; Killmann, Dorothee; Sérusiaux, Emmanuël (2008).
1528:
and fusion of gametes. Following dispersal, such fungal spores must meet with a compatible algal partner before a functional lichen can form.
1488:(singular: "isidium") are branched, spiny, elongated, outgrowths from the thallus that break off for mechanical dispersal. Lichen propagules (
7503:
3345:
3167:
1033:
8726:"Assembling the challenging puzzle of algal biodiversity: species delimitation within the genusAsterochloris(Trebouxiophyceae, Chlorophyta)"
1759:
is not usually considered to be a lichen, and its peculiar symbiosis was not recognized for many years. The genus is more closely allied to
1709:, where the fruiting body is a brown or black mass of loose ascospores enclosed by a cup-shaped exciple, which sits on top of a tiny stalk.
1120:. Lichenized fungal cells can make the photobiont "leak" out the products of photosynthesis, where they can then be absorbed by the fungus.
10449:
10335:"The Ascomycota tree of life: a phylum-wide phylogeny clarifies the origin and evolution of fundamental reproductive and ecological traits"
4081:"A new lineage of lichenized basidiomycetes inferred from a two-gene phylogeny: The Lepidostromataceae with three species from the tropics"
3157:
1683:
Most lichens produce abundant sexual structures. Many species appear to disperse only by sexual spores. For example, the crustose lichens
11945:
10764:
Retallack, G.J.; Dunn, K.L.; Saxby, J. (2015). "Problematic Mesoproterozoic fossil Horodyskia from Glacier National Park, Montana, USA".
8151:
Hagiwara K, Wright PR, et al. (March 2015). "Comparative analysis of the antioxidant properties of Icelandic and Hawaiian lichens".
7336:
7096:
5025:, and those that grow immersed inside rock, growing between the crystals with only their fruiting bodies exposed to the air, are called
11401:
8663:
7427:
5618:
4504:
11148:
10374:
Gargas, A; Depriest, PT; Grube, M; Tehler, A (1995). "Multiple origins of lichen symbioses in fungi suggested by SSU rDNA phylogeny".
9824:
9802:
9002:
7464:
6580:
6510:
1664:) is a lichenized stalk-like structure of the fruiting body rising from the thallus, associated with some fungi that produce a fungal
10592:
6118:
4314:
1480:). Many lichens break up into fragments when they dry, dispersing themselves by wind action, to resume growth when moisture returns.
6660:
Casano, L. M.; Del Campo, E. M.; García-Breijo, F. J.; Reig-Armiñana, J; Gasulla, F; Del Hoyo, A; Guéra, A; Barreno, E (2011). "Two
5302:, gaseous absorption, and dry deposition. Consequently, environmental studies with lichens emphasize their feasibility as effective
1409:
1202:
exchange. The association continues because reproduction of the photobiont cells matches the rate at which they are destroyed. The
10718:
9654:
Ohmura, Y.; Kawachi, M.; Kasai, F.; Watanabe, M. (2006). "Genetic combinations of symbionts in a vegetatively reproducing lichen,
9459:
8978:
Lücking, Robert; Rivas-Plata, E.; Chavez, J.L.; Umaña, L.; Sipman, H.J.M. (2009). "How many tropical lichens are there… really?".
7534:
7184:
6377:
8126:
757:
8788:
7639:
946:, there is usually another densely packed layer of fungal filaments called the lower cortex. Root-like fungal structures called
744:
Lichens come in many colors. Coloration is usually determined by the photosynthetic component. Special pigments, such as yellow
8534:
6273:"Habitat Structure and Life History Strategies of Two Partly Sympatric and Closely Related, Lichen Feeding Collembolan Species"
6088:
5402:) was an important source of food for humans in northern Europe, and was cooked as a bread, porridge, pudding, soup, or salad.
4698:. If putting a drop on a lichen turns an area bright yellow to orange, this helps identify it as belonging to either the genus
4176:
Grube, Martin; Winka, Katarina (2002). "Progress in understanding the evolution and classification of lichenized ascomycetes".
1292:, and are a different species from the fungus living inside the lichen; thus they are not considered to be part of the lichen.
10333:
Schoch CL; Sung GH; López-Giráldez F; Townsend JP; Miadlikowska J; Hofstetter V; Robbertse B; Matheny PB; et al. (2009).
9321:
Hawksworth, D.L. (1988). "The variety of fungal-algal symbioses, their evolutionary significance, and the nature of lichens".
4938:
in arid habitats such as deserts. Some lichens do not grow on anything, living out their lives blowing about the environment.
12153:
11883:
11349:
11311:
10855:
9619:
Guzow-Krzeminska, B (2006). "Photobiont ?exibility in thelichen Protoparmeliopsis muralis as revealed by ITS rDNA analyses".
9436:
9036:
Lutzoni, F.; Kauff, F.; Cox, C. J.; McLaughlin, D.; Celio, G.; Dentinger, B.; Padamsee, M.; Hibbett, D.; et al. (2004).
8884:
8657:
8462:
7941:
7913:
6824:
6543:
6472:
611:
352:
9568:"Assessing host specialization in symbiotic cyanobacteria associated with four closely related species of the lichen fungus
6327:
1879:
736:
11079:
9988:
Jahren, A.H.; Porter, S.; Kuglitsch, J.J. (2003). "Lichen metabolism identified in Early Devonian terrestrial organisms".
8271:
7877:
904:
by having different densities of fungal filaments. The top layer, where the lichen contacts the environment, is called a
11024:
9138:
6907:
5098:, and the traits of the substrates they alter, all highlight the important role lichens play in the process of chemical
1845:
different growth forms. Lichens are known in which there is one fungus associated with two or even three algal species.
862:
The part of a lichen that is not involved in reproduction, the "body" or "vegetative tissue" of a lichen, is called the
8514:
6941:
6152:
5501:
techniques are less accurate over this period. The lichens most commonly used for lichenometry are those of the genera
4430:
as its main photosynthetic component (photobiont). Most cyanolichen are also ascolichens, but a few basidiolichen like
6885:
4694:
The outcome of the "Pd test" is called "Pd", which is also used as an abbreviation for the chemical used in the test,
12062:
9492:
8037:
7578:
7317:
7230:
6978:
1801:
Lichens independently emerged from fungi associating with algae and cyanobacteria multiple times throughout history.
392:
elevations, in many environmental conditions, and can grow on almost any surface. They are abundant growing on bark,
264:
224:
11294:
Lawrey, James D. (1994). "Lichen Allelopathy: A Review". In Inderjit; K. M. M. Dakshini; Frank A. Einhellig (eds.).
5334:
7143:
4947:
17:
5846:
Although lichens had been recognized as organisms for quite some time, it was not until 1867, when Swiss botanist
4577:
identified as being the same using modern DNA methods, these apparently different species get reclassified as the
9953:
Taylor WA, Free CB, Helgemo R, Ochoada J (2004). "SEM analysis of spongiophyton interpreted as a fossil lichen".
9743:
9267:
5582:
or kill bacteria. These compounds are very useful for lichen identification, and have had economic importance as
1872:
12095:
12004:
10009:
9671:
8483:
8114:
5363:
Lichens are eaten by many different cultures across the world. Although some lichens are only eaten in times of
9085:
Sanders, W. B.; Moe, R. L.; Ascaso, C. (2004). "The intertidal marine lichen formed by the pyrenomycete fungus
8615:
8353:
8021:
7421:
5856:
5217:
seeds cannot become established except in places where lichen crusts stabilize the sand and help retain water.
976:
cyanobacterial symbionts, the cyanobacteria may be held on the upper or lower surface in small pustules called
5194:- plant) on plants, particularly on the trunks and branches of trees. When growing on plants, lichens are not
4649:, a catch-all category for fungi whose sexual form of reproduction has never been observed. Comparatively few
1003:
In August 2016, it was reported that some macrolichens have more than one species of fungus in their tissues.
6416:
6399:
10877:
Nelsen, Matthew P.; Lücking, Robert; Boyce, C. Kevin; Lumbsch, H. Thorsten; Ree, Richard H. (January 2020).
5055:. Lichens that use leaves as substrates, whether the leaf is still on the tree or on the ground, are called
940:. The medulla is less densely packed with fungal filaments than the layers above. In foliose lichens, as in
12252:
11006:
5955:
5202:
chemicals that inhibit the growth of mosses. Some ground-dwelling lichens, such as members of the subgenus
5106:
900:
Fruticose, foliose, crustose, and squamulose lichens generally have up to three different types of tissue,
10043:; Chaloner, W. G. (2004). "Stable carbon isotopes and the metabolism of the terrestrial Devonian organism
8298:
4899:
6924:
6871:
5863:, rejected Schwendener's hypothesis because the consensus was that all living organisms were autonomous.
5860:
5317:
1123:
It appears many, probably the majority, of lichen also live in a symbiotic relationship with an order of
720:
The thallus is not always the part of the lichen that is most visually noticeable. Some lichens can grow
7259:
5436:
spp.) is a lichen that has frequently been used as an emergency food in North America, and one species,
4796:
terrestrial ecosystems. Newer research suggests that lichen evolved after the evolution of land plants.
12227:
10230:
6953:
6919:
5694:
5244:. They are very low in protein and high in carbohydrates, making them unsuitable for some animals. The
1218:
in laboratory settings can grow faster when they are alone rather than when they are part of a lichen.
7597:
Heiđmarsson, Starri; Heidmarsson, Starri (1996). "Pruina as a Taxonomic Character in the Lichen Genus
8523:
8368:
7051:
5759:
lichens add to the ambience of desert trees, tundras, and rocky seashores. Intricate webs of lichens
4521:, which forms orange-coloured populations on tree trunks and suitable rock faces. Lichen propagules (
4155:
Ekman, Stefan (2001). "Molecular phylogeny of the Bacidiaceae (Lecanorales, lichenized Ascomycota)".
1736:
798:
10942:"A comparative genomic analysis of lichen-forming fungi reveals new insights into fungal lifestyles"
1618:. When the exciple has a color similar to colored thallus tissue the apothecium or lichen is called
1169:
Algae produce sugars that are absorbed by the fungus by diffusion into special fungal hyphae called
11056:
9038:"Assembling the fungal tree of life: progress, classification, and evolution of subcellular traits"
6745:"Species-specific structural and functional diversity of bacterial communities in lichen symbioses"
5796:
5509:
5245:
1717:
Lichens are classified by the fungal component. Lichen species are given the same scientific name (
1425:
1342:
901:
12132:
Treub, Melchior (1873) Onderzoekingen over de natuur der lichenen. Dissertation Leiden University.
11173:
Jones, Clive G.; Shachak, Moshe (1990). "Fertilization of the desert soil by rock-eating snails".
7510:
1317:. Secondary metabolites are thought to play a role in preference for some substrates over others.
1061:
relationship. The fungi benefit from the carbohydrates produced by the algae or cyanobacteria via
12145:
Liaisons of Life : From Hornworts to Hippos, How the Unassuming Microbe Has Driven Evolution
12026:
11542:
Dating and Earthquakes: Review of Quaternary Geochronology and its Application to Paleoseismology
10253:"Lichens Are Way Younger Than Scientists Thought – Likely Evolved Millions of Years After Plants"
7056:
6165:
5612:
5494:
1477:
1468:
1413:
1272:
species have very limited ranges, often being confined to the areas which have the cleanest air.
909:
31:
10426:
6994:
5408:(edible horsehair lichen) was an important food in parts of North America, where it was usually
1234:
Many lichens are very sensitive to environmental disturbances and can be used to cheaply assess
771:
The underside of the leaf-like lobes of foliose lichens is a different color from the top side (
80:
12237:
11845:
9361:
Rikkinen J. (1995). "What's behind the pretty colors? A study on the photobiology of lichens".
6728:
Fungal evolution: symbiosis and morphogenesis, Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation
5867:
5788:
5740:
5678:
5673:
5008:
1073:
is present, as a primary partner or another symbiont in addition to a green alga as in certain
761:
133:
87:
7340:
7100:
6794:
Barreno, E., Herrera-Campos, M., García-Breijo, F., Gasulla, F., and Reig-Armiñana, J. (2008)
11946:"An Analysis of Antiseptic and Antibiotic Properties of Variously Treated Mosses and Lichens"
11654:
8724:Škaloud, Pavel; Steinová, Jana; Řídká, Tereza; Vančurová, Lucie; Peksa, Ondřej (4 May 2015).
8647:
7390:
7071:
5871:
5838:
5744:
5713:
5438:
5127:
5111:
4993:, which helps insulate the ground and may provide forage for grazing animals. An example is "
4935:
4695:
2136:
1420:
1310:
969:), and generally have only undifferentiated tissue, similar to only having a symbiont layer.
936:
600:
Lichens grow in a wide range of shapes and forms; this external appearance is known as their
420:. Various lichens have adapted to survive in some of the most extreme environments on Earth:
417:
11409:
11332:
Nash III, Thomas H. (2008). "Lichen sensitivity to air pollution". In Nash III, T.H. (ed.).
9014:
7425:
5701:
is the most commonly studied metabolite produced by lichens. It is also under research as a
5535:
in Spain. Lichens can accumulate several environmental pollutants such as lead, copper, and
5290:
to the photobiont layer. Because lichens do not possess roots, their primary source of most
4934:. They can live inside solid rock, growing between the grains, and in the soil as part of a
4818:
may extend well back into the Precambrian. Lichen-like fossils consisting of coccoid cells (
1385:
loss of body water in dry periods. Lichens are capable of surviving extremely low levels of
12232:
11711:
11610:
11563:
11487:
11440:
11182:
11132:
11117:
10953:
10890:
10808:
10773:
10675:
10630:
10524:
10383:
10291:
10183:
10056:
9997:
9917:
9870:
9820:
9799:
9755:
9583:
9279:
8828:
8737:
8565:
8310:
8242:
8068:
7979:
7811:
7714:
7462:
6756:
6677:
6576:
6506:
6284:
6006:
5663:
5413:
4904:
4831:
4212:
2183:
2109:
1325:
Lichens often have a regular but very slow growth rate of less than a millimeter per year.
1251:
1074:
1017:
601:
156:
10567:
9397:
6114:
5085:
is not attached to a substrate at all, and lives its life being blown around by the wind.
4746:) lichen symbiosis that may have involved controlled parasitism, is permineralized in the
872:. The filaments grow by branching then rejoining to create a mesh, which is called being "
8:
12222:
11029:
10170:
Karatygin IV; Snigirevskaya NS; Vikulin SV. (2009). "The most ancient terrestrial lichen
8687:"Biotic environments and the maintenance of sex-some evidence from mutualistic symbioses"
7636:
6966:
5816:
5627:
5412:. Northern peoples in North America and Siberia traditionally eat the partially digested
5209:
4517:
4415:
4409:, or resembles a member of that genus, and is therefore presumably a member of the class
4385:
2334:
2173:
1467:
Many lichens reproduce asexually, either by a piece breaking off and growing on its own (
1289:
1187:
1128:
1066:
955:
645:
595:
337:
325:
301:
11715:
11614:
11567:
11491:
11444:
11216:
Walker, T. R. (2007). "Lichens of the boreal forests of Labrador, Canada: A checklist".
11186:
11136:
10957:
10894:
10878:
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10812:
10777:
10679:
10634:
10528:
10387:
10295:
10187:
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10001:
9921:
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8741:
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8072:
7983:
7815:
7718:
6760:
6681:
6288:
6010:
5383:
that should be removed before eating. Very few lichens are poisonous, but those high in
4552:. Because lichens are combinations of members of two or even three different biological
4216:
1393:). They quickly absorb water when it becomes available again, becoming soft and fleshy.
137:
grows like a crust, and in a pattern that radiates outward from the center, so it has a
12247:
12115:
12107:
11982:
11924:
11827:
11783:
11734:
11700:"Degradation of the Disease-Associated Prion Protein by a Serine Protease from Lichens"
11699:
11631:
11598:
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11382:
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10982:
10941:
10922:
10847:
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10699:
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10648:
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10407:
10199:
10152:
10123:
Retallack G.J.; Landing, E. (2014). "Affinities and architecture of Devonian trunks of
10072:
10021:
9970:
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9779:
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9601:
9548:
9455:
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9216:
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8917:
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7842:
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7530:
7180:
6890:
6635:
6381:
6355:
6308:
6035:
5994:
5944:
5883:
5676:" suggesting that herbs can treat body parts that they physically resemble).Similarly,
5672:
was collected in large quantities as "lungwort", due to its lung-like appearance (the "
5668:
5633:
5607:
5575:
5547:
5498:
5380:
5262:
5163:
5069:
5063:
5057:
5039:
5033:
4919:
4508:
3954:
3885:
3487:
2729:
2094:
2079:
1789:
669:
529:, "to lick". In American English, "lichen" is pronounced the same as the verb "liken" (
405:
179:
68:, wolf lichen, grows like a multiple-branched tuft or leafless mini-shrub, so it has a
12082:
Honegger R. (2000). "Simon Schwender (1829–1919) and the dual hypothesis in lichens".
11599:"Microorganisms Attack Synthetic Polymers in Items Representing Our Cultural Heritage"
11144:
8095:
7970:
Rose C. I., Hawksworth D. L. (1981). "Lichen recolonization in London's cleaner air".
7140:
Lichen Vocabulary, Lichens of North America Information, Sylvia and Stephen Sharnoff,
6840:
4950:
that requires the employment of mountain-climbing conservators to clean the monument.
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Hansen, Karen; Perry, Brian A.; Dranginis, Andrew W.; Pfister, Donald H. (May 2013).
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6723:
6703:
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algae with different physiological performances are ever-present in lichen thalli of
6627:
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6468:
6347:
6300:
6253:
6214:
6148:
6092:
6040:
6022:
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5404:
5075:
5027:
5017:
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4549:
4545:
4522:
4282:
4240:
4199:"Body plan evolution of ascomycetes, as inferred from an RNA polymerase II phylogeny"
4137:
4108:
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3899:
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2016:
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11408:. Washington, D.C.: National Council for Science and the Environment. Archived from
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8929:
8773:
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8254:
8180:
8122:
6730:, Margulis, L., and Fester, R. (eds). Cambridge, MA, US: The MIT Press, pp. 319–340.
6639:
6359:
6193:"The Use of Woodland Lichen Pasture by Reindeer in Winter with Easy Snow Conditions"
5905:–algae trios. The third symbiotic partner in many lichens is a basidiomycete yeast.
4691:
Lichen identification uses growth form, microscopy and reactions to chemical tests.
1735:, but this practice is no longer accepted because the components belong to separate
1524:. Many lichen fungi reproduce sexually like other fungi, producing spores formed by
12217:
12091:
11974:
11908:
11819:
11778:
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11670:
11626:
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11140:
11091:
10977:
10961:
10898:
10879:"No support for the emergence of lichens prior to the evolution of vascular plants"
10843:
10816:
10781:
10726:
10683:
10638:
10582:
10532:
10495:
10441:
10391:
10346:
10299:
10223:
XV Congress of European Mycologists, Saint Petersburg, Russia, 16–21 September 2007
10219:"Two types of symbiosis with participation of Fungi from Early Devonian Ecosystems"
10191:
10136:
10103:
10064:
10005:
9962:
9939:
9925:
9878:
9783:
9763:
9714:
9667:
9628:
9605:
9591:
9532:
9424:
9370:
9330:
9307:
9287:
9238:
9228:
9177:
9110:
9102:
9071:
9049:
8952:
8909:
8856:
8836:
8745:
8698:
8593:
8573:
8450:
8419:
8380:
8349:
8318:
8297:
Rosenwinkel, Swenja; Korup, Oliver; Landgraf, Angela; Dzhumabaeva, Atyrgul (2015).
8250:
8203:
8160:
8110:
8076:
7999:
7987:
7837:
7819:
7771:
7730:
7722:
7686:
7666:
7610:
7566:
7376:
6764:
6693:
6685:
6619:
6411:
6339:
6292:
6245:
6204:
6030:
6014:
5852:
5707:
5541:
5329:
5291:
4834:
in southern China. These fossils are thought to be 551 to 635 million years old or
4789:
4729:
from Trinity County in northern California, US, dating back to the early to middle
4674:
4664:
4646:
4410:
4359:
4274:
4230:
4220:
4185:
4164:
4129:
4100:
4092:
4052:
3795:
3773:
3728:
3708:
3404:
3299:
3137:
2939:
2924:
2909:
2850:
2840:
2802:
2797:
2777:
2701:
2679:
2490:
2485:
2430:
2410:
2188:
2153:
2074:
2044:
1942:
1859:
1784:
625:
558:
532:
472:
455:, where the fungi, algae, or cyanobacteria have the potential to engage with other
308:
273:
241:
201:
110:
69:
64:
57:
11298:. ACS Symposium Series. Vol. 582. American Chemical Society. pp. 26–38.
11095:
10411:
7045:
1864:
1695:). This breeding system may enable successful reproduction in harsh environments.
1373:
of northern Alaska have been given a maximum possible age of 10,000–11,500 years.
702:
11952:
11724:
11341:
10515:
Yuan X, Xiao S, Taylor TN (2005). "Lichen-like symbiosis 600 million years ago".
10279:
9806:
9428:
8555:
8507:
Entangled Life: How Fungi Make Our Worlds, Change Our Minds and Shape Our Futures
8454:
8207:
7643:
7570:
7468:
7431:
7147:
6929:
6895:
6122:
5960:
5559:
5528:
5460:
5155:
5123:
4847:
4736:
The oldest fossil lichen in which both symbiotic partners have been recovered is
4622:
4397:
4278:
3939:
3916:
3625:
3592:
3478:
3450:
3197:
3192:
3147:
3050:
2929:
2914:
2881:
2835:
2660:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2597:
2541:
2526:
2460:
2325:
2307:
2302:
2226:
2221:
2211:
2145:
2099:
2089:
2039:
2034:
1970:
1914:
1855:
1543:-like reproductive structures resembling those of their nonlichenized relatives.
997:
992:
809:
749:
641:
235:
138:
115:
10619:"Growth, decay and burial compaction of Dickinsonia, an iconic Ediacaran fossil"
10303:
9484:
Modern Topics in the Phototrophic Prokaryotes: Environmental and Applied Aspects
8956:
8913:
7775:
6606:
s.l. that produce divaricatic acid, with notes on the type species of the genus
5767:
and other modeling hobbies as a material for making miniature trees and shrubs.
5037:. A lichen that grows on wood from which the bark has been stripped is called a
12036:
11757:
Rodriguez, Cynthia M; Bennet, James P; Johnson, Cristopher J (1 January 2012).
11575:
11303:
10965:
10092:"Evidence for a fungal affinity for Nematasketum, a close ally of Prototaxites"
10040:
8275:
7873:
6796:"Non photosynthetic bacteria associated to cortical structures on Ramalina and
6602:
Lendemer, J. C. (2011). "A taxonomic revision of the North American species of
6233:
5936:
5894:
5890:
published his results in 1939 on the first successful re-synthesis experiment.
5879:
5875:
5651:
5493:. It uses the presumed regular but slow rate of lichen growth to determine the
5472:
5379:
are generally indigestible to humans, and lichens usually contain mildly toxic
5376:
5241:
5237:
5214:
5081:
4958:
appearance of being parasites on the leaves, but they are not. Some lichens in
4659:
4650:
4642:
4503:
are grey-blue, especially when dampened or wet. Many of these characterize the
4452:
4323:
3998:
3841:
3831:
3790:
3733:
3718:
3699:
3664:
3636:
3617:
3607:
3533:
3507:
3427:
3381:
3317:
3162:
3009:
2998:
2980:
2962:
2934:
2820:
2759:
2734:
2706:
2636:
2607:
2589:
2579:
2556:
2508:
2425:
2415:
2405:
2351:
2294:
2284:
2260:
2249:
2244:
2158:
2127:
2104:
2060:
1947:
1753:
that is unique in that it encloses a cyanobacterial symbiont inside its cells.
1645:
1513:
1401:
1101:
1100:
into organic carbon sugars to feed both symbionts. Phycobionts (algae) produce
1097:
1089:
1062:
880:
840:
803:
675:
657:
635:
555:). In British English, both this pronunciation and one rhyming with "kitchen" (
496:
374:
333:
161:
92:
11872:
11823:
11378:
11264:
11229:
10730:
10687:
10643:
10618:
10445:
10195:
9632:
9596:
9567:
9181:
8819:
Murtagh GJ, Dyer PS, Crittenden PD (April 2000). "Sex and the single lichen".
8423:
7461:
Lichens: More on Morphology, University of California Museum of Paleontology,
7381:
7312:, Dale H. Vitt, Janet E. Marsh, Robin B. Bovey, Lone Pine Publishing Company,
6553:
6533:
6343:
6249:
5566:(PrP), which may be useful in treating contaminated environmental reservoirs.
4189:
4168:
4133:
4056:
1601:
is the structure that contains and releases the sexual spores in fungi of the
39:
12211:
12163:
12103:
10973:
10910:
10311:
10038:
10017:
9523:
Rikkinen, J. (2002). "Lichen Guilds Share Related Cyanobacterial Symbionts".
8757:
8710:
7833:
7017:
6949:
6915:
6395:
6351:
6304:
6257:
6218:
6026:
5902:
5833:
5686:, due to the resemblance of its cephalodia to the appearance of the disease.
5563:
5532:
5490:
5486:
5384:
5358:
5310:
5279:
5274:
parts, they are unable to avoid the accumulation of pollutants. Also lacking
5256:
5166:, upon desiccation, lichens enter a metabolic suspension or stasis (known as
4994:
4923:
4857:
4843:
4823:
4819:
4815:
4804:
4785:
4770:
4756:
4743:
4638:
4566:
4435:
4427:
4367:
4343:
3990:
3972:
3849:
3764:
3755:
3723:
3561:
3515:
3409:
3368:
3309:
3212:
3041:
3023:
2990:
2972:
2954:
2919:
2896:
2830:
2787:
2782:
2744:
2739:
2716:
2655:
2645:
2571:
2561:
2551:
2536:
2531:
2500:
2475:
2455:
2445:
2343:
2236:
2178:
2049:
1834:
1826:
1764:
1750:
1718:
1650:
1589:(singular: apothecium), bottle-like cups with a small hole at the top called
1532:
1390:
1347:
1235:
1215:
1144:
1124:
1070:
1046:
456:
421:
362:
281:
10536:
10395:
10351:
10334:
9536:
9233:
8164:
7824:
7726:
6018:
5897:
and colleagues found that many types of lichen that were long thought to be
5446:
in Japanese) is used in a variety of traditional Korean and Japanese foods.
5079:
are foliose lichens that are attached to the substrate at only one point. A
4225:
1731:
Formerly, some lichen taxonomists placed lichens in their own division, the
347:
is a lichen that is either bush-like or leafy; all other lichens are termed
11920:
11792:
11743:
11684:
11675:
11658:
11640:
11272:
10991:
10918:
10587:
10544:
10360:
10332:
10319:
10148:
9882:
9775:
9728:
9544:
9299:
9252:
9124:
9063:
9054:
9037:
8848:
8765:
8585:
8215:
8172:
7851:
7783:
7744:
7678:
6778:
6707:
6631:
6044:
5922:
5811:
5784:
5748:
5642:
5622:
5598:
5536:
5465:
5455:
5409:
5395:
5346:
5303:
5204:
5198:; they do not consume any part of the plant nor poison it. Lichens produce
5167:
5135:
5073:
grows on the soil as a substrate. Many squamulose lichens are terricolous.
4990:
4776:
4747:
4669:
4634:
4539:
4466:
4363:
4355:
4286:
4244:
4141:
4112:
4064:
3980:
3921:
3713:
3553:
3543:
3396:
3358:
3172:
3102:
3082:
3018:
2886:
2825:
2792:
2754:
2724:
2650:
2546:
2518:
2470:
2450:
2440:
2435:
2420:
2269:
2216:
2069:
2026:
2011:
1993:
1952:
1937:
1794:
1740:
1370:
1191:
913:
908:. The cortex is made of densely tightly woven, packed, and glued together (
787:
772:
468:
396:, mosses, or other lichens and hanging from branches "living on thin air" (
366:
11912:
11774:
11251:
Oksanen, I. (2006). "Ecological and biotechnological aspects of lichens".
10403:
8577:
8033:
6866:
6769:
6744:
5625:
and other traditional cloths were made from lichens, including the orange
4080:
1381:
Unlike simple dehydration in plants and animals, lichens may experience a
351:. Here, "macro" and "micro" do not refer to size, but to the growth form.
11874:
Wild color: [the complete guide to making and using natural dyes]
11806:
Bennet, James P; Rodriuguez, Cynthia M; Johnson, Cristopher (July 2012).
11622:
11336:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 299–314.
9106:
6743:
Grube, M; Cardinale, M; De Castro, J. V. Jr.; Müller, H; Berg, G (2009).
6659:
6191:
Kumpula, Jouko; Lefrère, Stéphanie C.; Nieminen, Mauri (1 January 2004).
5950:
5893:
In the 2010s, a new facet of the fungi–algae partnership was discovered.
5702:
5683:
5591:
5503:
5482:
5368:
5233:
5199:
5147:
4915:
4867:
4852:
4827:
4738:
4630:
4626:
4614:
4423:
4339:
4331:
3908:
3538:
3525:
3460:
3455:
3376:
3132:
2812:
2769:
2665:
2397:
2387:
2382:
2203:
2168:
2003:
1985:
1929:
1779:
1768:
1692:
1572:
1547:
1360:
1170:
978:
873:
819:
706:
679:
436:
heaps. They can even live inside solid rock, growing between the grains (
429:
409:
401:
389:
11899:
Muller, K (2001). "Pharmaceutically Relevant Metabolites from Lichens".
11430:
8921:
7141:
6802:. Asilomar, Pacific Grove, CA, USA: Abstracts IAL 6- ABLS Joint Meeting.
4096:
518:. The Greek noun, which literally means "licker", derives from the verb
126:
12182:"How a guy from a Montana trailer park overturned 150 years of biology"
12111:
11978:
11460:
10695:
10169:
9382:
9217:"Congruence of chloroplast – BMC Evolutionary Biology – BioMed Central"
9115:
9093:(Phaeophyceae): thallus organization and symbiont interaction – NCBI".
8725:
8392:
7956:
Ferry, B. W., Baddeley, M. S. & Hawksworth, D. L. (editors) (1973)
7622:
6698:
6577:"Lichens: Systematics, University of California Museum of Paleontology"
6312:
6209:
6192:
5898:
5804:
5698:
5690:
5578:
that reduce harmful amounts of sunlight and powerful toxins that deter
5425:
5388:
5099:
4986:
4942:
4872:
4839:
4800:
4781:
4679:
4602:
4598:
4586:
4431:
4335:
3867:
3813:
3805:
3782:
3645:
3584:
3575:
3442:
3271:
3230:
3059:
2904:
2868:
2696:
2374:
1905:
1830:
1822:
1760:
1706:
1702:
1665:
1602:
1566:
1448:
1405:
1195:
1113:
966:
951:
928:
894:
836:
745:
710:
149:
43:
A tree covered with leafy foliose lichens and shrubby fruticose lichens
10902:
10568:"Acritarch evidence of a late Precambrian adaptive radiation of Fungi"
9419:
Friedl, T.; Büdel, B. (1996). "Photobionts". In Nash III, T.H. (ed.).
8749:
8408:"A Review of Lichenometric Dating and Its Applications to Archaeology"
7670:
5286:
and gases over the entire thallus surface from which they may readily
4507:
communities of higher rainfall areas in western Britain, e.g., in the
4338:
organisms. In the majority of lichens the photobiont is a green alga (
4104:
1804:
1500:
654:– formed of small leaf-like scales crustose below but free at the tips
12143:
11596:
11194:
9987:
9930:
9905:
9903:
9767:
9291:
8840:
8449:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–8.
8445:
Nash III, Thomas H. (2008). "Introduction". In Nash III, T.H. (ed.).
8059:
Skogland, Terje (1984). "Wild reindeer foraging-niche organization".
7991:
7561:
Büdel, B.; Scheidegger, C. (1996). "Thallus morphology and anatomy".
6841:"Lichen - The Little Things That Matter (U.S. National Park Service)"
6272:
5807:
being used in his day for the treatment of skin diseases and rashes.
5776:
5756:
5752:
5579:
5515:
5287:
5271:
5022:
4954:
4931:
4862:
4835:
4618:
4610:
4487:
4477:
4462:
4457:
4379:
3859:
3823:
3688:
3680:
3258:
3222:
2688:
2465:
1838:
1755:
1745:
1677:
1673:
1505:
1456:
1337:
1304:
1242:
depletion, and metal contamination. Lichens have been used in making
1228:
1207:
1174:
1151:
1116:), which are absorbed by the mycobiont (fungus). Cyanobionts produce
1058:
942:
464:
460:
452:
385:
317:
285:
11452:
9374:
8531:"ESA – Human Spaceflight and Exploration – Lichen survives in space"
8384:
7614:
7042:
The Oxford English Dictionary cites only the "liken" pronunciation:
6296:
4856:, were lichens, although this claim is controversial. Endosymbiotic
835:
A lichen consists of a simple photosynthesizing organism, usually a
11659:"Metals, minerals and microbes: geomicrobiology and bioremediation"
10140:
9966:
9744:"Major fungal lineages are derived from lichen symbiotic ancestors"
9268:"Major fungal lineages are derived from lichen symbiotic ancestors"
8296:
6623:
5930:
5828:
5731:
5552:
5372:
5270:
If lichens are exposed to air pollutants at all times, without any
5221:
5195:
5183:
5177:
Lichens suppress the growth of mosses and higher plants around them
5000:
There are only two species of known permanently submerged lichens;
4911:
4878:
4793:
4765:
4761:
4751:
4706:
4700:
4606:
4533:
4481:
are gelatinous and live on moist soils. Another group of large and
1669:
1657:
1624:
1608:
The apothecium has a layer of exposed spore-producing cells called
1597:(singular: pycnidium), shaped like perithecia but without asci (an
1585:
1560:
1540:
1314:
1256:
1199:
1109:
828:
698:
614:
often come from a growth form or color that is typical of a lichen
448:
444:
416:, exposed soil surfaces, rubber, bones, and in the soil as part of
397:
378:
329:
103:
11513:
Beschel RE (1950). "Flecten als altersmasstab Rezenter morainen".
10763:
9861:
Peterson EB. (2000). "An overlooked fossil lichen (Lobariaceae)".
5763:
add a mysterious aspect to forests. Fruticose lichens are used in
5725:
5697:
while few are associated respectively to antiseptic similarities.
5375:. Two obstacles are often encountered when eating lichens: lichen
12177:
11869:
11758:
9166:"Challenging the lichen concept: Turgidosculum ulvae – Cambridge"
8645:
5800:
5611:("dyer's weed") by boiling. It gives its name to the well-known
5587:
5338:
5283:
5275:
5095:
4808:
4730:
4725:
4654:
4499:
4493:
4482:
4471:
1851:
Two or more fungal species can interact to form the same lichen.
1775:
1661:
1634:
1525:
1509:
1460:
1351:
1268:
1247:
1136:
1117:
1105:
986:
606:
321:
11697:
8096:"Lichenicolous Fungi: Interactions, Evolution, and Biodiversity"
7416:
Michigan Lichens, Julie Jones Medlin, B. Jain Publishers, 1996,
6234:"Differential herbivore damage to calcicolous lichens by snails"
5820:
revolves around an anti-aging chemical extracted from a lichen.
5102:. Over time, this activity creates new fertile soil from stone.
4072:
459:
in a functioning system that may evolve as an even more complex
451:. They can be seen as being relatively self-contained miniature
11118:"Weathering of rocks induced by lichen colonization – a review"
9735:
7800:"Basidiomycete yeasts in the cortex of ascomycete macrolichens"
7796:
7703:"Basidiomycete yeasts in the cortex of ascomycete macrolichens"
7699:
5995:"Basidiomycete yeasts in the cortex of ascomycete macrolichens"
5992:
5647:
5602:
5364:
5225:
5134:
A major ecophysiological advantage of lichens is that they are
4982:
4927:
4447:
1583:
The three most common spore body types are raised discs called
1396:
In tests, lichen survived and showed remarkable results on the
1203:
1140:
1054:
1050:
868:
813:
694:
629:
425:
293:
11965:
Bustinza, F. (1952). "Antibacterial Substances from Lichens".
11540:
Sowers, J. M., Noller, J. S., and Lettis, W. R. (eds.) (1997)
10719:"Controversial claim puts life on land 65 million years early"
9565:
9266:
Lutzoni, Francois; Pagel, Mark; Reeb, Valerie (21 June 2001).
8936:
8606:
Eichorn, Susan E., Evert, Ray F., and Raven, Peter H. (2005).
7223:
Lichens, an illustrated guide to the British and Irish species
5531:, as can be seen in archaeological sites in the Roman city of
5173:
4973:
4370:) have been found to associate with the lichen-forming fungi.
786:
The sheen on some jelly-like gelatinous lichens is created by
573:
547:
256:
216:
10666:
Retallack GJ. (1994). "Were the Ediacaran Fossils Lichens?".
10218:
10216:
8977:
8723:
8367:
Haworth, Leah A.; Calkin, Parker E.; Ellis, James M. (1986).
7097:"Lichens and Bryophytes, Michigan State University, 10-25-99"
6942:
6908:
6742:
5760:
5421:
5229:
5043:. Lichens that grow immersed inside plant tissues are called
4442:
4374:
1610:
1598:
1555:
1386:
1262:
1239:
1093:
1042:
615:
570:
524:
519:
510:
504:
499:
480:
476:
447:
have lost the ability to reproduce sexually, yet continue to
313:
297:
289:
277:
253:
11808:"Prion protein degradation by lichens of the genus Cladonia"
9812:
8034:"Oak Moss Absolute Oil, Evernia prunastri, Perfume Fixative"
7969:
7932:
Honegger, R. (1988). "Mycobionts". In Nash III, T.H. (ed.).
4889:
965:
Gelatinous, byssoid, and leprose lichens lack a cortex (are
12096:
10.1639/0007-2745(2000)103[0307:SSATDH]2.0.CO;2
11364:
10277:
10010:
10.1130/0091-7613(2003)031<0099:LMIIED>2.0.CO;2
9672:
10.1639/0007-2745(2006)109[0043:gcosia]2.0.co;2
9215:
Rybalka, N.; Wolf, M.; Andersen, R. A.; Friedl, T. (2013).
9139:"Mutualisms between fungi and algae – New Brunswick Museum"
8115:
10.1639/0007-2745(2003)106[0080:LFIEAB]2.0.CO;2
6166:"Yeast emerges as hidden third partner in lichen symbiosis"
5792:
5159:
5151:
4413:. The second most commonly represented green alga genus is
4330:. The photobionts in lichens come from a variety of simple
4078:
1221:
541:
433:
413:
393:
370:
357:
210:
10836:"Ediacarans, Protolichens, and Lichen-Derived Penicillium"
9653:
9456:"Alan Silverside's Lichen Glossary (a-f), Alan Silverside"
8354:
10.1130/0016-7606(1972)83[1133:QHONCP]2.0.CO;2
7936:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (published 1996).
7531:"Alan Silverside's Lichen Glossary (g-o), Alan Silverside"
7181:"Alan Silverside's Lichen Glossary (p-z), Alan Silverside"
5855:. Many of the leading lichenologists at the time, such as
5682:("ruffled freckled pelt") was used as a supposed cure for
1412:
in the Mars Simulation Laboratory (MSL) maintained by the
369:"), and lichens may superficially look like and grow with
11007:"In the Race to Live on Land, Lichens Didn't Beat Plants"
10876:
10427:"The lichen symbiosis – what is so spectacular about it?"
10373:
10122:
9214:
9035:
7655:
7260:"Foliose lichens, Lichen Thallus Types, Allan Silverside"
6232:
Fröberg, Lars; Baur, Anette; Baur, Bruno (January 1993).
5583:
5545:(called a hammered shield lichen, among other names) and
5299:
5295:
4754:, about 400 million years ago. The slightly older fossil
1628:. When the exciple is blackened like carbon it is called
1455:
sp. with dark-colored reproductive structures (disc-like
1243:
567:
250:
11473:
9952:
9423:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 9–26.
8874:
7560:
6417:
10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[0776:LAL]2.0.CO;2
4540:
Controversy over classification method and species names
996:
is "a layer of horny dead fungal hyphae with indistinct
509:("tree moss, lichen, lichen-like eruption on skin") via
11805:
8942:
8899:
8272:"The Earth Life Web, Growth and Development in Lichens"
7366:
5601:(which can indicate acidic or basic substances) called
4625:
in which all members are engaged in this habit (Orders
876:". The mesh of fungal filaments may be dense or loose.
12055:
The Land of Israel and Syria as Described by Al-Tamimi
11756:
11653:
9742:
Lutzoni, François; Pagel, Mark; Reeb, Valérie (2001).
8879:(10th ed.). Wallingford: CABI. pp. 378–381.
8646:
A. N. Rai; B. Bergman; Ulla Rasmussen (31 July 2002).
8632:. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee. p. 104.
8016:. Edward Arnold, Institute of Biology Series, No. 66.
7596:
6190:
6115:
Introduction to Lichens – An Alliance between Kingdoms
4251:
1739:. Neither the ascolichens nor the basidiolichens form
1459:) at center, surrounded by a pale coloured vegetative
812:
is the outer layer of tightly woven fungus filaments (
381:, but instead use the plant's surface as a substrate.
114:
grows like an orange crust coating the rock, so it is
11055:. Australian National Botanic Gardens. Archived from
9013:. Australian National Botanic Gardens. Archived from
8818:
8231:
7310:
Mosses Lichens & Ferns of Northwest North America
6380:. Australian National Botanic Gardens. Archived from
6117:". University of California Museum of Paleontology.
6091:. Australian National Botanic Gardens. Archived from
5637:
common on rocks and known colloquially as "crottle".
4886:
million years ago, during the early Cenozoic period.
621:
Common groupings of lichen thallus growth forms are:
544:
265:
225:
213:
11116:
Chen, Jie; Blume, Hans-Peter; Beyer, Lothar (2000).
10623:
Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology
10473:
9904:
Taylor, T. N.; Hass, H.; Remy, W.; Kerp, H. (1995).
9164:
Miller, Kathy Ann; Pérez-Ortega, Sergio (May 2018).
8193:
6538:. Auckland, New Zealand: Penguin Books. p. 66.
5912:
5657:
5650:
and other lichen dyes have largely been replaced by
5574:
Many lichens produce secondary compounds, including
4597:
The largest number of lichenized fungi occur in the
1638:. When the margin is pale or colorless it is called
990:
is a whitish coating on top of an upper surface. An
564:
538:
247:
207:
11296:
Allelopathy. Organisms, Processes, and Applications
10217:Karatygin IV, Snigirevskaya NS, Vikulin SV (2007).
9823:. University of California Museum of Paleontology.
9566:O'Brien, H.; Miadlikowska, J.; Lutzoni, F. (2005).
8971:
8893:
8875:Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008).
6509:. University of California Museum of Paleontology.
6271:Leinaas, Hans Petter; Fjellberg, Arne (June 1985).
5236:species feed exclusively on lichens. These include
5031:. A crustose lichen that grows on bark is called a
4846:vesicles and spores. It has also been claimed that
1894:
1376:
1041:A lichen is a composite organism that emerges from
934:The layer beneath the symbiont layer is called the
561:
535:
324:); grow crust-like, adhering tightly to a surface (
244:
204:
11871:
11544:. US Nuclear Regulatory Commission, NUREG/CR 5562.
11515:Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie
9809:, University of California Museum of Paleontology.
9163:
8610:. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. p. 1.
8366:
8006:
7504:"Lichen Photobionts, University of Nebraska Omaha"
7044:
6819:. London: The Natural History Museum. p. 19.
6535:Fungi of Aotearoa: a curious forager's field guide
6143:Brodo, Irwin M. and Duran Sharnoff, Sylvia (2001)
5562:capable of the degradation of pathogenic forms of
4461:. Many cyanolichens are small and black, and have
4119:
1701:(singular: mazaedium) are apothecia shaped like a
1558:are produced in spore-producing structures called
1305:Metabolites, metabolite structures and bioactivity
1081:, complementing the activities of the green alga.
1023:Lichens are fungi that have discovered agriculture
916:. This secretion layer may or may not have pores.
879:Generally, the fungal mesh surrounds the algal or
8870:
8868:
8866:
8641:
8639:
8471:
6504:
5851:development in lichens, algae, and fungi using a
5631:("common orange lichen") and the grey foliaceous
5015:A crustose lichen that grows on rock is called a
4465:as the substrate. Another cyanolichen group, the
1150:Evidence that lichens are examples of successful
638:– growing in 2-dimensional, flat, leaf-like lobes
12209:
12170:
12077:
12075:
12073:
12071:
11597:Cappitelli, Francesca; Sorlini, Claudia (2008).
11293:
9741:
9618:
9320:
9265:
9084:
7043:
6270:
5114:, essential for maintaining the soil structure.
4264:
4071:CABI Bioscience Databases. Available online at
1194:, but the lichen relationship can be considered
818:(b) This photobiont layer has photosynthesizing
377:. When they grow on plants, they do not live as
10792:
9845:
9692:
9356:
9354:
9352:
8093:
7927:
7925:
6394:
6231:
5988:
5986:
5984:
5982:
4966:starts its development in the tissue of a host
1817:The fungal component of a lichen is called the
1309:Lichens can show intense antioxidant activity.
160:grows like powder dusted on the rock, so it is
11944:Morton, E.; Winters, J. and Smith, L. (2010).
11863:
11115:
11017:
10939:
10659:
10610:
10565:
10514:
10210:
10163:
10089:
9314:
8863:
8636:
8438:
8150:
7963:
5424:of caribou or reindeer that have been killed.
5391:are toxic. Most poisonous lichens are yellow.
5220:Lichens may be eaten by some animals, such as
4350:, while cyanobacterial photobionts are called
3049:
1862:of fungi that include lichen-forming species.
1712:
1000:in or near the cortex above the algal layer".
486:
27:Symbiosis of fungi with algae or cyanobacteria
12068:
11467:
10833:
10665:
10616:
10418:
10032:
9854:
8627:
8335:
7395:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 (
6810:
6808:
5795:like lichen. The 10th century Arab physician
5021:. Crustose lichens that grow on the rock are
4981:In the arctic tundra, lichens, together with
4713:
4042:
1880:
1438:
919:Below the cortex layer is a layer called the
847:. The photosynthesizing organism is called a
644:– crust-like, adhering tightly to a surface (
11870:Casselman, Karen Leigh; Dean, Jenny (1999).
11506:
11424:
11327:
11325:
11323:
11244:
11172:
10834:Lücking, Robert; Nelsen, Matthew P. (2018),
10174: : A new find and new interpretation".
9860:
9349:
9029:
8336:Miller, G. H.; Andrews, J. T. (April 1972).
7922:
7901:
7897:
7895:
7757:
7556:
7554:
7552:
6814:
5979:
5248:uses it for nesting, food and winter water.
5094:formation of new minerals, especially metal
4903:Lichens on a limestone statue on a tower of
2342:
1564:. The most common types of ascomata are the
12081:
11955:. University of Michigan Biological Station
11080:"Lichens are more important than you think"
10710:
10424:
10367:
10326:
9981:
9946:
9897:
9839:
9795:
9793:
9418:
9360:
8600:
6531:
5646:, commonly called orchella weed or orchil.
5251:
4441:The most commonly occurring cyanobacterium
4254:Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory
1829:. The associated lichens are called either
513:
187:, without internal structure for its parts.
12126:
11940:
11938:
11512:
11358:
11025:"For Mount Rushmore, An Overdue Face Wash"
10467:
9480:
9412:
8814:
8812:
8810:
8628:Cook, Rebecca; McFarland, Kenneth (1995).
8549:
8094:Lawrey, James D.; Diederich, Paul (2003).
7592:
7590:
7305:
7303:
7301:
7175:
7015:
7009:
6805:
6459:
6457:
6455:
6453:
6451:
6449:
6447:
5836:to emphasize his ideas of symmetry in his
5619:Traditional dyes of the Scottish Highlands
5117:
5006:is found in fresh water environments, and
4894:
4532:A single lichen may contain several algal
4197:Liu, Yajuan J.; Hall, Benjamin D. (2004).
4175:
1928:
1887:
1873:
1622:, meaning similar to members of the genus
1443:
831:where the fungus attaches to the substrate
11878:. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications.
11782:
11733:
11723:
11674:
11630:
11320:
11077:
10981:
10642:
10586:
10508:
10499:
10350:
10107:
9929:
9818:
9718:
9595:
9450:
9448:
9242:
9232:
9114:
9053:
8786:
8691:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
8504:
8266:
8264:
7892:
7871:
7841:
7823:
7734:
7549:
7525:
7523:
7498:
7496:
7380:
7299:
7297:
7295:
7293:
7291:
7289:
7287:
7285:
7283:
7281:
7216:
7214:
7212:
7210:
7208:
7206:
7204:
7202:
7173:
7171:
7169:
7167:
7165:
7163:
7161:
7159:
7157:
7155:
7136:
7134:
7132:
7130:
7128:
7126:
7124:
7122:
7120:
7118:
6987:
6768:
6697:
6505:Speer, Brian R; Ben Waggoner (May 1997).
6445:
6443:
6441:
6439:
6437:
6435:
6433:
6431:
6429:
6427:
6415:
6371:
6369:
6208:
6034:
5309:Not all lichens are equally sensitive to
4890:Ecology and interactions with environment
4686:
4621:). Other lichen fungi occur in only five
4234:
4224:
3441:
1774:, and have a symbiotic relationship with
972:In lichens that include both green algal
823:(c) Loosely packed hyphae in the medulla
584:
316:. They may have tiny, leafless branches (
12141:
11964:
11759:"Lichens: Unexpected anti-prion agents?"
11331:
10716:
10096:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society
9790:
9658:, based on ITS rDNA sequences" (2006)".
9522:
9481:Hallenbeck, Patrick C. (18 April 2017).
9395:
9323:Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society
8684:
8621:
8480:"Lichen survives harsh Mars environment"
8444:
8405:
8227:
8225:
8058:
7931:
7867:
7865:
7863:
7861:
7635:Sharnoff, Sylvia and Sharnoff, Stephen.
7494:
7492:
7490:
7488:
7486:
7484:
7482:
7480:
7478:
7476:
7412:
7410:
7408:
7406:
7254:
7252:
7250:
7248:
7246:
7244:
7242:
7091:
7089:
7087:
7085:
7083:
7081:
6738:
6736:
6601:
6500:
6375:
5827:
5724:
5471:
5459:
5333:
5255:
5172:
4972:
4898:
4313:
1803:
1644:
1632:meaning similar to members of the genus
1499:
1447:
1222:Miniature ecosystem and holobiont theory
1032:
797:
735:
38:
12148:. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.
11935:
11250:
11109:
11045:
10474:Wedin M, Döring H, Gilenstam G (2004).
9955:International Journal of Plant Sciences
8997:
8995:
8993:
8807:
8685:Law, R.; Lewis, D. H. (November 1983).
8477:
7629:
7587:
7331:
7329:
7327:
7325:
6888:. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short.
6719:
6717:
6595:
6571:
6569:
6567:
6565:
6563:
6498:
6496:
6494:
6492:
6490:
6488:
6486:
6484:
6482:
6480:
4822:?) and thin filaments (mucoromycotinan
4799:The ancestral ecological state of both
4196:
1531:Some lichen fungi belong to the phylum
1313:are often deposited as crystals in the
1186:Lichen associations may be examples of
855:. Cyanobacteria photobionts are called
300:embedded in the cortex or "skin", in a
14:
12210:
11901:Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology
11898:
11603:Applied and Environmental Microbiology
11547:
11393:
11253:Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology
11215:
9445:
9145:from the original on 18 September 2018
8261:
7520:
7457:
7455:
7453:
7451:
7449:
7447:
7445:
7443:
7441:
7439:
7362:
7360:
7358:
7337:"Lichens, Saguaro-Juniper Corporation"
7278:
7225:. Slough, UK: Richmond Publishing Co.
7220:
7199:
7152:
7115:
6965:
6959:
6790:
6788:
6424:
6366:
6325:
6107:
6082:
6080:
6078:
6076:
6074:
5901:–algae pairs were actually ascomycete–
1495:
1275:
1088:The algal or cyanobacterial cells are
443:There are about 20,000 known species.
11647:
11554:Innes, J. L. (1985). "Lichenometry".
11553:
11399:
11004:
10598:from the original on 22 December 2016
10284:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
10259:from the original on 18 December 2019
9699:associates with multiplegenotypes of
9518:
9516:
9396:Luecking, Robert (25 February 2015).
8666:from the original on 31 December 2013
8537:from the original on 26 February 2010
8235:Environmental and Experimental Botany
8222:
8087:
8040:from the original on 25 December 2014
8012:Hawksworth, D.L. and Rose, F. (1976)
7950:
7858:
7764:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
7473:
7403:
7239:
7078:
7024:from the original on 23 December 2014
6733:
6655:
6653:
6651:
6649:
6583:from the original on 24 February 2015
6507:"Lichens: Life History & Ecology"
6139:
6137:
6135:
6133:
6131:
6072:
6070:
6068:
6066:
6064:
6062:
6060:
6058:
6056:
6054:
4870:in the form of 1500 million year old
4438:have cyanobacteria as their partner.
4154:
4023:
1868:
1011:
793:
12176:
9827:from the original on 25 January 2010
9462:from the original on 31 October 2014
8990:
8630:General Botany 111 Laboratory Manual
8026:
7880:from the original on 19 January 2015
7637:"Lichen Biology and the Environment"
7537:from the original on 2 November 2014
7322:
7266:from the original on 19 October 2014
7187:from the original on 31 October 2014
7072:participating institution membership
7016:Wordsworth, Dot (17 November 2012).
6714:
6668:. Coexistence versus competition?".
6560:
6477:
6086:
5866:Other prominent biologists, such as
5420:spp.) after they remove it from the
5088:
4544:There are about 20,000 known lichen
1350:has an estimated age of 9500 years.
1295:
1280:Some fungi can only be found living
10745:from the original on 1 January 2013
9501:from the original on 4 October 2018
9196:from the original on 7 October 2018
8406:Benedict, James B. (January 2009).
8132:from the original on 3 January 2011
7908:. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
7436:
7355:
6785:
6388:
5720:
5605:is a dye extracted from the lichen
5527:Lichens have been shown to degrade
5345:) gathering at Kumano in Kishū, by
1680:that are visible to the naked eye.
91:has leaf-like structures, so it is
24:
12057:, Ramat-Gan 2004, pp. 56, 108–109
11005:Klein, JoAnna (19 November 2019).
10848:10.1016/b978-0-12-813012-4.00023-1
10455:from the original on 26 April 2019
10233:from the original on 24 April 2013
9513:
9335:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1988.tb00623.x
9089:(Ascomycotina) and the brown alga
8703:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1983.tb01876.x
8081:10.1111/j.1600-0587.1984.tb01138.x
7762:(Trebouxiophyceae, Chlorophyta)".
6864:
6646:
6532:Sisson, Liv; Vigus, Paula (2023).
6128:
6051:
5539:. Some species of lichen, such as
5107:important in contributing nitrogen
4997:", which is a lichen, not a moss.
4653:are lichenized, but these include
1767:also form marine lichens with the
332:); have a powder-like appearance (
25:
12264:
12192:from the original on 23 July 2017
11154:from the original on 2 April 2015
11053:"Pollution, The Plant Underworld"
9400:. Field Museum of Natural History
6465:Field Guide to California Lichens
5787:3:8 is explained as referring to
5658:Traditional medicine and research
5522:
5266:, are sensitive to air pollution.
5012:is found in marine environments.
4842:also have many similarities with
4780:were lichenized. Thus lichenized
825:(d) A tightly woven lower cortex
12135:
12047:
12019:
11993:
11958:
11892:
11838:
11799:
11750:
11691:
11590:
11534:
11525:
11287:
11209:
11166:
11071:
11033:. Associated Press. 11 July 2005
10998:
10933:
10870:
10827:
10757:
10559:
10501:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01198.x
10271:
10245:
10116:
10109:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2011.01195.x
10083:
10069:10.1111/j.1472-4677.2004.00026.x
9720:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01576.x
9695:"The lichen-forming asco-mycete
9686:
8789:"Lichen Reproductive Structures"
8478:Baldwin, Emily (26 April 2012).
6971:Etymological Dictionary of Greek
6690:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2010.02386.x
5929:
5915:
5770:
4948:Mount Rushmore National Memorial
4826:?) are permineralized in marine
4377:photobionts are from the genera
4326:partner in a lichen is called a
1377:Response to environmental stress
760:covering the vast rock faces of
557:
531:
307:Lichens are important actors in
240:
200:
171:
148:
125:
102:
79:
56:
10821:10.1016/j.precamres.2013.05.015
10786:10.1016/j.precamres.2012.12.005
9647:
9612:
9559:
9474:
9389:
9259:
9208:
9157:
9131:
9078:
8780:
8717:
8678:
8498:
8482:. Skymania News. Archived from
8399:
8360:
8329:
8323:10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.10.031
8290:
8274:. earthlife.net. Archived from
8255:10.1016/j.envexpbot.2010.01.003
8187:
8144:
8052:
7790:
7751:
7693:
7649:
7036:
6935:
6901:
6879:
6858:
6833:
6525:
6513:from the original on 2 May 2015
6328:"Lichen-Arthropod Associations"
5832:"Lichenes" fancifully drawn by
5551:(lung lichen), and many in the
5449:
5260:Some lichens, like the foliose
4750:of Scotland, dating from early
3947:
3673:
3435:
1978:
1922:
1210:) similar to those produced by
851:. Algal photobionts are called
724:solid rock between the grains (
589:
475:in many ecosystems and benefit
12040:, vol. 2, New York 1987, s.v.
11556:Progress in Physical Geography
11078:Ahmadjian, V. (1 March 1995).
10842:, Elsevier, pp. 551–590,
6969:(2010). "s.v. λειχήν, λείχω".
6376:Galloway, D.J. (13 May 1999).
6319:
6264:
6225:
6184:
6158:
5799:mentions lichens dissolved in
4989:, make up the majority of the
4309:
4024:
1854:The following table lists the
1798:) as their symbiotic partner.
1471:) or through the dispersal of
1320:
889:the surface they grow on (the
328:) like a thick coat of paint (
320:); flat leaf-like structures (
13:
1:
11145:10.1016/S0341-8162(99)00085-5
9576:European Journal of Phycology
8014:Lichens as pollution monitors
5972:
5779:literature, the Hebrew word "
5558:, have been shown to produce
4073:http://www.indexfungorum.org/
1593:(singular: perithecium), and
1006:
672:– stringy or like matted hair
12053:Zohar Amar and Yaron Serri,
11725:10.1371/journal.pone.0019836
11500:10.1016/0031-9422(93)85097-B
11342:10.1017/CBO9780511790478.016
9850:. Stanford University Press.
9429:10.1017/CBO9780511790478.003
8455:10.1017/CBO9780511790478.002
8208:10.1016/j.fitote.2004.05.012
7571:10.1017/CBO9780511790478.005
6087:Lepp, Heino (7 March 2011).
5956:Lichens and nitrogen cycling
5323:
4592:
4279:10.1016/j.mycres.2006.05.003
1837:, respectively. Living as a
1546:Most lichen fungi belong to
1331:
1049:living among the filaments (
827:(e) Anchoring hyphae called
648:) like a thick coat of paint
525:
505:
408:. They grow on rock, walls,
7:
11096:10.1093/bioscience/45.3.124
10304:10.1016/j.ympev.2013.01.014
8957:10.1639/0007-2745-120.1.058
8914:10.1639/0007-2745-119.4.361
8509:. Bodley Head. p. 94.
7776:10.1016/j.ympev.2009.09.035
6872:Online Etymology Dictionary
6815:Morris J, Purvis W (2007).
6326:Gerson, U. (October 1973).
5908:
1713:Taxonomy and classification
1676:or both. Many lichens have
1288:. These are referred to as
802:Schematic cross section of
487:Etymology and pronunciation
10:
12269:
11846:"A Modern Herbal | Litmus"
11576:10.1177/030913338500900202
11400:Hogan, C. Michael (2010).
11304:10.1021/bk-1995-0582.ch002
10966:10.1038/s41598-022-14340-5
10840:Transformative Paleobotany
9906:"The oldest fossil lichen"
9821:"Fossil Record of Lichens"
9398:"One Fungus - Two Lichens"
9095:American Journal of Botany
9042:American Journal of Botany
8649:Cyanobacteria in Symbiosis
8505:Sheldrake, Merlin (2020).
8373:Arctic and Alpine Research
8303:Quaternary Science Reviews
8153:Environmental Microbiology
6943:
6909:
6670:Environmental Microbiology
5942:
5823:
5761:hanging from tree branches
5695:broad-spectrum antibiotics
5453:
5356:
5327:
4962:parasitise other lichens.
4930:, rocky coasts, and toxic
4876:and 2200 million year old
4714:Evolution and paleontology
4085:American Journal of Botany
1821:. The mycobiont may be an
1554:). Among the ascolichens,
1439:Reproduction and dispersal
1181:
1015:
958:that the lichen grows on.
593:
520:
500:
50:Common lichen growth forms
29:
11824:10.1017/S0024282912000102
11379:10.1017/S0024282991000452
11265:10.1007/s00253-006-0611-3
11230:10.1639/0747-9859-24.3.85
10731:10.1038/nature.2012.12017
10688:10.1017/s0094837300012975
10644:10.1080/03115510701484705
10446:10.1017/s002428299200015x
10196:10.1134/S0031030109010110
10090:Edwards D; Axe L (2012).
9633:10.1017/s0024282906005068
9597:10.1080/09670260500342647
9182:10.1017/S0024282918000117
8980:Bibliotheca Lichenologica
8424:10.1017/S0002731600047545
7958:Air Pollution and Lichens
7385:(inactive 16 April 2024).
7382:10.2509/pnwf.2007.002.003
7052:Oxford English Dictionary
6467:, Yale University Press.
6463:Sharnoff, Stephen (2014)
6344:10.1017/S0024282973000484
6250:10.1017/s002428299300009x
5814:'s science fiction novel
5791:entwining herself around
4977:Lichen on a fallen branch
4866:may extend back into the
4742:, an early zygomycetous (
4190:10.1017/S0269915X02002069
4169:10.1017/S0953756201004269
4134:10.1080/10635150801910451
4057:10.1017/S0953756204001625
4030:
4019:
3989:
3971:
3953:
3938:
3907:
3898:
3876:
3858:
3840:
3822:
3804:
3781:
3772:
3763:
3754:
3697:
3679:
3662:
3634:
3616:
3605:
3583:
3574:
3552:
3524:
3506:
3497:
3486:
3477:
3426:
3395:
3367:
3344:
3326:
3308:
3290:
3257:
3239:
3221:
3058:
3040:
3007:
2989:
2971:
2953:
2895:
2867:
2849:
2811:
2768:
2715:
2687:
2678:
2634:
2606:
2588:
2570:
2517:
2499:
2396:
2373:
2364:
2333:
2324:
2293:
2282:
2258:
2235:
2202:
2144:
2135:
2126:
2058:
2025:
2002:
1984:
1969:
1913:
1904:
1057:in a mutually beneficial
783:color from the top side.
12025:Thus explained by Rabbi
12001:"Themodelrailroader.com"
9846:Poinar Jr., GO. (1992).
9800:"Lichens: Fossil Record"
9693:Piercey-Normore (2006).
9221:BMC Evolutionary Biology
8652:. Springer. p. 59.
8299:"Limits to lichenometry"
7960:. Athlone Press, London.
7467:28 February 2015 at the
7430:24 November 2016 at the
6672:(Submitted manuscript).
6145:Lichens of North America
5967:
5510:Rhizocarpon geographicum
5306:of atmospheric quality.
5252:Effects of air pollution
5246:Northern flying squirrel
1812:
1649:Crust-like thallus with
1570:(plural: apothecia) and
1426:Rhizocarpon geographicum
1356:Rhizocarpon geographicum
1343:Rhizocarpon geographicum
1092:and, as in plants, they
1079:fix atmospheric nitrogen
731:
612:Common names for lichens
353:Common names for lichens
12033:("Tree of Joseph"), on
12027:Enoch Zundel ben Joseph
10566:Retallack G.J. (2015).
10537:10.1126/science.1111347
10396:10.1126/science.7770775
10176:Paleontological Journal
9805:25 January 2010 at the
9537:10.1126/science.1072961
9234:10.1186/1471-2148-13-39
8877:Dictionary of the Fungi
8165:10.1111/1462-2920.12850
7825:10.1126/science.aaf8287
7727:10.1126/science.aaf8287
7642:17 October 2015 at the
7146:20 January 2015 at the
7057:Oxford University Press
6925:A Greek–English Lexicon
6398:; Barreno, EVA (2003).
6019:10.1126/science.aaf8287
5569:
5352:
5215:vascular (higher) plant
5118:Ecological interactions
4895:Substrates and habitats
4860:comparable with living
4226:10.1073/pnas.0400938101
1478:vegetative reproduction
1469:vegetative reproduction
1444:Vegetative reproduction
1414:German Aerospace Center
1402:photosynthetic activity
32:Lichen (disambiguation)
12142:Wakeford, Tom (2002).
11951:20 August 2017 at the
11676:10.1099/mic.0.037143-0
11655:Gadd, Geoffrey Michael
10617:Retallack GJ. (2007).
10588:10.17581/bp.2015.04203
10172:Winfrenatia reticulata
9883:10.1006/lich.1999.0257
9819:Speer BR, Waggoner B.
9091:Petroderma maculiforme
9055:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1446
9003:"Form and structure –
6997:. Cambridge Dictionary
6121:22 August 2014 at the
5868:Heinrich Anton de Bary
5843:
5741:Yosemite National Park
5736:
5679:Peltigera leucophlebia
5674:doctrine of signatures
5477:
5469:
5349:
5267:
5178:
5112:biological soil crusts
5009:Verrucaria serpuloides
4978:
4964:Diploschistes muscorum
4907:
4687:Identification methods
4319:
3128:Hamatocanthoscyphaceae
1809:
1772:Petroderma maculiforme
1653:
1516:
1464:
1038:
1031:
832:
762:Yosemite National Park
741:
585:Anatomy and morphology
514:
418:biological soil crusts
296:species, along with a
134:Variospora thallincola
88:Flavoparmelia caperata
44:
11913:10.1007/s002530100684
11775:10.4161/pri.6.1.17414
11476:Spodoptera littoralis
11406:Encyclopedia of Earth
10352:10.1093/sysbio/syp020
9087:Verrucaria tavaresiae
8578:10.1089/ast.2006.0046
7902:Ahmadjian V. (1993).
7221:Dobson, F.S. (2011).
6916:Liddell, Henry George
6770:10.1038/ismej.2009.63
5872:Albert Bernhard Frank
5831:
5745:Sequoia National Park
5728:
5714:Staphylococcus aureus
5475:
5463:
5439:Umbilicaria esculenta
5343:Umbilicaria esculenta
5337:
5328:Further information:
5282:, lichens may absorb
5259:
5176:
4976:
4936:biological soil crust
4902:
4696:para-phenylenediamine
4677:, such as species of
4667:, such as species of
4657:, such as species of
4455:photobionts are from
4426:" is a lichen with a
4317:
2137:Chaetothyriomycetidae
1807:
1648:
1503:
1451:
1421:European Space Agency
1311:Secondary metabolites
1252:traditional medicines
1214:that feed on a host.
1036:
1021:
801:
739:
355:may contain the word
42:
12029:, in his commentary
11623:10.1128/AEM.01768-07
10801:Precambrian Research
10766:Precambrian Research
10425:Honegger R. (1998).
10255:. 15 November 2019.
10125:Prototaxites loganii
9656:Parmotrema tinctorum
9107:10.3732/ajb.91.4.511
8730:Journal of Phycology
7905:The Lichen Symbiosis
7646:. sharnoffphotos.com
7369:North American Fungi
6967:Beekes, Robert S. P.
6400:"Looking at Lichens"
5664:traditional medicine
5052:endophloidal lichens
5046:endophloidic lichens
4905:Regensburg Cathedral
4832:Doushantuo Formation
4788:were a component of
4267:Mycological Research
4157:Mycological Research
4045:Mycological Research
2184:Microtheliopsidaceae
2110:Pseudoperisporiaceae
1018:Symbiosis in lichens
157:Chrysothrix chlorina
30:For other uses, see
12253:Polyphyletic groups
11716:2011PLoSO...619836J
11615:2008ApEnM..74..564C
11568:1985PrPG....9..187I
11492:1993PChem..33.1389E
11445:1980Oikos..35..321B
11187:1990Natur.346..839J
11137:2000Caten..39..121C
11059:on 17 February 2014
11030:The Washington Post
10958:2022NatSR..1210724S
10895:2020Gbio...18....3N
10813:2013PreR..235...71R
10778:2013PreR..226..125R
10680:1994Pbio...20..523R
10635:2007Alch...31..215R
10529:2005Sci...308.1017Y
10523:(5724): 1017–1020.
10388:1995Sci...268.1492G
10382:(5216): 1492–1495.
10296:2013MolPE..67..311H
10188:2009PalJ...43..107K
10061:2004Gbio....2..107F
10002:2003Geo....31...99J
9922:1995Natur.378..244T
9875:2000ThLic..32..298P
9760:2001Natur.411..937L
9588:2005EJPhy..40..363O
9284:2001Natur.411..937L
8833:2000Natur.404..564M
8795:on 28 February 2014
8742:2015JPcgy..51..507S
8570:2007AsBio...7..443S
8315:2015QSRv..129..229R
8247:2010EnvEB..68..309H
8073:1984Ecogr...7..345S
7984:1981Natur.289..289R
7874:"What is a Lichen?"
7816:2016Sci...353..488S
7719:2016Sci...353..488S
7055:(Online ed.).
7020:. spectator.co.uk.
6800:thalli from Mexico"
6761:2009ISMEJ...3.1105G
6682:2011EnvMi..13..806C
6384:on 6 December 2014.
6289:1985Oikos..44..448L
6089:"What is a lichen?"
6011:2016Sci...353..488S
5817:Trouble with Lichen
5735:lichen ground-cover
5628:Xanthoria parietina
5495:age of exposed rock
5381:secondary compounds
5164:resurrection plants
4556:, these components
4217:2004PNAS..101.4507L
4097:10.3732/ajb.0800232
3267:Cochlearomycetaceae
3178:Neolauriomycetaceae
2750:Protothelenellaceae
2335:Acarosporomycetidae
2174:Herpotrichiellaceae
1763:genera. Fungi from
1746:Geosiphon pyriforme
1689:Ochrolechia parella
1496:Sexual reproduction
1398:adaptation capacity
1290:lichenicolous fungi
1276:Lichenicolous fungi
1037:Lichens interaction
596:Lichen growth forms
384:Lichens occur from
139:crustose placodioid
12007:on 15 October 2014
11979:10.1007/bf02984888
11011:The New York Times
10946:Scientific Reports
9697:Evernia mesomorpha
8412:American Antiquity
7565:. pp. 37–64.
7516:on 6 October 2014.
6891:A Latin Dictionary
6666:Ramalina farinacea
6210:10.14430/arctic504
5945:Outline of lichens
5884:Hermann Hellriegel
5844:
5839:Artforms of Nature
5737:
5669:Lobaria pulmonaria
5652:synthetic versions
5634:Parmelia saxatilis
5608:Roccella tinctoria
5548:Lobaria pulmonaria
5513:, map lichen) and
5507:(e.g. the species
5499:radiocarbon dating
5478:
5470:
5464:Lichen grown in a
5400:Cetraria islandica
5350:
5268:
5263:Lobaria pulmonaria
5190:- on the surface,
5179:
5076:Umbilicate lichens
5070:terricolous lichen
5040:lignicolous lichen
5034:corticolous lichen
5028:endolithic lichens
5003:Hydrothyria venosa
4979:
4920:temperate woodland
4908:
4609:(for example, the
4509:Celtic rain forest
4485:species including
4320:
4122:Systematic Biology
4036:
3886:Lepidostromataceae
3488:Diaporthomycetidae
3143:Heterosphaeriaceae
2730:Arthrorhaphidaceae
2095:Mycosphaerellaceae
2080:Didymosphaeriaceae
1810:
1790:yellow-green algae
1749:, a member of the
1654:
1517:
1465:
1410:Martian conditions
1286:obligate parasites
1077:lichens, they can
1039:
1012:Symbiotic relation
921:photobiontic layer
833:
794:Internal structure
742:
726:endolithic lichens
461:composite organism
406:temperate woodland
180:Collema nigrescens
45:
12228:Polyextremophiles
12155:978-0-470-24400-5
11885:978-0-8230-5727-6
11812:The Lichenologist
11669:(Pt 3): 609–643.
11351:978-0-521-69216-8
11313:978-0-8412-3061-3
10903:10.1111/gbi.12369
10857:978-0-12-813012-4
10717:Switek B (2012).
10575:Botanica Pacifica
10039:Fletcher, B. J.;
9754:(6840): 937–940.
9701:Trebouxia jamesii
9438:978-0-521-45368-4
9278:(6840): 937–940.
9170:The Lichenologist
9048:(10): 1446–1480.
8886:978-0-85199-826-8
8750:10.1111/jpy.12295
8659:978-1-4020-0777-4
8608:Biology of Plants
8464:978-0-521-69216-8
7978:(5795): 289–292.
7943:978-0-521-45368-4
7915:978-0-471-57885-7
7876:. Earthlife Web.
7810:(6298): 488–492.
7713:(6298): 488–492.
7671:10.1111/mec.14519
7659:Molecular Ecology
7424:, 9780877370390,
7103:on 5 October 2011
7070:(Subscription or
6865:Harper, Douglas.
6826:978-0-565-09153-8
6545:978-1-76104-787-9
6473:978-0-300-19500-2
6378:"Lichen Glossary"
6332:The Lichenologist
6238:The Lichenologist
5848:Simon Schwendener
5765:model railroading
5729:Pine forest with
5662:Historically, in
5405:Bryoria fremontii
5089:Lichens and soils
5018:saxicolous lichen
4848:Ediacaran fossils
4550:ancestral lineage
4306:
4305:
4302:
4301:
4297:
4296:
4211:(13): 4507–4512.
4091:(12): 1548–1556.
4015:
4014:
4011:
4010:
4007:
4006:
3963:Chionosphaeraceae
3934:
3933:
3930:
3929:
3900:Tremellomycetidae
3894:
3893:
3878:Lepidostromatales
3750:
3749:
3746:
3745:
3742:
3741:
3658:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3601:
3600:
3570:
3569:
3499:Hypocreomycetidae
3493:
3473:
3472:
3469:
3468:
3422:
3421:
3418:
3417:
3118:Gelatinodiscaceae
3113:Drepanopezizaceae
3093:Chlorospleniaceae
3088:Chlorociboriaceae
3073:Arachnopezizaceae
3036:
3035:
3032:
3031:
2877:Phaneromycetaceae
2859:Odontotremataceae
2674:
2673:
2481:Scoliciosporaceae
2366:Lecanoromycetidae
2360:
2359:
2320:
2319:
2316:
2315:
2278:
2277:
2164:Cyphellophoraceae
2122:
2121:
2118:
2117:
2085:Lichenotheliaceae
2017:Xanthopyreniaceae
1965:
1964:
1961:
1960:
1726:Lichenized fungus
1432:Rusavskia elegans
1408:of 34 days under
1296:Reaction to water
1227:as partners in a
768:brown, or black.
495:derives from the
491:The English word
471:). Lichens are a
463:. Lichens may be
16:(Redirected from
12260:
12202:
12201:
12199:
12197:
12180:(21 July 2016),
12174:
12168:
12167:
12139:
12133:
12130:
12124:
12123:
12079:
12066:
12051:
12045:
12023:
12017:
12016:
12014:
12012:
12003:. Archived from
11997:
11991:
11990:
11962:
11956:
11942:
11933:
11932:
11896:
11890:
11889:
11877:
11867:
11861:
11860:
11858:
11856:
11842:
11836:
11835:
11803:
11797:
11796:
11786:
11754:
11748:
11747:
11737:
11727:
11695:
11689:
11688:
11678:
11651:
11645:
11644:
11634:
11594:
11588:
11587:
11551:
11545:
11538:
11532:
11529:
11523:
11522:
11510:
11504:
11503:
11486:(6): 1389–1394.
11471:
11465:
11464:
11428:
11422:
11421:
11419:
11417:
11402:"Abiotic factor"
11397:
11391:
11390:
11362:
11356:
11355:
11329:
11318:
11317:
11291:
11285:
11284:
11248:
11242:
11241:
11213:
11207:
11206:
11195:10.1038/346839a0
11170:
11164:
11163:
11161:
11159:
11153:
11122:
11113:
11107:
11106:
11104:
11102:
11075:
11069:
11068:
11066:
11064:
11049:
11043:
11042:
11040:
11038:
11021:
11015:
11014:
11002:
10996:
10995:
10985:
10937:
10931:
10930:
10874:
10868:
10867:
10866:
10864:
10831:
10825:
10824:
10796:
10790:
10789:
10761:
10755:
10754:
10752:
10750:
10714:
10708:
10707:
10663:
10657:
10656:
10646:
10614:
10608:
10607:
10605:
10603:
10597:
10590:
10572:
10563:
10557:
10556:
10512:
10506:
10505:
10503:
10471:
10465:
10464:
10462:
10460:
10454:
10431:
10422:
10416:
10415:
10371:
10365:
10364:
10354:
10330:
10324:
10323:
10275:
10269:
10268:
10266:
10264:
10249:
10243:
10242:
10240:
10238:
10214:
10208:
10207:
10167:
10161:
10160:
10135:(6): 1143–1156.
10120:
10114:
10113:
10111:
10087:
10081:
10080:
10036:
10030:
10029:
9985:
9979:
9978:
9950:
9944:
9943:
9933:
9931:10.1038/378244a0
9901:
9895:
9894:
9858:
9852:
9851:
9843:
9837:
9836:
9834:
9832:
9816:
9810:
9797:
9788:
9787:
9768:10.1038/35082053
9739:
9733:
9732:
9722:
9690:
9684:
9683:
9651:
9645:
9644:
9616:
9610:
9609:
9599:
9563:
9557:
9556:
9520:
9511:
9510:
9508:
9506:
9478:
9472:
9471:
9469:
9467:
9452:
9443:
9442:
9416:
9410:
9409:
9407:
9405:
9393:
9387:
9386:
9358:
9347:
9346:
9318:
9312:
9311:
9292:10.1038/35082053
9263:
9257:
9256:
9246:
9236:
9212:
9206:
9205:
9203:
9201:
9161:
9155:
9154:
9152:
9150:
9135:
9129:
9128:
9118:
9082:
9076:
9075:
9057:
9033:
9027:
9026:
9024:
9022:
9017:on 28 April 2014
8999:
8988:
8987:
8975:
8969:
8968:
8940:
8934:
8933:
8897:
8891:
8890:
8872:
8861:
8860:
8841:10.1038/35007142
8816:
8805:
8804:
8802:
8800:
8791:. Archived from
8784:
8778:
8777:
8721:
8715:
8714:
8682:
8676:
8675:
8673:
8671:
8643:
8634:
8633:
8625:
8619:
8604:
8598:
8597:
8553:
8547:
8546:
8544:
8542:
8527:
8521:
8520:
8502:
8496:
8495:
8493:
8491:
8475:
8469:
8468:
8442:
8436:
8435:
8403:
8397:
8396:
8364:
8358:
8357:
8348:(4): 1133–1138.
8333:
8327:
8326:
8294:
8288:
8287:
8285:
8283:
8268:
8259:
8258:
8229:
8220:
8219:
8191:
8185:
8184:
8159:(8): 2319–2325.
8148:
8142:
8141:
8139:
8137:
8131:
8100:
8091:
8085:
8084:
8056:
8050:
8049:
8047:
8045:
8030:
8024:
8010:
8004:
8003:
7992:10.1038/289289a0
7967:
7961:
7954:
7948:
7947:
7929:
7920:
7919:
7899:
7890:
7889:
7887:
7885:
7869:
7856:
7855:
7845:
7827:
7794:
7788:
7787:
7755:
7749:
7748:
7738:
7697:
7691:
7690:
7665:(5): 1155–1169.
7653:
7647:
7633:
7627:
7626:
7594:
7585:
7584:
7558:
7547:
7546:
7544:
7542:
7527:
7518:
7517:
7515:
7509:. Archived from
7508:
7500:
7471:
7459:
7434:
7414:
7401:
7400:
7394:
7386:
7384:
7364:
7353:
7352:
7350:
7348:
7339:. Archived from
7333:
7320:
7307:
7276:
7275:
7273:
7271:
7256:
7237:
7236:
7218:
7197:
7196:
7194:
7192:
7177:
7150:
7138:
7113:
7112:
7110:
7108:
7099:. Archived from
7093:
7076:
7075:
7067:
7065:
7063:
7048:
7040:
7034:
7033:
7031:
7029:
7013:
7007:
7006:
7004:
7002:
6991:
6985:
6984:
6963:
6957:
6946:
6945:
6939:
6933:
6912:
6911:
6905:
6899:
6883:
6877:
6876:
6862:
6856:
6855:
6853:
6851:
6837:
6831:
6830:
6812:
6803:
6792:
6783:
6782:
6772:
6755:(9): 1105–1115.
6749:The ISME Journal
6740:
6731:
6721:
6712:
6711:
6701:
6657:
6644:
6643:
6618:(6): 1216–1229.
6599:
6593:
6592:
6590:
6588:
6573:
6558:
6557:
6529:
6523:
6522:
6520:
6518:
6502:
6475:
6461:
6422:
6421:
6419:
6392:
6386:
6385:
6373:
6364:
6363:
6338:(5–6): 434–443.
6323:
6317:
6316:
6268:
6262:
6261:
6229:
6223:
6222:
6212:
6188:
6182:
6181:
6179:
6177:
6162:
6156:
6141:
6126:
6111:
6105:
6104:
6102:
6100:
6084:
6049:
6048:
6038:
6005:(6298): 488–92.
5990:
5939:
5934:
5933:
5925:
5920:
5919:
5918:
5853:light microscope
5721:Aesthetic appeal
5708:Escherichia coli
5689:Lichens produce
5560:serine proteases
5542:Parmelia sulcata
5529:polyester resins
5330:Ethnolichenology
5318:William Nylander
4953:Lichens are not
4675:corticioid fungi
4665:clavarioid fungi
4647:fungi imperfecti
4411:Trebouxiophyceae
4360:Trebouxiophyceae
4290:
4261:
4248:
4238:
4228:
4193:
4172:
4145:
4116:
4068:
4033:
4032:
4021:
4020:
3951:
3950:
3945:
3944:
3905:
3904:
3796:Tricholomataceae
3779:
3778:
3774:Agaricomycetidae
3770:
3769:
3761:
3760:
3729:Coccotremataceae
3709:Aspidotheliaceae
3677:
3676:
3671:
3670:
3614:
3613:
3581:
3580:
3576:Xylariomycetidae
3504:
3503:
3492:
3484:
3483:
3439:
3438:
3433:
3432:
3405:Pseudeurotiaceae
3300:Marthamycetaceae
3249:Lauriomycetaceae
3188:Ploettnerulaceae
3138:Hemiphacidiaceae
3056:
3055:
3047:
3046:
2940:Varicellariaceae
2925:Microcaliciaceae
2910:Coccotremataceae
2851:Odontotrematales
2841:Trichotheliaceae
2803:Thelotremataceae
2798:Redonographaceae
2778:Diploschistaceae
2702:Anamylopsoraceae
2685:
2684:
2680:Ostropomycetidae
2491:Tephromelataceae
2486:Sphaerophoraceae
2431:Haematommataceae
2411:Bruceomycetaceae
2371:
2370:
2340:
2339:
2331:
2330:
2291:
2290:
2189:Pyrenotrichaceae
2154:Chaetothyriaceae
2142:
2141:
2133:
2132:
2075:Arthopyreniaceae
2045:Pleomassariaceae
1982:
1981:
1976:
1975:
1943:Chrysothricaceae
1926:
1925:
1920:
1919:
1911:
1910:
1895:Taxonomy of the
1889:
1882:
1875:
1866:
1865:
1785:Blidingia minima
1703:dressmaker's pin
1212:pathogenic fungi
1029:
758:vertical "paint"
580:
579:
576:
575:
572:
569:
566:
563:
554:
553:
550:
549:
546:
543:
540:
537:
528:
523:
522:
517:
508:
503:
502:
473:keystone species
309:nutrient cycling
268:
263:
262:
259:
258:
255:
252:
249:
246:
239:
228:
223:
222:
219:
218:
215:
212:
209:
206:
175:
152:
129:
111:Caloplaca marina
106:
83:
65:Letharia vulpina
60:
21:
18:Lichenized fungi
12268:
12267:
12263:
12262:
12261:
12259:
12258:
12257:
12208:
12207:
12206:
12205:
12195:
12193:
12175:
12171:
12156:
12140:
12136:
12131:
12127:
12080:
12069:
12052:
12048:
12024:
12020:
12010:
12008:
11999:
11998:
11994:
11967:Economic Botany
11963:
11959:
11953:Wayback Machine
11943:
11936:
11897:
11893:
11886:
11868:
11864:
11854:
11852:
11844:
11843:
11839:
11804:
11800:
11755:
11751:
11696:
11692:
11652:
11648:
11595:
11591:
11552:
11548:
11539:
11535:
11530:
11526:
11511:
11507:
11472:
11468:
11453:10.2307/3544647
11429:
11425:
11415:
11413:
11398:
11394:
11363:
11359:
11352:
11330:
11321:
11314:
11292:
11288:
11249:
11245:
11214:
11210:
11171:
11167:
11157:
11155:
11151:
11120:
11114:
11110:
11100:
11098:
11076:
11072:
11062:
11060:
11051:
11050:
11046:
11036:
11034:
11023:
11022:
11018:
11003:
10999:
10938:
10934:
10875:
10871:
10862:
10860:
10858:
10832:
10828:
10797:
10793:
10762:
10758:
10748:
10746:
10715:
10711:
10664:
10660:
10615:
10611:
10601:
10599:
10595:
10570:
10564:
10560:
10513:
10509:
10488:New Phytologist
10472:
10468:
10458:
10456:
10452:
10429:
10423:
10419:
10372:
10368:
10331:
10327:
10276:
10272:
10262:
10260:
10251:
10250:
10246:
10236:
10234:
10215:
10211:
10168:
10164:
10121:
10117:
10088:
10084:
10041:Beerling, D. J.
10037:
10033:
9986:
9982:
9951:
9947:
9902:
9898:
9859:
9855:
9844:
9840:
9830:
9828:
9817:
9813:
9807:Wayback Machine
9798:
9791:
9740:
9736:
9707:New Phytologist
9691:
9687:
9652:
9648:
9617:
9613:
9564:
9560:
9521:
9514:
9504:
9502:
9495:
9479:
9475:
9465:
9463:
9454:
9453:
9446:
9439:
9417:
9413:
9403:
9401:
9394:
9390:
9375:10.2307/3244316
9359:
9350:
9319:
9315:
9264:
9260:
9213:
9209:
9199:
9197:
9162:
9158:
9148:
9146:
9137:
9136:
9132:
9083:
9079:
9034:
9030:
9020:
9018:
9009:Dendriscocaulon
9001:
9000:
8991:
8976:
8972:
8941:
8937:
8898:
8894:
8887:
8873:
8864:
8817:
8808:
8798:
8796:
8787:Ramel, Gordon.
8785:
8781:
8722:
8718:
8683:
8679:
8669:
8667:
8660:
8644:
8637:
8626:
8622:
8605:
8601:
8554:
8550:
8540:
8538:
8529:
8528:
8524:
8517:
8503:
8499:
8489:
8487:
8476:
8472:
8465:
8443:
8439:
8404:
8400:
8385:10.2307/1550886
8365:
8361:
8334:
8330:
8295:
8291:
8281:
8279:
8270:
8269:
8262:
8230:
8223:
8192:
8188:
8149:
8145:
8135:
8133:
8129:
8098:
8092:
8088:
8057:
8053:
8043:
8041:
8032:
8031:
8027:
8011:
8007:
7968:
7964:
7955:
7951:
7944:
7930:
7923:
7916:
7900:
7893:
7883:
7881:
7872:Ramel, Gordon.
7870:
7859:
7795:
7791:
7756:
7752:
7698:
7694:
7654:
7650:
7644:Wayback Machine
7634:
7630:
7615:10.2307/3244302
7595:
7588:
7581:
7559:
7550:
7540:
7538:
7529:
7528:
7521:
7513:
7506:
7502:
7501:
7474:
7469:Wayback Machine
7460:
7437:
7432:Wayback Machine
7415:
7404:
7388:
7387:
7365:
7356:
7346:
7344:
7335:
7334:
7323:
7308:
7279:
7269:
7267:
7258:
7257:
7240:
7233:
7219:
7200:
7190:
7188:
7179:
7178:
7153:
7148:Wayback Machine
7139:
7116:
7106:
7104:
7095:
7094:
7079:
7069:
7061:
7059:
7041:
7037:
7027:
7025:
7014:
7010:
7000:
6998:
6993:
6992:
6988:
6981:
6964:
6960:
6940:
6936:
6930:Perseus Project
6906:
6902:
6896:Perseus Project
6884:
6880:
6863:
6859:
6849:
6847:
6839:
6838:
6834:
6827:
6813:
6806:
6793:
6786:
6741:
6734:
6722:
6715:
6658:
6647:
6600:
6596:
6586:
6584:
6575:
6574:
6561:
6546:
6530:
6526:
6516:
6514:
6503:
6478:
6462:
6425:
6393:
6389:
6374:
6367:
6324:
6320:
6297:10.2307/3565786
6269:
6265:
6230:
6226:
6189:
6185:
6175:
6173:
6164:
6163:
6159:
6142:
6129:
6123:Wayback Machine
6112:
6108:
6098:
6096:
6085:
6052:
5991:
5980:
5975:
5970:
5961:Mycophycobiosis
5947:
5935:
5928:
5921:
5916:
5914:
5911:
5826:
5773:
5723:
5660:
5572:
5525:
5458:
5452:
5414:reindeer lichen
5377:polysaccharides
5367:, others are a
5361:
5355:
5332:
5326:
5254:
5232:of a number of
5128:first to settle
5124:pioneer species
5120:
5105:Lichens may be
5091:
4897:
4892:
4716:
4689:
4607:plant parasites
4595:
4542:
4451:. Other common
4392:Pseudotrebouxia
4312:
4307:
4298:
4293:
4148:
4026:
4003:
3985:
3967:
3940:Urediniomycetes
3926:
3917:Syzygosporaceae
3890:
3872:
3854:
3836:
3818:
3800:
3738:
3693:
3650:
3630:
3626:Phyllachoraceae
3597:
3593:Hyponectriaceae
3566:
3548:
3520:
3479:Sordariomycetes
3465:
3451:Gloeoheppiaceae
3414:
3391:
3363:
3354:Helicogoniaceae
3340:
3322:
3304:
3292:Marthamycetales
3286:
3253:
3241:Lauriomycetales
3235:
3217:
3203:Solenopeziaceae
3198:Sclerotiniaceae
3193:Rutstroemiaceae
3148:Hyaloscyphaceae
3098:Chrysodiscaceae
3051:Leotiomycetidae
3028:
3003:
2985:
2967:
2949:
2930:Ochrolechiaceae
2915:Icmadophilaceae
2891:
2882:Spirographaceae
2863:
2845:
2836:Sagiolechiaceae
2807:
2764:
2711:
2670:
2661:Umbilicariaceae
2630:
2626:Teloschistaceae
2621:Megalosporaceae
2616:Brigantiaeaceae
2602:
2598:Sporastatiaceae
2584:
2566:
2542:Massalongiaceae
2527:Coccocarpiaceae
2513:
2495:
2461:Psilolechiaceae
2392:
2356:
2326:Lecanoromycetes
2312:
2308:Sphinctrinaceae
2303:Mycocaliciaceae
2274:
2254:
2231:
2227:Trypetheliaceae
2222:Requienellaceae
2212:Monoblastiaceae
2198:
2194:Trichomeriaceae
2146:Chaetothyriales
2114:
2100:Naetrocymbaceae
2090:Microthyriaceae
2054:
2040:Mytilinidiaceae
2035:Melanommataceae
2021:
1998:
1971:Dothideomycetes
1957:
1915:Arthoniomycetes
1900:
1893:
1815:
1761:endomycorrhizal
1715:
1685:Graphis scripta
1498:
1446:
1441:
1406:simulation time
1379:
1369:in the central
1336:Lichens may be
1334:
1323:
1307:
1298:
1278:
1224:
1184:
1129:Cyphobasidiales
1030:
1027:
1020:
1014:
1009:
993:epinecral layer
826:
824:
822:
817:
807:
796:
734:
598:
592:
587:
560:
556:
534:
530:
489:
266:
243:
234:
233:
226:
203:
199:
192:
191:
190:
189:
188:
176:
167:
166:
165:
153:
144:
143:
142:
130:
121:
120:
119:
107:
98:
97:
96:
84:
75:
74:
73:
61:
52:
51:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
12266:
12256:
12255:
12250:
12245:
12240:
12235:
12230:
12225:
12220:
12204:
12203:
12169:
12154:
12134:
12125:
12090:(2): 307–313.
12067:
12046:
12037:Midrash Rabbah
12018:
11992:
11973:(4): 402–406.
11957:
11934:
11891:
11884:
11862:
11837:
11818:(4): 523–531.
11798:
11749:
11690:
11657:(March 2010).
11646:
11609:(3): 564–569.
11589:
11546:
11533:
11524:
11505:
11480:Phytochemistry
11466:
11439:(3): 321–326.
11423:
11412:on 8 June 2013
11392:
11373:(3): 309–321.
11357:
11350:
11334:Lichen Biology
11319:
11312:
11286:
11259:(4): 723–734.
11243:
11208:
11165:
11108:
11070:
11044:
11016:
10997:
10932:
10869:
10856:
10826:
10791:
10756:
10709:
10674:(4): 523–544.
10658:
10629:(3): 215–240.
10609:
10558:
10507:
10494:(3): 459–465.
10466:
10440:(3): 193–212.
10417:
10366:
10345:(2): 224–239.
10325:
10290:(2): 311–335.
10270:
10244:
10209:
10182:(1): 107–114.
10162:
10141:10.3852/13-390
10115:
10082:
10055:(2): 107–119.
10031:
9980:
9967:10.1086/422129
9961:(5): 875–881.
9945:
9896:
9869:(3): 298–300.
9853:
9838:
9811:
9789:
9734:
9713:(2): 331–344.
9685:
9646:
9627:(5): 469–476.
9611:
9582:(4): 363–378.
9558:
9512:
9493:
9473:
9444:
9437:
9421:Lichen Biology
9411:
9388:
9369:(3): 375–376.
9348:
9313:
9258:
9207:
9176:(3): 341–356.
9156:
9130:
9077:
9028:
8989:
8970:
8945:The Bryologist
8935:
8908:(4): 361–416.
8902:The Bryologist
8892:
8885:
8862:
8806:
8779:
8736:(3): 507–527.
8716:
8697:(3): 249–276.
8677:
8658:
8635:
8620:
8599:
8564:(3): 443–454.
8548:
8522:
8516:978-1847925206
8515:
8497:
8486:on 28 May 2012
8470:
8463:
8447:Lichen Biology
8437:
8418:(1): 143–172.
8398:
8379:(3): 289–296.
8359:
8328:
8289:
8278:on 28 May 2015
8260:
8221:
8202:(2): 216–219.
8186:
8143:
8103:The Bryologist
8086:
8051:
8025:
8005:
7962:
7949:
7942:
7934:Lichen Biology
7921:
7914:
7891:
7857:
7789:
7750:
7692:
7648:
7628:
7609:(3): 315–320.
7603:The Bryologist
7586:
7579:
7563:Lichen Biology
7548:
7519:
7472:
7435:
7402:
7354:
7343:on 10 May 2015
7321:
7277:
7238:
7231:
7198:
7151:
7114:
7077:
7035:
7008:
6986:
6979:
6958:
6934:
6900:
6878:
6857:
6832:
6825:
6817:Lichens (Life)
6804:
6784:
6732:
6713:
6676:(3): 806–818.
6645:
6624:10.3852/11-032
6594:
6559:
6544:
6524:
6476:
6423:
6396:Margulis, Lynn
6387:
6365:
6318:
6263:
6224:
6183:
6172:. 21 July 2016
6157:
6153:978-0300082494
6127:
6106:
6095:on 2 July 2014
6050:
5977:
5976:
5974:
5971:
5969:
5966:
5965:
5964:
5958:
5953:
5943:Main article:
5941:
5940:
5937:Biology portal
5926:
5910:
5907:
5895:Toby Spribille
5880:Melchior Treub
5876:Beatrix Potter
5825:
5822:
5772:
5769:
5722:
5719:
5705:agent against
5659:
5656:
5571:
5568:
5524:
5523:Biodegradation
5521:
5476:13 years later
5454:Main article:
5451:
5448:
5357:Main article:
5354:
5351:
5325:
5322:
5311:air pollutants
5253:
5250:
5242:marbled beauty
5238:common footman
5119:
5116:
5090:
5087:
5082:vagrant lichen
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4844:Glomeromycotan
4790:Early Silurian
4752:Early Devonian
4744:Glomeromycotan
4715:
4712:
4688:
4685:
4660:Lichenomphalia
4651:basidiomycetes
4643:Teloschistales
4594:
4591:
4541:
4538:
4469:of the genera
4453:cyanobacterium
4428:cyanobacterium
4358:; eukaryotic:
4344:cyanobacterium
4324:photosynthetic
4311:
4308:
4304:
4303:
4300:
4299:
4295:
4294:
4292:
4291:
4273:(7): 765–772.
4262:
4249:
4194:
4173:
4163:(7): 783–797.
4151:
4149:
4147:
4146:
4128:(1): 141–156.
4117:
4076:
4069:
4039:
4037:
4031:
4028:
4027:
4017:
4016:
4013:
4012:
4009:
4008:
4005:
4004:
4002:
4001:
3999:Platygloeaceae
3995:
3993:
3987:
3986:
3984:
3983:
3977:
3975:
3969:
3968:
3966:
3965:
3959:
3957:
3955:Atractiellales
3948:
3942:
3936:
3935:
3932:
3931:
3928:
3927:
3925:
3924:
3919:
3913:
3911:
3902:
3896:
3895:
3892:
3891:
3889:
3888:
3882:
3880:
3874:
3873:
3871:
3870:
3864:
3862:
3856:
3855:
3853:
3852:
3846:
3844:
3842:Cantharellales
3838:
3837:
3835:
3834:
3832:Coniophoraceae
3828:
3826:
3820:
3819:
3817:
3816:
3810:
3808:
3802:
3801:
3799:
3798:
3793:
3791:Hygrophoraceae
3787:
3785:
3776:
3767:
3765:Basidiomycetes
3758:
3752:
3751:
3748:
3747:
3744:
3743:
3740:
3739:
3737:
3736:
3734:Thelocarpaceae
3731:
3726:
3724:Baeomycetaceae
3721:
3719:Thelenellaceae
3716:
3711:
3705:
3703:
3700:Incertae sedis
3695:
3694:
3692:
3691:
3685:
3683:
3674:
3668:
3665:Incertae sedis
3660:
3659:
3656:
3655:
3652:
3651:
3649:
3648:
3642:
3640:
3637:Incertae sedis
3632:
3631:
3629:
3628:
3622:
3620:
3618:Phyllachorales
3611:
3608:Incertae sedis
3603:
3602:
3599:
3598:
3596:
3595:
3589:
3587:
3578:
3572:
3571:
3568:
3567:
3565:
3564:
3558:
3556:
3550:
3549:
3547:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3534:Bionectriaceae
3530:
3528:
3522:
3521:
3519:
3518:
3512:
3510:
3508:Coronophorales
3501:
3495:
3494:
3490:
3481:
3475:
3474:
3471:
3470:
3467:
3466:
3464:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3447:
3445:
3436:
3430:
3428:Lichinomycetes
3424:
3423:
3420:
3419:
3416:
3415:
3413:
3412:
3407:
3401:
3399:
3393:
3392:
3390:
3389:
3384:
3382:Rhytismataceae
3379:
3373:
3371:
3365:
3364:
3362:
3361:
3356:
3350:
3348:
3342:
3341:
3339:
3338:
3336:Micraspidaceae
3332:
3330:
3324:
3323:
3321:
3320:
3318:Medeolariaceae
3314:
3312:
3306:
3305:
3303:
3302:
3296:
3294:
3288:
3287:
3285:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3263:
3261:
3255:
3254:
3252:
3251:
3245:
3243:
3237:
3236:
3234:
3233:
3227:
3225:
3219:
3218:
3216:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3183:Pleuroascaceae
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3163:Loramycetaceae
3160:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3108:Discinellaceae
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3078:Bryoglossaceae
3075:
3070:
3068:Amicodiscaceae
3064:
3062:
3053:
3044:
3038:
3037:
3034:
3033:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3026:
3021:
3015:
3013:
3010:Incertae sedis
3005:
3004:
3002:
3001:
2999:Thelenellaceae
2995:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2984:
2983:
2981:Schaereriaceae
2977:
2975:
2969:
2968:
2966:
2965:
2963:Sarrameanaceae
2959:
2957:
2951:
2950:
2948:
2947:
2945:Variolariaceae
2942:
2937:
2935:Pertusariaceae
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2901:
2899:
2893:
2892:
2890:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2873:
2871:
2865:
2864:
2862:
2861:
2855:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2821:Coenogoniaceae
2817:
2815:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2774:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2762:
2760:Xylographaceae
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2735:Baeomycetaceae
2732:
2727:
2721:
2719:
2713:
2712:
2710:
2709:
2707:Schaereriaceae
2704:
2699:
2693:
2691:
2682:
2676:
2675:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2642:
2640:
2637:Incertae sedis
2632:
2631:
2629:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2612:
2610:
2608:Teloschistales
2604:
2603:
2601:
2600:
2594:
2592:
2590:Sporastatiales
2586:
2585:
2583:
2582:
2580:Rhizocarpaceae
2576:
2574:
2568:
2567:
2565:
2564:
2559:
2557:Placynthiaceae
2554:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2523:
2521:
2515:
2514:
2512:
2511:
2509:Leprocaulaceae
2505:
2503:
2497:
2496:
2494:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2426:Gypsoplacaceae
2423:
2418:
2416:Catillariaceae
2413:
2408:
2406:Biatorellaceae
2402:
2400:
2394:
2393:
2391:
2390:
2385:
2379:
2377:
2368:
2362:
2361:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2354:
2352:Acarosporaceae
2348:
2346:
2337:
2328:
2322:
2321:
2318:
2317:
2314:
2313:
2311:
2310:
2305:
2299:
2297:
2295:Mycocaliciales
2288:
2285:Incertae sedis
2280:
2279:
2276:
2275:
2273:
2272:
2266:
2264:
2261:Incertae sedis
2256:
2255:
2253:
2252:
2250:Verrucariaceae
2247:
2245:Adelococcaceae
2241:
2239:
2233:
2232:
2230:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2208:
2206:
2200:
2199:
2197:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2159:Coccodiniaceae
2156:
2150:
2148:
2139:
2130:
2128:Eurotiomycetes
2124:
2123:
2120:
2119:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2112:
2107:
2105:Parmulariaceae
2102:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2072:
2066:
2064:
2061:Incertae sedis
2056:
2055:
2053:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2031:
2029:
2023:
2022:
2020:
2019:
2014:
2008:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1996:
1990:
1988:
1979:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1963:
1962:
1959:
1958:
1956:
1955:
1950:
1948:Melaspileaceae
1945:
1940:
1934:
1932:
1923:
1917:
1908:
1902:
1901:
1892:
1891:
1884:
1877:
1869:
1835:basidiolichens
1814:
1811:
1733:Mycophycophyta
1714:
1711:
1539:) and produce
1537:basidiolichens
1514:foliose lichen
1497:
1494:
1453:Xanthoparmelia
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1378:
1375:
1333:
1330:
1322:
1319:
1306:
1303:
1297:
1294:
1277:
1274:
1223:
1220:
1183:
1180:
1127:yeasts called
1102:sugar alcohols
1098:carbon dioxide
1090:photosynthetic
1071:cyanobacterium
1063:photosynthesis
1025:
1016:Main article:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1005:
925:symbiont layer
902:differentiated
881:cyanobacterial
841:cyanobacterium
804:foliose lichen
795:
792:
733:
730:
686:
685:
682:
678:– wispy, like
673:
667:
661:
655:
649:
639:
633:
632:) or flattened
594:Main article:
591:
588:
586:
583:
488:
485:
457:microorganisms
375:photosynthesis
304:relationship.
272:) is a hybrid
177:
170:
169:
168:
154:
147:
146:
145:
131:
124:
123:
122:
108:
101:
100:
99:
85:
78:
77:
76:
62:
55:
54:
53:
49:
48:
47:
46:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
12265:
12254:
12251:
12249:
12246:
12244:
12241:
12239:
12238:Bioindicators
12236:
12234:
12231:
12229:
12226:
12224:
12221:
12219:
12216:
12215:
12213:
12191:
12187:
12183:
12179:
12173:
12165:
12161:
12157:
12151:
12147:
12146:
12138:
12129:
12121:
12117:
12113:
12109:
12105:
12101:
12097:
12093:
12089:
12085:
12078:
12076:
12074:
12072:
12064:
12063:965-226-252-8
12060:
12056:
12050:
12043:
12039:
12038:
12032:
12028:
12022:
12006:
12002:
11996:
11988:
11984:
11980:
11976:
11972:
11968:
11961:
11954:
11950:
11947:
11941:
11939:
11930:
11926:
11922:
11918:
11914:
11910:
11907:(1–2): 9–10.
11906:
11902:
11895:
11887:
11881:
11876:
11875:
11866:
11851:
11850:botanical.com
11847:
11841:
11833:
11829:
11825:
11821:
11817:
11813:
11809:
11802:
11794:
11790:
11785:
11780:
11776:
11772:
11768:
11764:
11760:
11753:
11745:
11741:
11736:
11731:
11726:
11721:
11717:
11713:
11710:(5): e19836.
11709:
11705:
11701:
11694:
11686:
11682:
11677:
11672:
11668:
11664:
11660:
11656:
11650:
11642:
11638:
11633:
11628:
11624:
11620:
11616:
11612:
11608:
11604:
11600:
11593:
11585:
11581:
11577:
11573:
11569:
11565:
11561:
11557:
11550:
11543:
11537:
11528:
11520:
11516:
11509:
11501:
11497:
11493:
11489:
11485:
11481:
11477:
11470:
11462:
11458:
11454:
11450:
11446:
11442:
11438:
11434:
11427:
11411:
11407:
11403:
11396:
11388:
11384:
11380:
11376:
11372:
11368:
11367:Lichenologist
11361:
11353:
11347:
11343:
11339:
11335:
11328:
11326:
11324:
11315:
11309:
11305:
11301:
11297:
11290:
11282:
11278:
11274:
11270:
11266:
11262:
11258:
11254:
11247:
11239:
11235:
11231:
11227:
11223:
11219:
11212:
11204:
11200:
11196:
11192:
11188:
11184:
11181:(6287): 839.
11180:
11176:
11169:
11150:
11146:
11142:
11138:
11134:
11130:
11126:
11119:
11112:
11097:
11093:
11089:
11085:
11081:
11074:
11058:
11054:
11048:
11032:
11031:
11026:
11020:
11012:
11008:
11001:
10993:
10989:
10984:
10979:
10975:
10971:
10967:
10963:
10959:
10955:
10951:
10947:
10943:
10936:
10928:
10924:
10920:
10916:
10912:
10908:
10904:
10900:
10896:
10892:
10888:
10884:
10880:
10873:
10859:
10853:
10849:
10845:
10841:
10837:
10830:
10822:
10818:
10814:
10810:
10806:
10802:
10795:
10787:
10783:
10779:
10775:
10771:
10767:
10760:
10744:
10740:
10736:
10732:
10728:
10724:
10720:
10713:
10705:
10701:
10697:
10693:
10689:
10685:
10681:
10677:
10673:
10669:
10662:
10654:
10650:
10645:
10640:
10636:
10632:
10628:
10624:
10620:
10613:
10594:
10589:
10584:
10580:
10576:
10569:
10562:
10554:
10550:
10546:
10542:
10538:
10534:
10530:
10526:
10522:
10518:
10511:
10502:
10497:
10493:
10489:
10485:
10483:
10479:
10470:
10451:
10447:
10443:
10439:
10435:
10434:Lichenologist
10428:
10421:
10413:
10409:
10405:
10401:
10397:
10393:
10389:
10385:
10381:
10377:
10370:
10362:
10358:
10353:
10348:
10344:
10340:
10336:
10329:
10321:
10317:
10313:
10309:
10305:
10301:
10297:
10293:
10289:
10285:
10281:
10274:
10258:
10254:
10248:
10232:
10228:
10224:
10220:
10213:
10205:
10201:
10197:
10193:
10189:
10185:
10181:
10177:
10173:
10166:
10158:
10154:
10150:
10146:
10142:
10138:
10134:
10130:
10126:
10119:
10110:
10105:
10101:
10097:
10093:
10086:
10078:
10074:
10070:
10066:
10062:
10058:
10054:
10050:
10046:
10045:Spongiophyton
10042:
10035:
10027:
10023:
10019:
10015:
10011:
10007:
10003:
9999:
9996:(2): 99–102.
9995:
9991:
9984:
9976:
9972:
9968:
9964:
9960:
9956:
9949:
9941:
9937:
9932:
9927:
9923:
9919:
9916:(6554): 244.
9915:
9911:
9907:
9900:
9892:
9888:
9884:
9880:
9876:
9872:
9868:
9864:
9863:Lichenologist
9857:
9849:
9848:Life in Amber
9842:
9826:
9822:
9815:
9808:
9804:
9801:
9796:
9794:
9785:
9781:
9777:
9773:
9769:
9765:
9761:
9757:
9753:
9749:
9745:
9738:
9730:
9726:
9721:
9716:
9712:
9708:
9704:
9702:
9698:
9689:
9681:
9677:
9673:
9669:
9665:
9661:
9657:
9650:
9642:
9638:
9634:
9630:
9626:
9622:
9621:Lichenologist
9615:
9607:
9603:
9598:
9593:
9589:
9585:
9581:
9577:
9573:
9571:
9562:
9554:
9550:
9546:
9542:
9538:
9534:
9531:(5580): 357.
9530:
9526:
9519:
9517:
9500:
9496:
9494:9783319462615
9490:
9486:
9485:
9477:
9461:
9457:
9451:
9449:
9440:
9434:
9430:
9426:
9422:
9415:
9399:
9392:
9384:
9380:
9376:
9372:
9368:
9364:
9357:
9355:
9353:
9344:
9340:
9336:
9332:
9328:
9324:
9317:
9309:
9305:
9301:
9297:
9293:
9289:
9285:
9281:
9277:
9273:
9269:
9262:
9254:
9250:
9245:
9240:
9235:
9230:
9226:
9222:
9218:
9211:
9195:
9191:
9187:
9183:
9179:
9175:
9171:
9167:
9160:
9144:
9140:
9134:
9126:
9122:
9117:
9112:
9108:
9104:
9101:(4): 511–22.
9100:
9096:
9092:
9088:
9081:
9073:
9069:
9065:
9061:
9056:
9051:
9047:
9043:
9039:
9032:
9016:
9012:
9010:
9006:
8998:
8996:
8994:
8985:
8981:
8974:
8966:
8962:
8958:
8954:
8950:
8946:
8939:
8931:
8927:
8923:
8919:
8915:
8911:
8907:
8903:
8896:
8888:
8882:
8878:
8871:
8869:
8867:
8858:
8854:
8850:
8846:
8842:
8838:
8834:
8830:
8827:(6778): 564.
8826:
8822:
8815:
8813:
8811:
8794:
8790:
8783:
8775:
8771:
8767:
8763:
8759:
8755:
8751:
8747:
8743:
8739:
8735:
8731:
8727:
8720:
8712:
8708:
8704:
8700:
8696:
8692:
8688:
8681:
8665:
8661:
8655:
8651:
8650:
8642:
8640:
8631:
8624:
8617:
8613:
8609:
8603:
8595:
8591:
8587:
8583:
8579:
8575:
8571:
8567:
8563:
8559:
8552:
8536:
8532:
8526:
8518:
8512:
8508:
8501:
8485:
8481:
8474:
8466:
8460:
8456:
8452:
8448:
8441:
8433:
8429:
8425:
8421:
8417:
8413:
8409:
8402:
8394:
8390:
8386:
8382:
8378:
8374:
8370:
8363:
8355:
8351:
8347:
8343:
8339:
8332:
8324:
8320:
8316:
8312:
8308:
8304:
8300:
8293:
8277:
8273:
8267:
8265:
8256:
8252:
8248:
8244:
8240:
8236:
8228:
8226:
8217:
8213:
8209:
8205:
8201:
8197:
8190:
8182:
8178:
8174:
8170:
8166:
8162:
8158:
8154:
8147:
8128:
8124:
8120:
8116:
8112:
8108:
8104:
8097:
8090:
8082:
8078:
8074:
8070:
8066:
8062:
8055:
8039:
8035:
8029:
8023:
8019:
8015:
8009:
8001:
7997:
7993:
7989:
7985:
7981:
7977:
7973:
7966:
7959:
7953:
7945:
7939:
7935:
7928:
7926:
7917:
7911:
7907:
7904:
7898:
7896:
7879:
7875:
7868:
7866:
7864:
7862:
7853:
7849:
7844:
7839:
7835:
7831:
7826:
7821:
7817:
7813:
7809:
7805:
7801:
7793:
7785:
7781:
7777:
7773:
7769:
7765:
7761:
7760:Asterochloris
7754:
7746:
7742:
7737:
7732:
7728:
7724:
7720:
7716:
7712:
7708:
7704:
7696:
7688:
7684:
7680:
7676:
7672:
7668:
7664:
7660:
7652:
7645:
7641:
7638:
7632:
7624:
7620:
7616:
7612:
7608:
7604:
7600:
7599:Dermatocarpon
7593:
7591:
7582:
7580:9780511790478
7576:
7572:
7568:
7564:
7557:
7555:
7553:
7536:
7532:
7526:
7524:
7512:
7505:
7499:
7497:
7495:
7493:
7491:
7489:
7487:
7485:
7483:
7481:
7479:
7477:
7470:
7466:
7463:
7458:
7456:
7454:
7452:
7450:
7448:
7446:
7444:
7442:
7440:
7433:
7429:
7426:
7423:
7419:
7413:
7411:
7409:
7407:
7398:
7392:
7383:
7378:
7374:
7370:
7363:
7361:
7359:
7342:
7338:
7332:
7330:
7328:
7326:
7319:
7318:0-295-96666-1
7315:
7311:
7306:
7304:
7302:
7300:
7298:
7296:
7294:
7292:
7290:
7288:
7286:
7284:
7282:
7265:
7261:
7255:
7253:
7251:
7249:
7247:
7245:
7243:
7234:
7232:9780855463151
7228:
7224:
7217:
7215:
7213:
7211:
7209:
7207:
7205:
7203:
7186:
7182:
7176:
7174:
7172:
7170:
7168:
7166:
7164:
7162:
7160:
7158:
7156:
7149:
7145:
7142:
7137:
7135:
7133:
7131:
7129:
7127:
7125:
7123:
7121:
7119:
7102:
7098:
7092:
7090:
7088:
7086:
7084:
7082:
7073:
7058:
7054:
7053:
7047:
7039:
7023:
7019:
7012:
6996:
6990:
6982:
6980:9789004174184
6976:
6972:
6968:
6962:
6955:
6951:
6947:
6938:
6931:
6927:
6926:
6921:
6920:Scott, Robert
6917:
6913:
6904:
6897:
6893:
6892:
6887:
6882:
6874:
6873:
6868:
6861:
6846:
6842:
6836:
6828:
6822:
6818:
6811:
6809:
6801:
6799:
6791:
6789:
6780:
6776:
6771:
6766:
6762:
6758:
6754:
6750:
6746:
6739:
6737:
6729:
6725:
6720:
6718:
6709:
6705:
6700:
6695:
6691:
6687:
6683:
6679:
6675:
6671:
6667:
6663:
6656:
6654:
6652:
6650:
6641:
6637:
6633:
6629:
6625:
6621:
6617:
6613:
6609:
6605:
6598:
6582:
6578:
6572:
6570:
6568:
6566:
6564:
6555:
6551:
6547:
6541:
6537:
6536:
6528:
6512:
6508:
6501:
6499:
6497:
6495:
6493:
6491:
6489:
6487:
6485:
6483:
6481:
6474:
6470:
6466:
6460:
6458:
6456:
6454:
6452:
6450:
6448:
6446:
6444:
6442:
6440:
6438:
6436:
6434:
6432:
6430:
6428:
6418:
6413:
6409:
6405:
6401:
6397:
6391:
6383:
6379:
6372:
6370:
6361:
6357:
6353:
6349:
6345:
6341:
6337:
6333:
6329:
6322:
6314:
6310:
6306:
6302:
6298:
6294:
6290:
6286:
6282:
6278:
6274:
6267:
6259:
6255:
6251:
6247:
6243:
6239:
6235:
6228:
6220:
6216:
6211:
6206:
6202:
6198:
6194:
6187:
6171:
6167:
6161:
6154:
6150:
6146:
6140:
6138:
6136:
6134:
6132:
6124:
6120:
6116:
6110:
6094:
6090:
6083:
6081:
6079:
6077:
6075:
6073:
6071:
6069:
6067:
6065:
6063:
6061:
6059:
6057:
6055:
6046:
6042:
6037:
6032:
6028:
6024:
6020:
6016:
6012:
6008:
6004:
6000:
5996:
5989:
5987:
5985:
5983:
5978:
5962:
5959:
5957:
5954:
5952:
5949:
5948:
5946:
5938:
5932:
5927:
5924:
5913:
5906:
5904:
5903:basidiomycete
5900:
5896:
5891:
5889:
5885:
5881:
5877:
5873:
5869:
5864:
5862:
5858:
5857:James Crombie
5854:
5849:
5841:
5840:
5835:
5834:Ernst Haeckel
5830:
5821:
5819:
5818:
5813:
5808:
5806:
5802:
5798:
5794:
5790:
5786:
5782:
5778:
5771:In literature
5768:
5766:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5750:
5746:
5742:
5734:
5733:
5727:
5718:
5716:
5715:
5710:
5709:
5704:
5700:
5696:
5692:
5687:
5685:
5681:
5680:
5675:
5671:
5670:
5665:
5655:
5653:
5649:
5645:
5644:
5638:
5636:
5635:
5630:
5629:
5624:
5620:
5616:
5614:
5610:
5609:
5604:
5600:
5595:
5593:
5590:or primitive
5589:
5585:
5581:
5577:
5567:
5565:
5564:prion protein
5561:
5557:
5555:
5550:
5549:
5544:
5543:
5538:
5537:radionuclides
5534:
5533:Baelo Claudia
5530:
5520:
5518:
5517:
5512:
5511:
5506:
5505:
5500:
5496:
5492:
5491:geomorphology
5488:
5487:palaeontology
5484:
5474:
5467:
5462:
5457:
5447:
5445:
5441:
5440:
5435:
5431:
5427:
5423:
5419:
5415:
5411:
5407:
5406:
5401:
5397:
5394:In the past,
5392:
5390:
5386:
5385:vulpinic acid
5382:
5378:
5374:
5370:
5366:
5360:
5359:Edible lichen
5348:
5344:
5340:
5336:
5331:
5321:
5319:
5314:
5312:
5307:
5305:
5301:
5297:
5293:
5289:
5285:
5281:
5277:
5273:
5265:
5264:
5258:
5249:
5247:
5243:
5239:
5235:
5231:
5228:regions. The
5227:
5223:
5218:
5216:
5211:
5207:
5206:
5201:
5197:
5193:
5189:
5185:
5175:
5171:
5169:
5165:
5161:
5157:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5141:
5137:
5136:poikilohydric
5132:
5129:
5125:
5115:
5113:
5108:
5103:
5101:
5097:
5086:
5084:
5083:
5078:
5077:
5072:
5071:
5066:
5065:
5060:
5059:
5054:
5053:
5048:
5047:
5042:
5041:
5036:
5035:
5030:
5029:
5024:
5020:
5019:
5013:
5011:
5010:
5005:
5004:
4998:
4996:
4995:reindeer moss
4992:
4988:
4984:
4975:
4971:
4969:
4965:
4961:
4960:Diploschistes
4956:
4951:
4949:
4944:
4939:
4937:
4933:
4929:
4925:
4924:arctic tundra
4921:
4917:
4913:
4906:
4901:
4887:
4883:
4881:
4880:
4875:
4874:
4869:
4865:
4864:
4859:
4858:Glomeromycota
4855:
4854:
4849:
4845:
4841:
4837:
4833:
4829:
4825:
4824:Glomeromycota
4821:
4820:cyanobacteria
4817:
4816:Glomeromycota
4812:
4810:
4807:was probably
4806:
4805:Basidiomycota
4802:
4797:
4795:
4791:
4787:
4786:Basidiomycota
4783:
4779:
4778:
4773:
4772:
4771:Nematothallus
4767:
4763:
4759:
4758:
4757:Spongiophyton
4753:
4749:
4745:
4741:
4740:
4734:
4732:
4728:
4727:
4722:
4711:
4709:
4708:
4703:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4684:
4682:
4681:
4676:
4672:
4671:
4666:
4662:
4661:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4644:
4640:
4639:Pertusariales
4636:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4590:
4588:
4583:
4580:
4574:
4570:
4568:
4567:binomial name
4563:
4559:
4555:
4551:
4547:
4537:
4535:
4530:
4526:
4524:
4520:
4519:
4512:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4501:
4496:
4495:
4490:
4489:
4484:
4480:
4479:
4474:
4473:
4468:
4467:jelly lichens
4464:
4460:
4459:
4454:
4450:
4449:
4444:
4439:
4437:
4436:Acantholichen
4433:
4429:
4425:
4420:
4418:
4417:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4400:
4399:
4394:
4393:
4388:
4387:
4382:
4381:
4376:
4371:
4369:
4368:Chlorophyceae
4365:
4361:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4316:
4288:
4284:
4280:
4276:
4272:
4268:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4237:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4153:
4152:
4150:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4077:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4041:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4034:
4029:
4022:
4018:
4000:
3997:
3996:
3994:
3992:
3991:Platygloeales
3988:
3982:
3979:
3978:
3976:
3974:
3970:
3964:
3961:
3960:
3958:
3956:
3952:
3949:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3937:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3914:
3912:
3910:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3897:
3887:
3884:
3883:
3881:
3879:
3875:
3869:
3866:
3865:
3863:
3861:
3857:
3851:
3850:Clavulinaceae
3848:
3847:
3845:
3843:
3839:
3833:
3830:
3829:
3827:
3825:
3821:
3815:
3812:
3811:
3809:
3807:
3803:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3788:
3786:
3784:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3756:Basidiomycota
3753:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3706:
3704:
3702:
3701:
3696:
3690:
3687:
3686:
3684:
3682:
3678:
3675:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3666:
3661:
3647:
3644:
3643:
3641:
3639:
3638:
3633:
3627:
3624:
3623:
3621:
3619:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3609:
3604:
3594:
3591:
3590:
3588:
3586:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3573:
3563:
3562:Microascaceae
3560:
3559:
3557:
3555:
3551:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3531:
3529:
3527:
3523:
3517:
3516:Nitschkiaceae
3514:
3513:
3511:
3509:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3496:
3491:
3489:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3476:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3448:
3446:
3444:
3440:
3437:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3425:
3411:
3410:Thelebolaceae
3408:
3406:
3403:
3402:
3400:
3398:
3394:
3388:
3387:Triblidiaceae
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3374:
3372:
3370:
3369:Rhytismatales
3366:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3351:
3349:
3347:
3343:
3337:
3334:
3333:
3331:
3329:
3328:Micraspidales
3325:
3319:
3316:
3315:
3313:
3311:
3310:Medeolariales
3307:
3301:
3298:
3297:
3295:
3293:
3289:
3283:
3282:Tympanidaceae
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3262:
3260:
3256:
3250:
3247:
3246:
3244:
3242:
3238:
3232:
3229:
3228:
3226:
3224:
3220:
3214:
3213:Vibrisseaceae
3211:
3209:
3208:Tympanidaceae
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3153:Hydrocinaceae
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3065:
3063:
3061:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3042:Leotiomycetes
3039:
3025:
3024:Hymeneliaceae
3022:
3020:
3017:
3016:
3014:
3012:
3011:
3006:
3000:
2997:
2996:
2994:
2992:
2991:Thelenellales
2988:
2982:
2979:
2978:
2976:
2974:
2973:Schaereriales
2970:
2964:
2961:
2960:
2958:
2956:
2955:Sarrameanales
2952:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2920:Megasporaceae
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2902:
2900:
2898:
2897:Pertusariales
2894:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2874:
2872:
2870:
2866:
2860:
2857:
2856:
2854:
2852:
2848:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2831:Phlyctidaceae
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2818:
2816:
2814:
2810:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2788:Gomphillaceae
2786:
2784:
2783:Fissurinaceae
2781:
2779:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2771:
2767:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2745:Hymeneliaceae
2743:
2741:
2740:Cameroniaceae
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2722:
2720:
2718:
2717:Baeomycetales
2714:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2694:
2692:
2690:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2677:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2656:Phlyctidaceae
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2646:Coniocybaceae
2644:
2643:
2641:
2639:
2638:
2633:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2613:
2611:
2609:
2605:
2599:
2596:
2595:
2593:
2591:
2587:
2581:
2578:
2577:
2575:
2573:
2572:Rhizocarpales
2569:
2563:
2562:Vahliellaceae
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2552:Peltigeraceae
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2537:Koerberiaceae
2535:
2533:
2532:Collemataceae
2530:
2528:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2520:
2516:
2510:
2507:
2506:
2504:
2502:
2501:Leprocaulales
2498:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2476:Ramboldiaceae
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2456:Pilocarpaceae
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2446:Megalariaceae
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2403:
2401:
2399:
2395:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2380:
2378:
2376:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2363:
2353:
2350:
2349:
2347:
2345:
2344:Acarosporales
2341:
2338:
2336:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2323:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2296:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2286:
2281:
2271:
2268:
2267:
2265:
2263:
2262:
2257:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2237:Verrucariales
2234:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2201:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2179:Lyrommataceae
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2149:
2147:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2125:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2067:
2065:
2063:
2062:
2057:
2051:
2050:Pleosporaceae
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2024:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2001:
1995:
1992:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1983:
1980:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1968:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1927:
1924:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1903:
1898:
1890:
1885:
1883:
1878:
1876:
1871:
1870:
1867:
1863:
1861:
1857:
1852:
1849:
1846:
1842:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1827:Basidiomycete
1824:
1820:
1806:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1796:
1791:
1787:
1786:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1770:
1766:
1765:Verrucariales
1762:
1758:
1757:
1752:
1751:Glomeromycota
1748:
1747:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1729:
1727:
1722:
1720:
1719:binomial name
1710:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1681:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1652:
1651:pseudopodetia
1647:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1636:
1631:
1627:
1626:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1612:
1606:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1587:
1581:
1579:
1575:
1574:
1569:
1568:
1563:
1562:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1544:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1533:Basidiomycota
1529:
1527:
1523:
1515:
1512:(right) on a
1511:
1507:
1502:
1493:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1474:
1470:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1436:
1434:
1433:
1428:
1427:
1422:
1417:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1394:
1392:
1391:poikilohydric
1388:
1384:
1374:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1363:eupetraeoides
1362:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1348:Baffin Island
1345:
1344:
1339:
1329:
1326:
1318:
1316:
1312:
1302:
1293:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1273:
1271:
1270:
1265:
1264:
1259:
1258:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1236:air pollution
1232:
1230:
1219:
1217:
1216:Cyanobacteria
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1179:
1176:
1172:
1167:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1153:
1148:
1146:
1145:morphogenesis
1142:
1138:
1132:
1130:
1126:
1125:basidiomycete
1121:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1082:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1047:cyanobacteria
1044:
1035:
1028:Trevor Goward
1024:
1019:
1004:
1001:
999:
995:
994:
989:
988:
983:
981:
980:
975:
970:
968:
963:
959:
957:
953:
949:
945:
944:
939:
938:
932:
930:
926:
922:
917:
915:
911:
907:
903:
898:
896:
892:
887:
882:
877:
875:
871:
870:
865:
860:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
830:
821:
815:
811:
805:
800:
791:
789:
784:
782:
778:
774:
769:
765:
763:
759:
753:
751:
747:
738:
729:
727:
723:
718:
714:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
690:
684:structureless
683:
681:
677:
674:
671:
668:
665:
662:
659:
656:
653:
650:
647:
643:
640:
637:
634:
631:
627:
624:
623:
622:
619:
617:
613:
609:
608:
603:
597:
582:
578:
552:
527:
516:
512:
507:
498:
494:
484:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
441:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
422:arctic tundra
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
382:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
363:reindeer moss
360:
359:
354:
350:
346:
341:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
310:
305:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
286:symbiotically
283:
282:cyanobacteria
279:
275:
271:
270:
261:
237:
231:
230:
221:
197:
186:
182:
181:
174:
163:
159:
158:
151:
140:
136:
135:
128:
117:
113:
112:
105:
94:
90:
89:
82:
71:
67:
66:
59:
41:
37:
33:
19:
12194:, retrieved
12186:The Atlantic
12185:
12172:
12144:
12137:
12128:
12087:
12083:
12054:
12049:
12041:
12034:
12030:
12021:
12009:. Retrieved
12005:the original
11995:
11970:
11966:
11960:
11904:
11900:
11894:
11873:
11865:
11853:. Retrieved
11849:
11840:
11815:
11811:
11801:
11769:(1): 11–16.
11766:
11762:
11752:
11707:
11703:
11693:
11666:
11663:Microbiology
11662:
11649:
11606:
11602:
11592:
11559:
11555:
11549:
11541:
11536:
11527:
11518:
11514:
11508:
11483:
11479:
11475:
11469:
11436:
11432:
11426:
11414:. Retrieved
11410:the original
11405:
11395:
11370:
11366:
11360:
11333:
11295:
11289:
11256:
11252:
11246:
11224:(3): 85–90.
11221:
11217:
11211:
11178:
11174:
11168:
11156:. Retrieved
11128:
11124:
11111:
11101:14 September
11099:. Retrieved
11087:
11083:
11073:
11061:. Retrieved
11057:the original
11047:
11035:. Retrieved
11028:
11019:
11010:
11000:
10952:(1): 10724.
10949:
10945:
10935:
10886:
10882:
10872:
10861:, retrieved
10839:
10829:
10804:
10800:
10794:
10769:
10765:
10759:
10747:. Retrieved
10722:
10712:
10671:
10668:Paleobiology
10667:
10661:
10626:
10622:
10612:
10600:. Retrieved
10581:(2): 19–33.
10578:
10574:
10561:
10520:
10516:
10510:
10491:
10487:
10481:
10477:
10469:
10457:. Retrieved
10437:
10433:
10420:
10379:
10375:
10369:
10342:
10338:
10328:
10287:
10283:
10273:
10261:. Retrieved
10247:
10235:. Retrieved
10226:
10222:
10212:
10179:
10175:
10171:
10165:
10132:
10128:
10124:
10118:
10099:
10095:
10085:
10052:
10048:
10044:
10034:
9993:
9989:
9983:
9958:
9954:
9948:
9913:
9909:
9899:
9866:
9862:
9856:
9847:
9841:
9829:. Retrieved
9814:
9751:
9747:
9737:
9710:
9706:
9700:
9696:
9688:
9663:
9659:
9655:
9649:
9624:
9620:
9614:
9579:
9575:
9569:
9561:
9528:
9524:
9503:. Retrieved
9487:. Springer.
9483:
9476:
9464:. Retrieved
9420:
9414:
9402:. Retrieved
9391:
9366:
9363:Bryobrothera
9362:
9326:
9322:
9316:
9275:
9271:
9261:
9224:
9220:
9210:
9198:. Retrieved
9173:
9169:
9159:
9147:. Retrieved
9133:
9098:
9094:
9090:
9086:
9080:
9045:
9041:
9031:
9021:18 September
9019:. Retrieved
9015:the original
9008:
9004:
8983:
8979:
8973:
8951:(1): 58–69.
8948:
8944:
8938:
8905:
8901:
8895:
8876:
8824:
8820:
8797:. Retrieved
8793:the original
8782:
8733:
8729:
8719:
8694:
8690:
8680:
8668:. Retrieved
8648:
8629:
8623:
8607:
8602:
8561:
8558:Astrobiology
8557:
8551:
8539:. Retrieved
8525:
8506:
8500:
8488:. Retrieved
8484:the original
8473:
8446:
8440:
8415:
8411:
8401:
8376:
8372:
8362:
8345:
8342:GSA Bulletin
8341:
8331:
8306:
8302:
8292:
8280:. Retrieved
8276:the original
8238:
8234:
8199:
8195:
8189:
8156:
8152:
8146:
8134:. Retrieved
8106:
8102:
8089:
8064:
8060:
8054:
8044:19 September
8042:. Retrieved
8028:
8013:
8008:
7975:
7971:
7965:
7957:
7952:
7933:
7906:
7903:
7882:. Retrieved
7807:
7803:
7792:
7770:(1): 36–46.
7767:
7763:
7759:
7753:
7710:
7706:
7695:
7662:
7658:
7651:
7631:
7606:
7602:
7598:
7562:
7539:. Retrieved
7511:the original
7391:cite journal
7372:
7368:
7345:. Retrieved
7341:the original
7309:
7268:. Retrieved
7222:
7189:. Retrieved
7105:. Retrieved
7101:the original
7060:. Retrieved
7050:
7038:
7026:. Retrieved
7011:
6999:. Retrieved
6989:
6970:
6961:
6937:
6923:
6903:
6889:
6881:
6870:
6860:
6848:. Retrieved
6844:
6835:
6816:
6797:
6752:
6748:
6727:
6724:Honegger, R.
6673:
6669:
6665:
6661:
6615:
6611:
6607:
6603:
6597:
6585:. Retrieved
6534:
6527:
6515:. Retrieved
6464:
6407:
6403:
6390:
6382:the original
6335:
6331:
6321:
6280:
6276:
6266:
6241:
6237:
6227:
6200:
6196:
6186:
6174:. Retrieved
6170:ScienceDaily
6169:
6160:
6144:
6109:
6097:. Retrieved
6093:the original
6002:
5998:
5923:Fungi portal
5892:
5888:Eugen Thomas
5865:
5845:
5837:
5815:
5812:John Wyndham
5810:The plot of
5809:
5780:
5774:
5749:Bay of Fires
5738:
5730:
5712:
5706:
5703:bactericidal
5688:
5677:
5667:
5661:
5643:Roccellaceae
5641:
5639:
5632:
5626:
5623:Harris tweed
5617:
5606:
5599:pH indicator
5596:
5573:
5553:
5546:
5540:
5526:
5514:
5508:
5502:
5479:
5466:Mickey Mouse
5456:Lichenometry
5450:Lichenometry
5443:
5437:
5433:
5429:
5417:
5403:
5399:
5396:Iceland moss
5393:
5362:
5347:Hiroshige II
5342:
5315:
5308:
5269:
5261:
5224:, living in
5219:
5203:
5200:allelopathic
5191:
5187:
5180:
5168:cryptobiosis
5150:. Like some
5143:
5142:- variable,
5139:
5133:
5122:Lichens are
5121:
5104:
5092:
5080:
5074:
5068:
5062:
5056:
5050:
5044:
5038:
5032:
5026:
5016:
5014:
5007:
5001:
4999:
4991:ground cover
4980:
4967:
4963:
4959:
4952:
4940:
4916:rain forests
4914:branches in
4909:
4884:
4877:
4871:
4861:
4851:
4838:. Ediacaran
4813:
4798:
4777:Prototaxites
4775:
4769:
4755:
4748:Rhynie Chert
4737:
4735:
4724:
4720:
4717:
4705:
4699:
4693:
4690:
4678:
4670:Multiclavula
4668:
4658:
4635:Peltigerales
4596:
4584:
4578:
4575:
4571:
4561:
4557:
4543:
4531:
4527:
4518:Trentepohlia
4516:
4513:
4498:
4492:
4486:
4476:
4470:
4456:
4446:
4440:
4421:
4416:Trentepohlia
4414:
4406:
4402:
4396:
4390:
4386:Trentepohlia
4384:
4378:
4372:
4364:Phaeophyceae
4356:Cyanophyceae
4351:
4347:
4327:
4321:
4270:
4266:
4257:
4253:
4208:
4202:
4184:(2): 67–76.
4181:
4177:
4160:
4156:
4125:
4121:
4088:
4084:
4051:(1): 21–30.
4048:
4044:
3981:Pucciniaceae
3922:Tremellaceae
3714:Mastodiaceae
3698:
3663:
3635:
3606:
3554:Microascales
3544:Niessliaceae
3397:Thelebolales
3359:Phacidiaceae
3277:Mniaeciaceae
3173:Mollisiaceae
3123:Godroniaceae
3103:Dermateaceae
3083:Cenangiaceae
3019:Arctomiaceae
3008:
2887:Stictidaceae
2826:Gyalectaceae
2793:Graphidaceae
2755:Trapeliaceae
2725:Arctomiaceae
2651:Fuscideaceae
2635:
2547:Pannariaceae
2519:Peltigerales
2471:Ramalinaceae
2451:Parmeliaceae
2441:Malmideaceae
2436:Lecanoraceae
2421:Cladoniaceae
2283:
2270:Strigulaceae
2259:
2217:Pyrenulaceae
2070:Epigloeaceae
2059:
2027:Pleosporales
2012:Dacampiaceae
1994:Capnodiaceae
1953:Roccellaceae
1938:Arthoniaceae
1896:
1853:
1850:
1847:
1843:
1818:
1816:
1800:
1795:Heterococcus
1793:
1783:
1771:
1754:
1744:
1741:monophyletic
1732:
1730:
1725:
1723:
1716:
1698:
1697:
1688:
1684:
1682:
1655:
1639:
1633:
1629:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1609:
1607:
1594:
1590:
1584:
1582:
1577:
1571:
1565:
1559:
1551:
1545:
1536:
1530:
1521:
1518:
1485:
1481:
1466:
1452:
1430:
1424:
1418:
1395:
1382:
1380:
1371:Brooks Range
1366:
1359:
1355:
1341:
1335:
1327:
1324:
1308:
1299:
1281:
1279:
1267:
1261:
1255:
1246:, perfumes (
1233:
1225:
1192:commensalism
1185:
1168:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1149:
1133:
1122:
1096:atmospheric
1087:
1083:
1040:
1022:
1002:
991:
985:
984:
977:
973:
971:
964:
960:
947:
941:
935:
933:
924:
920:
918:
914:some lichens
910:agglutinated
905:
899:
890:
885:
878:
867:
863:
861:
856:
852:
848:
844:
834:
790:secretions.
788:mucilaginous
785:
780:
776:
773:dorsiventral
770:
766:
754:
743:
721:
719:
715:
691:
687:
666:– jelly-like
620:
605:
599:
590:Growth forms
581:) are used.
492:
490:
469:lichenometry
445:Some lichens
442:
432:, and toxic
430:rocky coasts
383:
367:Iceland moss
356:
349:microlichens
348:
344:
342:
338:growth forms
336:); or other
306:
292:of multiple
195:
193:
178:
155:
141:growth form.
132:
109:
86:
72:growth form.
63:
36:
12233:Oligotrophs
10889:(1): 3–13.
10863:14 November
10772:: 125–142.
10602:22 December
10263:18 November
10237:18 February
9831:16 February
9404:25 February
9116:10261/31799
8541:16 February
8309:: 229–238.
8196:Fitoterapia
7028:8 September
7001:8 September
6850:17 November
6845:www.nps.gov
6699:10251/60269
5951:Lichenology
5691:metabolites
5666:of Europe,
5613:litmus test
5592:antibiotics
5504:Rhizocarpon
5483:archaeology
5430:Umbilicaria
5369:staple food
5304:biomonitors
5234:Lepidoptera
5148:desiccation
5064:foliicolous
5058:epiphyllous
4868:Proterozoic
4853:Dickinsonia
4828:phosphorite
4814:Lichenized
4739:Winfrenatia
4631:Gyalectales
4627:Graphidales
4615:Dothideales
4603:saprotrophs
4424:cyanolichen
4352:cyanobionts
4348:phycobionts
4340:Chlorophyta
4332:prokaryotic
4318:Photobionts
4310:Photobionts
3909:Tremellales
3814:Atheliaceae
3539:Nectriaceae
3526:Hypocreales
3461:Peltulaceae
3456:Lichinaceae
3377:Cudoniaceae
3346:Phacidiales
3168:Mitrulaceae
3133:Helotiaceae
2813:Gyalectales
2770:Graphidales
2666:Vezdaeaceae
2398:Lecanorales
2388:Physciaceae
2383:Caliciaceae
2204:Pyrenulales
2169:Epibryaceae
2004:Dothideales
1986:Capnodiales
1930:Arthoniales
1831:ascolichens
1769:brown algae
1707:pin lichens
1693:homothallic
1660:" (plural:
1573:perithecium
1552:ascolichens
1548:Ascomycetes
1508:(left) and
1404:within the
1361:Rhizocarpon
1321:Growth rate
1284:lichens as
1171:appressoria
874:anastomosed
857:cyanobionts
853:phycobionts
820:green algae
707:hypothallus
680:teased wool
670:filamentous
410:gravestones
402:rainforests
345:macrolichen
302:mutualistic
12223:Cryptogams
12212:Categories
12084:Bryologist
12042:Ruth Rabba
12011:10 October
11855:24 October
11562:(2): 187.
11521:: 152–161.
11416:27 October
11131:(2): 121.
11084:BioScience
11063:10 October
10883:Geobiology
10459:30 January
10339:Syst. Biol
10229:(1): 226.
10049:Geobiology
9660:Bryologist
9466:10 October
8986:: 399–418.
8616:0716710072
8282:12 October
8241:(3): 309.
8067:(4): 345.
8022:0713125551
7884:20 January
7541:10 October
7422:0877370397
7347:10 October
7270:10 October
7191:10 October
7107:10 October
7074:required.)
7062:10 January
6587:10 October
6554:1372569849
6410:(8): 776.
6404:BioScience
6283:(3): 448.
6099:10 October
5973:References
5899:ascomycete
5805:rose water
5781:vayilafeth
5747:, and the
5699:Usnic acid
5580:herbivores
5426:Rock tripe
5389:usnic acid
5371:or even a
5162:and a few
5156:liverworts
5100:weathering
4987:liverworts
4943:weathering
4932:slag heaps
4926:, hot dry
4873:Horodyskia
4850:including
4840:acritarchs
4801:Ascomycota
4782:Ascomycota
4680:Dictyonema
4599:Ascomycota
4587:synecdoche
4432:Dictyonema
4336:eukaryotic
4328:photobiont
4260:: 753–764.
4178:Mycologist
4105:2268/22808
4025:References
3973:Uredinales
3868:Jaapiaceae
3806:Atheliales
3783:Agaricales
3689:Lahmiaceae
3646:Obryzaceae
3585:Xylariales
3443:Lichinales
3272:Leotiaceae
3231:Lahmiaceae
3158:Lachnaceae
3060:Helotiales
2905:Agyriaceae
2869:Ostropales
2697:Agyriaceae
2375:Caliciales
1906:Ascomycota
1823:Ascomycete
1666:apothecium
1620:lecanorine
1603:Ascomycota
1591:perithecia
1567:apothecium
1504:Disc-like
1338:long-lived
1250:), and in
1114:erythritol
1075:tripartite
1007:Physiology
979:cephalodia
967:ecorticate
929:haustorium
895:ecorticate
849:photobiont
837:green alga
746:usnic acid
711:squamulose
703:prothallus
664:gelatinous
652:squamulose
602:morphology
465:long-lived
453:ecosystems
438:endolithic
424:, hot dry
185:gelatinous
12248:Symbiosis
12164:922973303
12104:0007-2745
12031:Etz Yosef
11584:220949784
11238:129100097
11037:20 August
10974:2045-2322
10927:208034624
10911:1472-4677
10807:: 71–87.
10749:2 January
10739:130305901
10704:129180481
10482:Conotrema
10312:1055-7903
10129:Mycologia
10018:0091-7613
9666:: 43–59.
9570:Peltigera
9505:4 October
9200:7 October
9149:4 October
8799:22 August
8758:0022-3646
8711:0024-4066
8061:Ecography
7834:0036-8075
6948: in
6662:Trebouxia
6612:Mycologia
6608:L. incana
6352:0024-2829
6305:0030-1299
6258:0024-2829
6244:(1): 83.
6219:1923-1245
6027:0036-8075
5797:Al-Tamimi
5777:Midrashic
5775:In early
5516:Xanthoria
5432:spp. and
5410:pitcooked
5324:Human use
5320:in 1866.
5272:deciduous
5210:substrate
5196:parasites
5184:epiphytes
5023:epilithic
4970:species.
4955:parasites
4863:Geosiphon
4836:Ediacaran
4809:saprobism
4619:Pezizales
4611:Leotiales
4593:Diversity
4562:different
4534:genotypes
4523:diaspores
4488:Peltigera
4478:Leptogium
4463:limestone
4458:Scytonema
4407:Trebouxia
4403:Trebouxia
4380:Trebouxia
3860:Jaapiales
3824:Boletales
3681:Lahmiales
3259:Leotiales
3223:Lahmiales
2689:Agyriales
2466:Psoraceae
1819:mycobiont
1808:Mycobiont
1778:(such as
1756:Geosiphon
1678:apothecia
1674:apothecia
1640:biatorine
1630:lecideine
1586:apothecia
1522:Trebouxia
1506:apothecia
1490:diaspores
1473:diaspores
1457:apothecia
1389:content (
1332:Life span
1229:holobiont
1208:haustoria
1196:parasitic
1188:mutualism
1175:haustoria
1152:symbiosis
1067:substrate
1059:symbiotic
1053:) of the
956:substrate
943:Peltigera
891:substrate
845:mycobiont
781:different
660:– powdery
646:substrate
626:fruticose
398:epiphytes
386:sea level
379:parasites
326:substrate
318:fruticose
290:filaments
70:fruticose
12243:Mycology
12190:archived
12178:Yong, Ed
12120:84580224
12065:(Hebrew)
11987:39335883
11949:Archived
11929:11958438
11921:11499952
11832:85819801
11793:22453171
11744:21589935
11704:PLOS ONE
11685:20019082
11641:18065627
11387:86133860
11281:12172616
11273:17082931
11158:21 March
11149:Archived
11090:(3): 1.
10992:35750715
10919:31729136
10743:Archived
10653:17181699
10593:Archived
10553:27083645
10545:15890881
10484:complex"
10478:Strictis
10450:Archived
10361:20525580
10320:23403226
10257:Archived
10231:Archived
10204:85262818
10157:20013625
10149:24990121
10102:: 1–18.
10077:85079041
10026:49241170
9975:85382155
9891:83629248
9825:Archived
9803:Archived
9776:11418855
9729:16411936
9680:83701566
9641:85895322
9553:35731669
9545:12130774
9499:Archived
9460:Archived
9343:49717944
9329:: 3–20.
9300:11418855
9253:23402662
9194:Archived
9190:90117544
9143:Archived
9125:21653406
9064:21652303
8965:90363578
8930:90258634
8922:44250015
8849:10766229
8774:25190572
8766:26986666
8664:Archived
8586:17630840
8535:Archived
8490:27 April
8432:83108496
8216:15752633
8181:13768322
8173:25808912
8127:Archived
8123:85790408
8038:Archived
7878:Archived
7852:27445309
7784:19853051
7745:27445309
7679:29417658
7640:Archived
7535:Archived
7465:Archived
7428:Archived
7375:: 1–39.
7264:Archived
7185:Archived
7144:Archived
7046:"lichen"
7022:Archived
7018:"Lichen"
6995:"Lichen"
6867:"lichen"
6779:19554038
6708:21134099
6640:34346229
6632:21642343
6604:Lepraria
6581:Archived
6517:28 April
6511:Archived
6360:85020765
6176:31 March
6119:Archived
6045:27445309
5909:See also
5861:Nylander
5732:Cladonia
5586:such as
5576:pigments
5554:Cladonia
5373:delicacy
5292:elements
5284:aerosols
5222:reindeer
5096:oxalates
4968:Cladonia
4912:epiphyte
4879:Diskagma
4794:Devonian
4768:fossils
4766:Devonian
4762:Silurian
4707:Lecanora
4701:Cladonia
4554:kingdoms
4505:Lobarion
4398:Myrmecia
4287:16876697
4245:15070748
4142:18300027
4113:21628162
4065:15736860
1899:families
1860:families
1839:symbiont
1780:rockweed
1737:lineages
1699:Mazaedia
1670:pycnidia
1658:podetium
1625:Lecanora
1595:pycnidia
1578:lirellae
1561:ascomata
1541:mushroom
1383:complete
1367:inarense
1346:on East
1315:apoplast
1257:Ramalina
1200:nutrient
1110:sorbitol
1026:—
948:rhizines
829:rhizines
808:(a) The
699:areolate
642:crustose
526:leichein
449:speciate
388:to high
361:(e.g., "
330:crustose
116:crustose
12218:Lichens
12196:23 July
12112:3244159
11784:3338958
11735:3092769
11712:Bibcode
11632:2227722
11611:Bibcode
11564:Bibcode
11488:Bibcode
11461:3544647
11441:Bibcode
11218:Evansia
11203:4311333
11183:Bibcode
11133:Bibcode
10983:9232553
10954:Bibcode
10891:Bibcode
10809:Bibcode
10774:Bibcode
10696:2401233
10676:Bibcode
10631:Bibcode
10525:Bibcode
10517:Science
10404:7770775
10384:Bibcode
10376:Science
10292:Bibcode
10184:Bibcode
10057:Bibcode
9998:Bibcode
9990:Geology
9940:4353572
9918:Bibcode
9871:Bibcode
9784:4414913
9756:Bibcode
9606:4094256
9584:Bibcode
9525:Science
9383:3244316
9308:4414913
9280:Bibcode
9244:3598724
9072:9432006
8857:4425228
8829:Bibcode
8738:Bibcode
8594:4121180
8566:Bibcode
8393:1550886
8311:Bibcode
8243:Bibcode
8069:Bibcode
8000:4320709
7980:Bibcode
7843:5793994
7812:Bibcode
7804:Science
7736:5793994
7715:Bibcode
7707:Science
7687:4238109
7623:3244302
6950:Liddell
6944:λείχειν
6928:at the
6757:Bibcode
6726:(1991)
6678:Bibcode
6313:3565786
6285:Bibcode
6036:5793994
6007:Bibcode
5999:Science
5824:History
5801:vinegar
5588:cudbear
5444:iwatake
5434:Lasalia
5418:Cladina
5339:Iwatake
5288:diffuse
5280:cuticle
5276:stomata
5205:Cladina
5140:poikilo
4928:deserts
4918:and in
4830:of the
4731:Miocene
4726:Lobaria
4655:agarics
4560:have a
4546:species
4500:Degelia
4494:Lobaria
4483:foliose
4472:Collema
4373:Common
4342:) or a
4213:Bibcode
1776:seaweed
1662:podetia
1635:Lecidea
1616:exciple
1526:meiosis
1510:thallus
1482:Soredia
1461:thallus
1416:(DLR).
1269:Lobaria
1248:oakmoss
1182:Ecology
1137:thallus
1118:glucose
1106:ribitol
1069:. If a
987:Pruinia
952:usually
937:medulla
886:cortex.
864:thallus
740:Lichens
676:byssoid
658:leprose
636:foliose
607:thallus
521:λείχειν
506:leichēn
426:deserts
404:and in
334:leprose
322:foliose
284:living
162:leprose
93:foliose
12162:
12152:
12118:
12110:
12102:
12061:
12035:Sefer
11985:
11927:
11919:
11882:
11830:
11791:
11781:
11742:
11732:
11683:
11639:
11629:
11582:
11459:
11385:
11348:
11310:
11279:
11271:
11236:
11201:
11175:Nature
11125:CATENA
10990:
10980:
10972:
10925:
10917:
10909:
10854:
10737:
10723:Nature
10702:
10694:
10651:
10551:
10543:
10412:563601
10410:
10402:
10359:
10318:
10310:
10202:
10155:
10147:
10075:
10024:
10016:
9973:
9938:
9910:Nature
9889:
9782:
9774:
9748:Nature
9727:
9678:
9639:
9604:
9551:
9543:
9491:
9435:
9381:
9341:
9306:
9298:
9272:Nature
9251:
9241:
9227:: 39.
9188:
9123:
9070:
9062:
9005:Sticta
8963:
8928:
8920:
8883:
8855:
8847:
8821:Nature
8772:
8764:
8756:
8709:
8670:2 June
8656:
8614:
8592:
8584:
8513:
8461:
8430:
8391:
8214:
8179:
8171:
8121:
8109:: 80.
8020:
7998:
7972:Nature
7940:
7912:
7850:
7840:
7832:
7782:
7743:
7733:
7685:
7677:
7621:
7577:
7420:
7316:
7229:
6977:
6910:λειχήν
6886:lichen
6823:
6777:
6706:
6638:
6630:
6552:
6542:
6471:
6358:
6350:
6311:
6303:
6256:
6217:
6197:Arctic
6151:
6043:
6033:
6025:
5842:, 1904
5757:yellow
5753:Orange
5684:thrush
5648:Orcein
5603:litmus
5489:, and
5365:famine
5278:and a
5230:larvae
5226:arctic
5152:mosses
5144:hydric
4983:mosses
4673:, and
4641:, and
4623:orders
4617:, and
4497:, and
4448:Nostoc
4285:
4243:
4236:384777
4233:
4140:
4111:
4063:
1897:Lichen
1856:orders
1782:) and
1556:spores
1486:Isidia
1352:Thalli
1204:fungus
1141:hyphae
1112:, and
1094:reduce
1051:hyphae
998:lumina
906:cortex
869:hyphae
814:hyphae
810:cortex
750:cortex
722:inside
695:rimose
630:terete
515:lichen
501:λειχήν
493:lichen
394:leaves
390:alpine
371:mosses
314:plants
288:among
274:colony
196:lichen
12116:S2CID
12108:JSTOR
11983:S2CID
11925:S2CID
11828:S2CID
11763:Prion
11580:S2CID
11457:JSTOR
11433:Oikos
11383:S2CID
11277:S2CID
11234:S2CID
11199:S2CID
11152:(PDF)
11121:(PDF)
10923:S2CID
10735:S2CID
10700:S2CID
10692:JSTOR
10649:S2CID
10596:(PDF)
10571:(PDF)
10549:S2CID
10453:(PDF)
10430:(PDF)
10408:S2CID
10200:S2CID
10153:S2CID
10073:S2CID
10022:S2CID
9971:S2CID
9936:S2CID
9887:S2CID
9780:S2CID
9676:S2CID
9637:S2CID
9602:S2CID
9549:S2CID
9379:JSTOR
9339:S2CID
9304:S2CID
9186:S2CID
9068:S2CID
8961:S2CID
8926:S2CID
8918:JSTOR
8853:S2CID
8770:S2CID
8590:S2CID
8428:S2CID
8389:JSTOR
8177:S2CID
8136:2 May
8130:(PDF)
8119:S2CID
8099:(PDF)
7996:S2CID
7683:S2CID
7619:JSTOR
7514:(PDF)
7507:(PDF)
7068:
6954:Scott
6798:Usnea
6636:S2CID
6356:S2CID
6309:JSTOR
6277:Oikos
6203:(3).
5968:Notes
5783:" in
5556:genus
5468:shape
5422:rumen
5192:phyte
5160:ferns
4721:Anzia
4443:genus
4395:, or
4375:algal
1813:Fungi
1599:ascus
1387:water
1263:Usnea
1240:ozone
1055:fungi
1043:algae
732:Color
616:genus
511:Latin
497:Greek
481:birds
477:trees
414:roofs
400:) in
298:yeast
294:fungi
278:algae
267:LITCH
238:also
12198:2017
12160:OCLC
12150:ISBN
12100:ISSN
12059:ISBN
12013:2014
11917:PMID
11880:ISBN
11857:2021
11789:PMID
11740:PMID
11681:PMID
11637:PMID
11418:2013
11346:ISBN
11308:ISBN
11269:PMID
11160:2015
11103:2021
11065:2014
11039:2022
10988:PMID
10970:ISSN
10915:PMID
10907:ISSN
10865:2020
10852:ISBN
10751:2013
10604:2016
10541:PMID
10461:2019
10400:PMID
10357:PMID
10316:PMID
10308:ISSN
10265:2019
10239:2011
10145:PMID
10014:ISSN
9833:2010
9772:PMID
9725:PMID
9541:PMID
9507:2018
9489:ISBN
9468:2014
9433:ISBN
9406:2022
9296:PMID
9249:PMID
9202:2018
9151:2018
9121:PMID
9060:PMID
9023:2014
9007:and
8881:ISBN
8845:PMID
8801:2014
8762:PMID
8754:ISSN
8707:ISSN
8672:2013
8654:ISBN
8612:ISBN
8582:PMID
8543:2010
8511:ISBN
8492:2012
8459:ISBN
8284:2014
8212:PMID
8169:PMID
8138:2011
8046:2014
8018:ISBN
7938:ISBN
7910:ISBN
7886:2015
7848:PMID
7830:ISSN
7780:PMID
7741:PMID
7675:PMID
7575:ISBN
7543:2014
7418:ISBN
7397:link
7349:2014
7314:ISBN
7272:2014
7227:ISBN
7193:2014
7109:2014
7064:2018
7030:2022
7003:2022
6975:ISBN
6952:and
6852:2023
6821:ISBN
6775:PMID
6704:PMID
6628:PMID
6589:2014
6550:OCLC
6540:ISBN
6519:2015
6469:ISBN
6348:ISSN
6301:ISSN
6254:ISSN
6215:ISSN
6178:2024
6149:ISBN
6101:2014
6041:PMID
6023:ISSN
5882:and
5859:and
5803:and
5793:Boaz
5789:Ruth
5785:Ruth
5755:and
5711:and
5621:for
5584:dyes
5570:Dyes
5353:Food
5298:and
5240:and
5067:. A
4985:and
4803:and
4784:and
4774:and
4579:same
4558:must
4434:and
4334:and
4322:The
4283:PMID
4241:PMID
4204:PNAS
4138:PMID
4109:PMID
4061:PMID
1858:and
1687:and
1611:asci
1429:and
1419:The
1358:and
1266:and
1244:dyes
777:same
479:and
434:slag
365:", "
358:moss
229:-kən
12092:doi
12088:103
12044:6:3
11975:doi
11909:doi
11820:doi
11779:PMC
11771:doi
11730:PMC
11720:doi
11671:doi
11667:156
11627:PMC
11619:doi
11572:doi
11496:doi
11478:".
11449:doi
11375:doi
11338:doi
11300:doi
11261:doi
11226:doi
11191:doi
11179:346
11141:doi
11092:doi
10978:PMC
10962:doi
10899:doi
10844:doi
10817:doi
10805:235
10782:doi
10770:226
10727:doi
10684:doi
10639:doi
10583:doi
10533:doi
10521:308
10496:doi
10442:doi
10392:doi
10380:268
10347:doi
10300:doi
10192:doi
10137:doi
10133:106
10127:".
10104:doi
10100:168
10065:doi
10047:".
10006:doi
9963:doi
9959:165
9926:doi
9914:378
9879:doi
9764:doi
9752:411
9715:doi
9711:169
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