22:
201:) and particles shed by the balloons, all of which rose through the water in the form of plumes. The balloons steamed at first under their own heat, forming small vapour plumes and hissing sounds. Their insides could reach temperatures of over 900 °C (1,650 °F) and were sometimes incandescent. Balloons usually floated for less than 15 minutes before sinking again as water penetrated them through cracks in the crust and gases escaped. Sometimes, however, explosions threw fragments for tens of meters when water interacted with a hot interior.
467:
that the balloons reached their final size at the volcanic vent and did not further expand as they rose; the expanding gases in their interiors leaked out and formed gas bubbles. Moreover, there is little evidence that the structure of the balloons changed once they had detached from the vent. On the other hand, there is clear evidence of a molten interior for lava balloons found at
Pantelleria.
106:(Canary Islands) during the 2011–2012 eruption to about 3 metres (9.8 ft) at Terceira on their long axis with rounded shapes. They have one or sometimes several large cavities surrounded by a 3–8-centimetre-thick (1.2–3.1 in) crust. The outer part of the crust is highly vesicular and striated and has delicate flow structures that can be seen using a
229:-like and sizes reaching over 4 metres (13 ft). They had sunk to the seafloor immediately after being ejected from the vent and had sometimes spilled magma. The amphora-like shape appears to have formed when floating balloons degassed through vents at their top and the balloons deformed. On the seafloor, the ballons were buried by later pillow lavas.
110:. It is fragile and often breaks off the balloon. The inner part of the crust is separated from the outer part by orange and white layers. It is subdivided into three inward-thickening layers, all of which contain varying amounts of vesicles that become larger toward the interior. Recovered lava balloons and associated rocks are on display in the UGGp
352:. The link between xeno-pumice and evolved magmas was contested early on; when explosive eruptions did not occur, this led to complaints that the response to the eruption had been disproportionate especially given its effect on the economy. The management of the El Hierro eruption in general attracted intense criticism.
326:
processes have been proposed to form balloons underwater. According to this model, slabs of magma in the water are surrounded by a thin shell which traps exoluting gases but also magma. The trapped gases inflate the shell and make it buoyant, while the remnant magma maintains the shell as it expands.
314:
Less commonly, as in
Terceira, balloons and accompanying gas bubbles appear to have formed on volcanic vents rather than at the front of lava flows, and more specifically on volcanic vents where magma ponded. There, gas emanating from a gas-rich magma accumulated below a crust on top of lava, forming
294:
Several different mechanisms have been invoked to explain the genesis of lava balloons. Water that penetrates the lava can boil and the resulting vapours can inflate the balloons and make them float, although for
Terceira a non-water gas composition has been inferred. They are usually observed when
1614:
Casas, David; Pimentel, Adriano; Pacheco, José; Martorelli, Eleonora; Sposato, Andrea; Ercilla, Gemma; Alonso, Belen; Chiocci, Francesco (May 2018). "Serreta 1998–2001 submarine volcanic eruption, offshore
Terceira (Azores): Characterization of the vent and inferences about the eruptive dynamics".
466:
Originally, it was proposed that the magma trapped within a balloon continued to degas as it rose and the gases accumulated underneath a skin formed by quenched magma, inflating the balloon as long as liquid magma was still present within the balloon to generate new crust. Later analyses suggested
286:
Lava balloons are probably limited to a depth range of 30–1,000 metres (98–3,281 ft): too deep, and gas bubbles do not form; too shallow, and degassing fragments the rocks. Only a few sufficiently large balloons can rise all the way to the sea surface; smaller ones fill quickly with water and
1132:
Somoza, L.; González, F. J.; Barker, S. J.; Madureira, P.; Medialdea, T.; Ignacio, C. de; Lourenço, N.; León, R.; Vázquez, J. T.; Palomino, D. (2017). "Evolution of submarine eruptive activity during the 2011–2012 El Hierro event as documented by hydroacoustic images and remotely operated vehicle
212:
and vesicular floating structures with sizes exceeding 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) that sank again beneath the water surface after they had become saturated with water. 1892 descriptions of lava balloons about the
Pantelleria eruption resemble the Terceira balloons. The eruption was discovered
960:
Madureira, Pedro; Rosa, Carlos; Marques, Ana Filipa; Silva, Pedro; Moreira, Manuel; Hamelin, Cédric; Relvas, Jorge; Lourenço, Nuno; Conceição, Patrícia; Pinto de Abreu, Manuel; Barriga, Fernando J.A.S. (January 2017). "The 1998–2001 submarine lava balloon eruption at the
Serreta ridge (Azores
1346:
Rubin, K. H.; Clague, D. A.; Embley, R. W.; Hellebrand, E.; Soule, S. A.; Resing, J. (2014-12-01). "Open-System Magma
Reservoir Affects Gas Segregation, Vesiculation, Fragmentation and Lava/Pyroclast Dispersal During the 1.2 km-deep 2007–2010 Submarine Eruption at West Mata Volcano".
1576:
Carracedo, Juan Carlos; Troll, Valentin R.; Zaczek, Kirsten; Rodríguez-González, Alejandro; Soler, Vicente; Deegan, Frances M. (November 2015). "The 2011–2012 submarine eruption off El Hierro, Canary
Islands: New lessons in oceanic island growth and volcanic crisis management".
81:
form large bubbles that eventually rise to the sea surface. In the Canary
Islands, balloons containing sediments were used to infer the age of the basement on which the volcano is constructed; these sediments were also at first misinterpreted as evidence of an impending large
339:
in the Azores, lava balloons are considered to be one of the main volcanic hazards stemming from submarine volcanic eruptions. Early lava balloons erupted during the 2011–2012 El Hierro eruption contained xeno-pumice, which raised concerns that evolved magmas such as
1681:
Marani, Michael; Roman, Chris; Croff-Bell, Katherine Lynn; Rosi, Mauro; Pistolesi, Marco; Carey, Steven; Kelly, Joshua T. (1 July 2014). "Exploration of the 1891 Foerstner submarine vent site (Pantelleria, Italy): insights into the formation of basaltic balloons".
773:
Kelly, Joshua T.; Carey, Steven; Pistolesi, Marco; Rosi, Mauro; Croff-Bell, Katherine Lynn; Roman, Chris; Marani, Michael (1 July 2014). "Exploration of the 1891 Foerstner submarine vent site (Pantelleria, Italy): insights into the formation of basaltic balloons".
217:, black balloons of lava floated on the sea, sometimes propelled by steam jets and sometimes exploding with up to 20 metres (66 ft) high debris fountains. As with Terceira, they were accompanied by gas bubbles and many of them were hot enough to melt
1527:
Troll, Valentin R.; Deegan, Frances M.; Burchardt, Steffi; Zaczek, Kirsten; Carracedo, Juan-Carlos; Meade, Fiona C.; Soler, Vicente; Cachao, Mario; Ferreira, Jorge; Barker, Abigail K. (2015). "Nannofossils: the smoking gun for the
Canarian hotspot".
1410:
Queiroz, G.; Pacheco, J.M.; Gaspar, J.L.; Aspinall, W.P.; Guest, J.E.; Ferreira, T. (December 2008). "The last 5000 years of activity at Sete Cidades volcano (São Miguel Island, Azores): Implications for hazard assessment".
95:
391:
age for these sediments, implying that El Hierro rests on the youngest sediment base of the archipelago. The progressively lower age of the islands from east to west reinforces the theory that the Canary Islands are on top of a
510:
Aparicio, Sergio Sainz-Maza; Carlo, Paola Del; Benito-Saz, Maria Angeles; Bertagnini, Antonella; García-Cañada, Laura; Pompilio, Massimo; Cerdeña, Itahiza Domínguez; Roberto, Alessio Di; Meletlidis, Stavros (11 November 2015).
1206:
Wiesmaier, S.; Troll, V. R.; Soler, V.; Rodríguez-González, A.; Carracedo, J. C.; Perez-Torrado, F. J. (30 June 2012). "La erupción submarina de La Restinga en la isla de El Hierro, Canarias: Octubre 2011 – Marzo 2012".
184:
Lava balloons observed during a 1998–2000 eruption at Terceira are considered to be the most noteworthy expression of that eruption. They were described as steaming dark objects floating on the sea, hot enough to damage
224:
At El Hierro, lava balloons were erupted from 27 November 2011 until 23 February 2012 and often exploded upon reaching the sea surface. On the seafloor close to the vent were balloons with various shapes including
236:. The balloons were named "restingoliths" and the glassy core "xeno-pumice". Similar balloons were observed at Teishi Knoll and appear to form when sediments are incorporated into lava and melted, forming a
41:
that floats on the sea surface. It can be up to several metres in size. When it emerges from the sea, it is usually hot and often steaming. After floating for some time it fills with water and sinks again.
319:
and broke off, forming lava balloons. The high gas content and low viscosity of the magma during the Terceira eruption allowed balloons to form despite the vents being located at considerable depth.
102:
Lava balloons are gas-filled bubbles surrounded by a crust formed by lava; their gas content allows them to float on the sea surface. Observed sizes range from 0.3 metres (1 ft 0 in) at
348:, capable of generating explosive eruptions, might be present under the volcano. As the eruption continued, these concerns together with an outburst of gas led to the evacuation of the town of
189:. At first, they were thought to be dead whales or trunks. They surfaced in batches over a span of several months, clustering in particular areas that appear to reflect the position of active
154:, Mexico. As of 2012, lava balloons have been observed only at these sites, although the increasing number of observations might indicate that this is a common mode of submarine volcanism.
832:
Wright, Ian C.; Barker, Simon J.; Wilson, Colin J. N.; Rotella, Melissa D. (February 2013). "Highly vesicular pumice generated by buoyant detachment of magma in subaqueous volcanism".
1736:
Pacheco, Jose M. R.; Potuzak, Marcel; Zanon, Vittorio; Nichols, Alexander R. L.; Kueppers, Ulrich (1 August 2012). "Lava balloons—peculiar products of basaltic submarine eruptions".
232:
Towards the end of the eruption, some lava balloons had a thin layer of solidified magma around a glassy core and appeared to float for longer times, allowing them to reach the
259:
gases and steam and were hot inside, even incandescent. As ships were moving across the area rising balloons in the water impacted their hulls but did not do any damage.
168:
that carried out research on the Macauley caldera. Balloon-like structures were observed in 1934–1935 at Shin-Iwo-jima, Japan, and at West Rota in the Marianas. At
1303:
Kano, Kazuhiko; Yoshikawa, Toshiyuki (October 2005). "Subaqueous eruption and emplacement of OT2 in the Middle Miocene Iizuka Formation, Noto Peninsula, Japan".
513:"New insight into the 2011–2012 unrest and eruption of El Hierro Island (Canary Islands) based on integrated geophysical, geodetical and petrological data"
1789:
364:
383:
found in the glassy cores of lava balloons have been inferred to originate from sediments that underlie the El Hierro volcano. These fossils indicate a
221:. Water entering the balloons evaporated from the heat, thus delaying their filling. Eventually, the balloons filled with water and sank again.
176:
such a style of eruption has been inferred and used to explain the presence of large rocks at substantial distances from the volcanic vent.
645:
Gaspar, João L.; Queiroz, Gabriela; Pacheco, José M.; Ferreira, Teresa; Wallenstein, Nicolau; Almeida, Maria H.; Coutinho, Rui (2013).
1729:
Basalts from the 1877 submarine eruption of Mauna Loa, Hawaii; new data on the variation of palagonitization rate with temperature
907:
Barriga, F. J. A. S.; Santos, R. S. (June 2003). "The MOMAR area: A prime candidate for development of a seafloor observatory".
1671:
1066:
924:
670:
202:
240:-like structure. At El Hierro, the origin of the cores gave rise to a scientific debate about whether they originated as
197:
driven transport. Sometimes, hundreds of balloons were observed on a given occasion, accompanied by gas bubbles (i.e.
1463:
580:
248:
magma; now there is agreement that they formed out of sediments. In Socorro, the cores of lava balloons contained
355:
At El Hierro, the crevice-rich submarine terrain formed by sunk lava balloons and lava bombs forms a particular
1797:
26:
307:; in the latter case, entrained water can be transported through the tube and eventually end up in developing
94:
396:. Furthermore, it has been proposed that lava balloons might be proof of shallow-water volcanic eruptions.
107:
562:
961:
archipelago): Constraints from volcanic facies architecture, isotope geochemistry and magnetic data".
1819:
1046:
696:
602:
21:
205:(ROV) observations of the putative vent area found debris that may have come from lava balloons.
271:, Japan, in 1934–1935 may be comparable to lava balloons, but they are produced by eruptions of
295:
lava flows enter the sea. They appear to form when water is trapped in lava as it flows onto a
647:
Basaltic Lava Balloons Produced During the 1998–2001 Serreta Submarine Ridge Eruption (Azores)
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and lighter elements. By contrast, lava balloons are generally produced by eruptions of
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Miramontes, Elda; Pellegrini, Claudio; Casalbore, Daniele; Dupré, Stephanie (2023),
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2003 International Conference Physics and Control. Proceedings (Cat. No.03EX708)
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magmas has also been found and christened "Tangaroan", after the research ship
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In Kealakekua Bay, over a hundred lava balloons were observed. They emitted
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377:
1658:. Active Volcanoes of the World. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
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White, James D.L.; Schipper, C. Ian; Kano, Kazuhiko (2015-01-01).
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That is, with a temperature of at least 415 °C (779 °F).
429:
Reticulites are extremely vesicular magmatic rocks that are foamy.
649:. Geophysical Monograph Series. Vol. 140. pp. 205–212.
509:
477:
442:
356:
245:
226:
158:
1269:
1727:
Moore, James Gregory; Fornari, Daniel J.; Clague, D.A. (1985).
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62:
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magma may render a crust too brittle to form a lava balloon.
233:
135:
78:
66:
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218:
150:
blocks containing reticulite were observed in 1993–1994 at
77:. Apparently, they are generated when gases trapped within
38:
1735:
1526:
1397:
1385:
1032:
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53:, but they are not common. They have been observed in the
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1508:
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Large floating pumice blocks such as these observed in
1101:
1047:"Active geological processes in the Mediterranean Sea"
703:
476:
Evolved magmas are magmas which due to a settling of
311:
which are rendered buoyant by water vapour bubbles.
98:
Detail of a single lava balloon from the above image
1726:
1290:
1278:
560:
1806:
283:, although few basaltic eruptions produce them.
359:. Animal species encountered there include the
1617:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
1413:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
1305:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
963:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
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315:blisters that eventually reached a critical
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556:
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1456:A Dictionary of Geology and Earth Sciences
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157:A similar style of eruption but involving
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213:thanks to its balloons. As reported by
122:Lava balloons have been described from
1807:
1453:
1125:
1051:Oceanography of the Mediterranean Sea
609:
438:In turn, the ship is named after the
130:(Japan) in 1989, El Hierro, offshore
1135:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
755:
203:Remotely operated underwater vehicle
146:, Hawaii) in 1877. Similar floating
208:The Pantelleria eruption generated
13:
1059:10.1016/b978-0-12-823692-5.00010-8
573:10.1016/B978-0-12-385938-9.00031-6
193:on the seafloor but also wind and
126:in the Azores, at Teishi Knoll of
14:
1841:
1782:
1652:González, Pablo J., ed. (2023).
1637:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2018.02.017
1433:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.03.001
1325:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2005.04.007
1291:Moore, Fornari & Clague 1985
1279:Moore, Fornari & Clague 1985
983:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2016.11.006
1599:10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.06.007
470:
460:
451:
432:
179:
29:, floating on discoloured water
423:
1:
1794:Instituto Geográfico Nacional
564:Submarine Explosive Eruptions
491:
117:
89:
1796:(in Spanish). Archived from
108:scanning electron microscope
7:
1458:. OUP Oxford. p. 208.
399:
10:
1846:
1568:
1349:AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts
262:
45:Lava balloons can form in
37:is a gas-filled bubble of
27:2011–12 El Hierro eruption
1792:[Photo gallery].
1758:10.1007/s00445-012-0597-x
1704:10.1007/s00445-014-0844-4
1664:10.1007/978-3-031-35135-8
1053:, Elsevier, p. 470,
796:10.1007/s00445-014-0844-4
330:
275:magma, which are rich in
25:Lava balloons during the
1454:Allaby, Michael (2013).
917:10.1109/SSC.2003.1224157
480:have lost part of their
416:
49:entering the sea and at
1738:Bulletin of Volcanology
1684:Bulletin of Volcanology
1221:10.3989/egeol.40918.179
776:Bulletin of Volcanology
372:Scientific significance
18:Floating bubble of lava
99:
30:
1579:Earth-Science Reviews
1503:Carracedo et al. 2015
1491:Carracedo et al. 2015
1479:Carracedo et al. 2015
1388:, pp. 1388–1389.
1252:Carracedo et al. 2015
97:
24:
1155:10.1002/2016GC006733
911:. pp. 259–262.
567:. pp. 557–558.
517:Annals of Geophysics
134:(Foerstner volcano,
1800:on 12 January 2017.
1750:2012BVol...74.1379K
1696:2014BVol...76..844K
1629:2018JVGR..356..127C
1591:2015ESRv..150..168C
1425:2008JVGR..178..562Q
1398:Pacheco et al. 2012
1386:Pacheco et al. 2012
1361:2014AGUFM.V11B4724R
1317:2005JVGR..147..309K
1209:Estudios Geológicos
1147:2017GGG....18.3109S
1033:Pacheco et al. 2012
975:2017JVGR..329...13M
948:Pacheco et al. 2012
895:Pacheco et al. 2012
846:2013NatGe...6..129R
788:2014BVol...76..844K
750:Pacheco et al. 2012
655:2003GMS...140..205G
1790:"Galería de fotos"
1264:Somoza et al. 2017
1120:Marani et al. 2014
1096:Marani et al. 2014
1081:Marani et al. 2014
1014:Marani et al. 2014
100:
84:explosive eruption
31:
1673:978-3-031-35134-1
1542:10.1111/gto.12100
1374:Casas et al. 2018
1068:978-0-12-823692-5
926:978-0-7803-7775-2
878:Casas et al. 2018
834:Nature Geoscience
725:Casas et al. 2018
672:978-0-87590-999-8
365:Plesionika narval
337:São Miguel Island
1837:
1820:Floating islands
1801:
1777:
1744:(6): 1379–1393.
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1655:El Hierro Island
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1311:(3–4): 322–323.
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1141:(8): 3109–3137.
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324:lava fountaining
174:Kermadec Islands
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1400:, p. 1391.
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1133:observations".
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1035:, p. 1381.
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950:, p. 1390.
946:
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897:, p. 1389.
893:
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752:, p. 1380.
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170:Macauley Island
124:Terceira Island
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71:Mariana Islands
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138:) in 1891 and
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1009:
966:
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814:– via
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180:Observations
164:
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121:
101:
44:
35:lava balloon
34:
32:
15:
1815:Volcanology
1623:: 127–140.
1585:: 168–200.
1164:10174/22296
992:10174/19494
411:Pumice raft
350:La Restinga
289:crystalline
210:scoriaceous
132:Pantelleria
1809:Categories
1690:(7): 844.
1536:(4): 137.
1419:(3): 571.
782:(7): 844.
492:References
406:Lithophysa
385:Cretaceous
305:lava tubes
303:or enters
250:reticulite
118:Occurrence
90:Appearance
47:lava flows
1774:130193696
1766:1432-0819
1731:(Report).
1720:129357204
1712:1432-0819
1645:0377-0273
1607:0012-8252
1558:129469352
1550:1365-2451
1441:0377-0273
1333:0377-0273
1239:1988-3250
1215:(1): 25.
1181:133883359
1173:1525-2027
1001:0377-0273
935:179108909
862:1752-0908
812:129357204
804:1432-0819
695:ignored (
685:cite book
601:ignored (
591:cite book
539:2037-416X
342:phonolite
322:Finally,
277:silicates
257:sulfurous
144:Mauna Loa
104:El Hierro
1830:Balloons
523:(5): 5.
478:crystals
446:Tangaroa
400:See also
389:Pliocene
346:trachyte
317:buoyancy
242:sediment
199:gas slug
165:Tangaroa
163:RV
128:Izu-Tobu
1746:Bibcode
1692:Bibcode
1625:Bibcode
1587:Bibcode
1569:Sources
1421:Bibcode
1357:Bibcode
1313:Bibcode
1143:Bibcode
971:Bibcode
842:Bibcode
784:Bibcode
651:Bibcode
443:sea god
394:hotspot
381:fossils
361:decapod
357:habitat
263:Genesis
246:silicic
227:amphora
215:fishers
172:in the
159:silicic
152:Socorro
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331:Impact
273:felsic
244:or as
238:pumice
148:scoria
112:museum
75:Mexico
63:Hawaii
55:Azores
1825:Rafts
1770:S2CID
1716:S2CID
1554:S2CID
1177:S2CID
931:S2CID
808:S2CID
440:Māori
417:Notes
301:waves
299:with
297:beach
269:Kikai
234:coast
136:Italy
79:magma
67:Japan
1762:ISSN
1708:ISSN
1668:ISBN
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997:ISSN
921:ISBN
858:ISSN
800:ISSN
697:help
667:ISBN
603:help
577:ISBN
535:ISSN
344:and
219:zinc
73:and
39:lava
1754:doi
1700:doi
1660:doi
1633:doi
1621:356
1595:doi
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1538:doi
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1321:doi
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1225:hdl
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