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Langevin equation

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3367: 3195: 3313:. If the potential is quadratic then the constant energy curves are ellipses, as shown in the figure. If there is dissipation but no thermal noise, a particle continually loses energy to the environment, and its time-dependent phase portrait (velocity vs position) corresponds to an inward spiral toward 0 velocity. By contrast, thermal fluctuations continually add energy to the particle and prevent it from reaching exactly 0 velocity. Rather, the initial ensemble of stochastic oscillators approaches a steady state in which the velocity and position are distributed according to the 9673: 5935:. The left panel shows the time evolution of the phase portrait at different temperatures. The right panel captures the corresponding equilibrium probability distributions. At zero temperature, the velocity slowly decays from its initial value (the red dot) to zero, over the course of a handful of oscillations, due to damping. For nonzero temperatures, the velocity can be kicked to values higher than the initial value due to thermal fluctuations. At long times, the velocity remains nonzero, and the position and velocity distributions correspond to that of thermal equilibrium. 10750: 2779: 4585: 1273: 9217: 10350: 3202: 8177: 7832: 958: 3190:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\varphi {\left(\mathbf {x} ,t\right)}&=-\lambda {\frac {\delta {\mathcal {H}}}{\delta \varphi }}+\eta {\left(\mathbf {x} ,t\right)},\\{\mathcal {H}}&=\int d^{d}x\left,\\\left\langle \eta {\left(\mathbf {x} ,t\right)}\,\eta {\left(\mathbf {x} ',t'\right)}\right\rangle &=2\lambda \,\delta {\left(\mathbf {x} -\mathbf {x} '\right)}\;\delta {\left(t-t'\right)}.\end{aligned}}} 5928: 3214: 3925: 8406: 7939: 9668:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\sigma _{X}^{2}={\frac {k_{\mathrm {B} }T}{m\xi ^{2}}}\left;\qquad \sigma _{P}^{2}=mk_{\mathrm {B} }T\left(1-e^{-2\xi t}\right)\\&\beta ={\frac {k_{\text{B}}T}{\xi \sigma _{X}\sigma _{P}}}\left(1-e^{-\xi t}\right)^{2}\\&{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{X}=\mathbf {r} '+(m\xi )^{-1}\left(1-e^{-\xi t}\right)\mathbf {p} ';\qquad {\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{P}=\mathbf {p} 'e^{-\xi t}.\end{aligned}}} 7250: 10745:{\displaystyle L(A,{\tilde {A}})=\int \sum _{i,j}\left\{{\tilde {A}}_{i}\lambda _{i,j}{\tilde {A}}_{j}-{\widetilde {A}}_{i}\left\{\delta _{i,j}{\frac {\mathrm {d} A_{j}}{\mathrm {d} t}}-k_{\text{B}}T\left{\frac {\mathrm {d} {\mathcal {H}}}{\mathrm {d} A_{j}}}+\lambda _{i,j}{\frac {\mathrm {d} {\mathcal {H}}}{\mathrm {d} A_{j}}}-{\frac {\mathrm {d} \lambda _{i,j}}{\mathrm {d} A_{j}}}\right\}\right\}\mathrm {d} t.} 7534: 909:. For example, local thermodynamic equilibrium in a liquid is reached within a few collision times, but it takes much longer for densities of conserved quantities like mass and energy to relax to equilibrium. Thus, densities of conserved quantities, and in particular their long wavelength components, are slow variable candidates. This division can be expressed formally with the 2535: 6774: 8204: 1268:{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} A_{i}}{\mathrm {d} t}}=k_{\text{B}}T\sum \limits _{j}{\left{\frac {{\mathrm {d} }{\mathcal {H}}}{\mathrm {d} A_{j}}}}-\sum \limits _{j}{\lambda _{i,j}\left(A\right){\frac {\mathrm {d} {\mathcal {H}}}{\mathrm {d} A_{j}}}+}\sum \limits _{j}{\frac {\mathrm {d} {\lambda _{i,j}\left(A\right)}}{\mathrm {d} A_{j}}}+\eta _{i}\left(t\right).} 5690: 2729: 886:). Nevertheless, physical observables are independent of the interpretation, provided the latter is applied consistently when manipulating the equation. This is necessary because the symbolic rules of calculus differ depending on the interpretation scheme. If the noise is external to the system, the appropriate interpretation is the Stratonovich one. 4580:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}R_{vv}(t_{1},t_{2})&\equiv \langle \mathbf {v} (t_{1})\cdot \mathbf {v} (t_{2})\rangle \\&=v^{2}(0)e^{-(t_{1}+t_{2})/\tau }+\int _{0}^{t_{1}}\int _{0}^{t_{2}}R_{aa}(t_{1}',t_{2}')e^{-(t_{1}+t_{2}-t_{1}'-t_{2}')/\tau }dt_{1}'dt_{2}'\\&\simeq v^{2}(0)e^{-|t_{2}-t_{1}|/\tau }+\left{\Big },\end{aligned}}} 8172:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\dot {\mathbf {r} }}&={\frac {\mathbf {p} }{m}}\\{\dot {\mathbf {p} }}&=-\xi \,\mathbf {p} -\nabla V(\mathbf {r} )+{\sqrt {2m\xi k_{\mathrm {B} }T}}{\boldsymbol {\eta }}(t),\qquad \langle {\boldsymbol {\eta }}^{\mathrm {T} }(t){\boldsymbol {\eta }}(t')\rangle =\mathbf {I} \delta (t-t')\end{aligned}}} 9212: 6962: 6160: 7827:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial P\left(A,t\right)}{\partial t}}=\sum _{i,j}{\frac {\partial }{\partial A_{i}}}\left(-k_{\text{B}}T\left{\frac {\partial {\mathcal {H}}}{\partial A_{j}}}+\lambda _{i,j}{\frac {\partial {\mathcal {H}}}{\partial A_{j}}}+\lambda _{i,j}{\frac {\partial }{\partial A_{j}}}\right)P\left(A,t\right).} 9821: 6575: 2343: 10325: 413: 2220: 5428: 1454: 31:
describing how a system evolves when subjected to a combination of deterministic and fluctuating ("random") forces. The dependent variables in a Langevin equation typically are collective (macroscopic) variables changing only slowly in comparison to the other (microscopic) variables of the system.
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is uncorrelated with the force at any other time. This is an approximation: the actual random force has a nonzero correlation time corresponding to the collision time of the molecules. However, the Langevin equation is used to describe the motion of a "macroscopic" particle at a much longer time
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In some situations, one is primarily interested in the noise-averaged behavior of the Langevin equation, as opposed to the solution for particular realizations of the noise. This section describes techniques for obtaining this averaged behavior that are distinct from—but also equivalent to—the
2542: 8401:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial f}{\partial t}}+{\frac {1}{m}}\mathbf {p} \cdot \nabla _{\mathbf {r} }f=\xi \nabla _{\mathbf {p} }\cdot \left(\mathbf {p} \,f\right)+\nabla _{\mathbf {p} }\cdot \left(\nabla V(\mathbf {r} )\,f\right)+m\xi k_{\mathrm {B} }T\,\nabla _{\mathbf {p} }^{2}f} 8806: 10756:, such as perturbation and renormalization group methods. This formulation is typically referred to as either the Martin-Siggia-Rose formalism or the Janssen-De Dominicis formalism after its developers. The mathematical formalism for this representation can be developed on 5289: 8801: 5984: 3865: 128: 816: 9678: 6926: 6310: 10018: 10175: 7245:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\int \left(-f'(x){\frac {\partial V}{\partial x}}p(x)+{k_{\text{B}}T}f''(x)p(x)\right)dx\\=&\int \left(-f'(x){\frac {\partial V}{\partial x}}p(x)-{k_{\text{B}}T}f'(x)p'(x)\right)dx\\=&\;0\end{aligned}}} 5914: 3519: 913:. Nevertheless, the derivation is not completely rigorous from a mathematical physics perspective because it relies on assumptions that lack rigorous proof, and instead are justified only as plausible approximations of physical systems. 276: 5385: 1322: 4831: 11434: 6769:{\displaystyle df=\left({\frac {\partial f}{\partial t}}+\mu _{t}{\frac {\partial f}{\partial x}}+{\frac {\sigma _{t}^{2}}{2}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}f}{\partial x^{2}}}\right)dt+\sigma _{t}{\frac {\partial f}{\partial x}}\,dB_{t}.} 7363: 7450: 3197:
Other universality classes (the nomenclature is "model A",..., "model J") contain a diffusing order parameter, order parameters with several components, other critical variables and/or contributions from Poisson brackets.
2530:{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} U}{\mathrm {d} t}}=-{\frac {U}{RC}}+\eta \left(t\right),\;\;\left\langle \eta \left(t\right)\eta \left(t'\right)\right\rangle ={\frac {2k_{\text{B}}T}{RC^{2}}}\delta \left(t-t'\right).} 1925: 880: 7916: 5685:{\displaystyle \langle r^{2}(t)\rangle =v^{2}(0)\tau ^{2}\left(1-e^{-t/\tau }\right)^{2}-{\frac {3k_{\text{B}}T}{m}}\tau ^{2}\left(1-e^{-t/\tau }\right)\left(3-e^{-t/\tau }\right)+{\frac {6k_{\text{B}}T}{m}}\tau t.} 2338: 5772: 2122: 6473: 51: 2784: 5098: 732: 1589: 10818:
Lemons, Don S.; Gythiel, Anthony (1997). "Paul Langevin's 1908 paper "On the Theory of Brownian Motion" ["Sur la théorie du mouvement brownien," C. R. Acad. Sci. (Paris) 146, 530–533 (1908)]".
5008: 3634: 3707: 3305: 2724:{\displaystyle \left\langle U\left(t\right)U\left(t'\right)\right\rangle ={\frac {k_{\text{B}}T}{C}}\exp \left(-{\frac {\left|t-t'\right|}{RC}}\right)\approx 2Rk_{\text{B}}T\delta \left(t-t'\right),} 6555: 1683: 827:
Another mathematical ambiguity occurs for Langevin equations with multiplicative noise, which refers to noise terms that are multiplied by a non-constant function of the dependent variables, e.g.,
727: 3712: 9886: 9222: 8811: 7944: 6967: 3930: 687: 535: 267: 234: 8586: 9207:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}f(\mathbf {r} ,\mathbf {p} ,t)=&{\frac {1}{\left(2\pi \sigma _{X}\sigma _{P}{\sqrt {1-\beta ^{2}}}\right)^{d}}}\times \\&\quad \exp \left\end{aligned}}} 4726: 6825: 2001: 3563: 1511: 8704: 3444: 8514: 4939: 4667: 4626: 6155:{\displaystyle \lambda {\frac {dx}{dt}}=-{\frac {\partial V(x)}{\partial x}}+\eta (t)\equiv -{\frac {\partial V(x)}{\partial x}}+{\sqrt {2\lambda k_{\text{B}}T}}{\frac {dB_{t}}{dt}},} 3370:
Simulated squared displacements of free Brownian particles (semi-transparent wiggly lines) as a function of time, for three selected choices of initial squared velocity which are 0, 3
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If the external potential is conservative and the noise term derives from a reservoir in thermal equilibrium, then the long-time solution to the Langevin equation must reduce to the
1313: 502: 8464: 8435: 5419: 3361: 1725: 10071: 9816:{\displaystyle \langle \mathbf {r} (t)^{2}\rangle =\int f(\mathbf {r} ,\mathbf {p} ,t)\mathbf {r} ^{2}\,d\mathbf {r} d\mathbf {p} ={\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{X}^{2}+3\sigma _{X}^{2}} 8699: 8672: 1959: 7509: 9911: 8615: 4872: 5093: 5062: 2204: 2066: 10138: 5801: 10170: 8199: 3920: 2144: 882:. If a multiplicative noise is intrinsic to the system, its definition is ambiguous, as it is equally valid to interpret it according to Stratonovich- or Ito- scheme (see 440: 152: 3894: 953: 2171: 6209: 6180: 2766: 1609: 1531: 622: 172: 6372: 6214: 654: 599: 556: 7368: 9906: 5792: 3661: 1849: 1822: 10100: 6957: 6401: 5979: 3583: 8645: 7275: 10320:{\displaystyle \int P(A,{\tilde {A}})\,\mathrm {d} A\,\mathrm {d} {\tilde {A}}=N\int \exp \left(L(A,{\tilde {A}})\right)\mathrm {d} A\,\mathrm {d} {\tilde {A}},} 5296: 10345: 8547: 7529: 7270: 6334: 5028: 3439: 1745: 1629: 578: 464: 192: 1791: 4731: 3412:
being the equipartition value in thermal equilibrium. The colored solid curves denote the mean squared displacements for the corresponding parameter choices.
3363:) is plotted with the Boltzmann probabilities for velocity (green) and position (red). In particular, the late time behavior depicts thermal equilibrium. 6406: 10020:. The functional determinant and associated mathematical subtleties drop out if the Langevin equation is discretized in the natural (causal) way, where 408:{\displaystyle \left\langle \eta _{i}\left(t\right)\eta _{j}\left(t'\right)\right\rangle =2\lambda k_{\text{B}}T\delta _{i,j}\delta \left(t-t'\right),} 11373: 3309:
A particle in a fluid is described by a Langevin equation with a potential energy function, a damping force, and thermal fluctuations given by the
1449:{\displaystyle \left\langle {\eta _{i}\left(t\right)\eta _{j}\left(t'\right)}\right\rangle =2\lambda _{i,j}\left(A\right)\delta \left(t-t'\right).} 1857: 894:
There is a formal derivation of a generic Langevin equation from classical mechanics. This generic equation plays a central role in the theory of
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Therefore, the differential form is only an abbreviation for its time integral. The general mathematical term for equations of this type is "
2252: 5697: 2231:, the electric voltage generated by thermal fluctuations in a resistor. The diagram at the right shows an electric circuit consisting of a 2071: 11303:
Janssen, H. K. (1976). "Lagrangean for Classical Field Dynamics and Renormalization Group Calculations of Dynamical Critical Properties".
3317:. In the plot below (figure 2), the long time velocity distribution (blue) and position distributions (orange) in a harmonic potential ( 11476: 5931:
This plot corresponds to solutions of the complete Langevin equation for a lightly damped harmonic oscillator, obtained using the
1536: 4944: 3588: 7531:. The Fokker–Planck equation corresponding to the generic Langevin equation described in this article is the following: 3666: 194:
is its mass. The force acting on the particle is written as a sum of a viscous force proportional to the particle's velocity (
10929: 6483: 2232: 123:{\displaystyle m{\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {v} }{\mathrm {d} t}}=-\lambda \mathbf {v} +{\boldsymbol {\eta }}\left(t\right).} 1634: 692: 32:
The fast (microscopic) variables are responsible for the stochastic nature of the Langevin equation. One application is to
5284:{\displaystyle \mathbf {r} (t)=\mathbf {v} (0)\tau \left(1-e^{-t/\tau }\right)+\tau \int _{0}^{t}\mathbf {a} (t')\leftdt'.} 811:{\displaystyle m\mathbf {v} =\int ^{t}\left(-\lambda \mathbf {v} +{\boldsymbol {\eta }}\left(t\right)\right)\mathrm {d} t.} 11387:
De Dominicis, C. (1976). "Technqiues de Renormalisation de la Théorie des Champs et Dynamique des Phénomènes Critiques".
9841: 659: 507: 239: 206: 11241: 8552: 3314: 625: 11138: 8796:{\displaystyle f(\mathbf {r} ,\mathbf {p} ,0)=\delta (\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} ')\delta (\mathbf {p} -\mathbf {p} ')} 1964: 898:, and other areas of nonequilibrium statistical mechanics. The equation for Brownian motion above is a special case. 7252:
where the second term was integrated by parts (hence the negative sign). Since this is true for arbitrary functions
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The Langevin Equation: With Applications to Stochastic Problems in Physics, Chemistry and Electrical Engineering
8485: 11471: 11163: 4881: 11458:, Cambridge Mathematical Library, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, reprint of 2nd (1994) edition, 2000. 5948:, which is the probability distribution function for particles in thermal equilibrium. In the special case of 3860:{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} (t)=\mathbf {v} (0)e^{-t/\tau }+\int _{0}^{t}\mathbf {a} (t')e^{-(t-t')/\tau }dt',} 729:
is not defined in this limit. This problem disappears when the Langevin equation is written in integral form
6781: 3366: 1280: 469: 48:, the apparently random movement of a particle in a fluid due to collisions with the molecules of the fluid, 8440: 8411: 4672: 11178:
Kramers, H.A. (1940). "Brownian motion in a field of force and the diffusion model of chemical reactions".
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dynamics, the inertia of the particle is negligible in comparison to the damping force, and the trajectory
1459: 5390: 4631: 4590: 10013:{\displaystyle P(A)\mathrm {d} A=P^{(\eta )}(\eta (A))\det(\mathrm {d} \eta /\mathrm {d} A)\mathrm {d} A} 1692: 910: 10023: 6921:{\displaystyle \left\langle -f'(x){\frac {\partial V}{\partial x}}+k_{\text{B}}Tf''(x)\right\rangle =0.} 3320: 1930: 624:
in the correlation function of the random force, which in an equilibrium system is an expression of the
9835: 7933: 7927: 7475: 7469: 5774:, indicating that the motion of Brownian particles at timescales much shorter than the relaxation time 11422: 8591: 5909:{\displaystyle \langle r^{2}(t\gg \tau )\rangle \simeq 6k_{\text{B}}T\tau t/m=6\mu k_{\text{B}}Tt=6Dt} 4836: 11346:
Martin, P. C. and Siggia, E. D. and Rose, H. A. (1973). "Statistical Dynamics of Classical Systems".
11008: 10779: 9831: 5932: 5422: 5067: 5036: 11449:
How to Quantify Deterministic and Random Influences on the Statistics of the Foreign Exchange Market
3514:{\displaystyle m{\frac {d\mathbf {v} }{dt}}=-{\frac {\mathbf {v} }{\mu }}+{\boldsymbol {\eta }}(t),} 2776:"model A" with a non-conserved scalar order parameter, realized for instance in axial ferromagnets, 2746: 2176: 2006: 10105: 8677: 8650: 10945:
Kawasaki, K. (1973). "Simple derivations of generalized linear and nonlinear Langevin equations".
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An essential step in the derivation is the division of the degrees of freedom into the categories
418: 135: 11418: 3870: 919: 6305:{\displaystyle \left\langle \eta (t)\eta (t')\right\rangle =2k_{\text{B}}T\lambda \delta (t-t')} 10769: 5945: 2149: 6478: 6185: 6165: 2751: 1594: 1516: 607: 157: 11367: 10757: 6339: 4875: 1686: 1316: 639: 604:
Another common feature of the Langevin equation is the occurrence of the damping coefficient
584: 541: 270: 5380:{\textstyle \langle \mathbf {r} (t)\rangle =\mathbf {v} (0)\tau \left(1-e^{-t/\tau }\right)} 11312: 11266: 11187: 11100: 11061: 11017: 10954: 10870: 10827: 10753: 9891: 5917: 5777: 3639: 3636:
is a rapidly fluctuating force whose time-average vanishes over a characteristic timescale
1827: 1800: 538: 10076: 6933: 6377: 5955: 3568: 8: 8624: 4826:{\textstyle \lim _{t\to \infty }\langle v^{2}(t)\rangle =\lim _{t\to \infty }R_{vv}(t,t)} 3206: 11316: 11270: 11191: 11104: 11065: 11021: 10958: 10874: 10831: 2227:
There is a close analogy between the paradigmatic Brownian particle discussed above and
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representing the effect of the collisions with the molecules of the fluid. The force
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Hohenberg, P. C.; Halperin, B. I. (1977). "Theory of dynamic critical phenomena".
5095:. If it is initially located at the origin with probability 1, then the result is 11053: 3897: 1794: 45: 33: 883: 11400: 11345: 7445:{\displaystyle p(x)\propto \exp \left({-{\frac {V(x)}{k_{\text{B}}T}}}\right).} 6313: 199: 195: 11029: 7932:
The Fokker–Planck equation for an underdamped Brownian particle is called the
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Figure 2: Equilibrium probability for Langevin dynamics in Harmonic Potential
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Dengler, R. (2015). "Another derivation of generalized Langevin equations".
7358:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial V}{\partial x}}p(x)+{k_{\text{B}}T}p'(x)=0,} 5927: 3201: 1920:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {H}}=\mathbf {p} ^{2}/\left(2mk_{\text{B}}T\right)} 11359: 10172:. The path integral equivalent to the generic Langevin equation then reads 3213: 11257:
Chandrasekhar, S. (1943). "Stochastic Problems in Physics and Astronomy".
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is not a function in the usual mathematical sense and even the derivative
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equivalent to a Langevin equation can be obtained from the corresponding
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is the correlation time of the noise term. It can also be shown that the
3227: 2239: 875:{\displaystyle \left|{\boldsymbol {v}}(t)\right|{\boldsymbol {\eta }}(t)} 7911:{\displaystyle P(A)=p_{0}(A)={\text{const}}\times \exp(-{\mathcal {H}})} 2772:
and can be described with a Langevin equation. The simplest case is the
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is a deterministic equation for the time dependent probability density
5949: 5795: 36:, which models the fluctuating motion of a small particle in a fluid. 2333:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {H}}=E/k_{\text{B}}T=CU^{2}/(2k_{\text{B}}T)} 2219: 11051:
Zwanzig, R. (1961). "Memory effects in irreversible thermodynamics".
10986: 8517: 5767:{\displaystyle \langle r^{2}(t\ll \tau )\rangle \simeq v^{2}(0)t^{2}} 2117:{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} \mathbf {x} /\mathrm {d} t=\mathbf {p} /m} 10839: 6468:{\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}\left\langle f(x(t))\right\rangle =0,} 955:
denote the slow variables. The generic Langevin equation then reads
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to a probability distribution of the slow variables, schematically
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This average can be written using the probability density function
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of the Brownian particle can be integrated to yield its trajectory
10826:(11). American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT): 1079–1081. 8201:
is the momentum, then the corresponding Fokker–Planck equation is
6316:). One way to solve this equation is to introduce a test function 4878:. If the system is initially at thermal equilibrium already with 11444:, McGraw Hill New York, 1965. See section 15.5 Langevin Equation 2539:
This equation may be used to determine the correlation function
601:-correlation and the Langevin equation becomes virtually exact. 11426: 11234:
The Fokker–Planck Equation: Method of Solution and Applications
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The path integral formulation allows for the use of tools from
5030:, meaning that the system remains at equilibrium at all times. 2731:
which becomes white noise (Johnson noise) when the capacitance
10799:
Langevin, P. (1908). "Sur la théorie du mouvement brownien ".
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In three spatial dimensions, the mean squared displacement is
6557:
says that the differential of a twice-differentiable function
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An electric circuit consisting of a resistor and a capacitor.
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is the equilibrium probability distribution of the variables
1584:{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} \lambda _{i,j}/\mathrm {d} A_{j}} 560:
form of the time correlation means that the force at a time
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or by transforming the Gaussian probability distribution
5003:{\displaystyle \langle v^{2}(t)\rangle =3k_{\text{B}}T/m} 3629:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\eta }}(t)=m\mathbf {a} (t)} 11435:
World Scientific Series in Contemporary Chemical Physics
10140:. It turns out to be convenient to introduce auxiliary 3702:{\displaystyle {\overline {{\boldsymbol {\eta }}(t)}}=0} 3300:{\displaystyle m{\frac {dv}{dt}}=-\lambda v+\eta (t)-kx} 2249:
between the ends of the resistor. The Hamiltonian reads
10869:(1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 175–187. 7460:
stochastic calculus inherent in the Langevin equation.
6550:{\displaystyle dX_{t}=\mu _{t}\,dt+\sigma _{t}\,dB_{t}} 2768:
of a second order phase transition slows down near the
5299: 4734: 3323: 1678:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {H}}=-\ln \left(p_{0}\right)} 722:{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} \mathbf {v} /\mathrm {d} t} 10861:
van Kampen, N. G. (1981). "ItĂ´ versus Stratonovich".
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The general solution to the equation of motion is 9881:{\displaystyle P^{(\eta )}(\eta )\mathrm {d} \eta } 4587:where we have used the property that the variables 682:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\eta }}\left(t\right)} 530:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\eta }}\left(t\right)} 262:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\eta }}\left(t\right)} 229:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\eta }}\left(t\right)} 10744: 10339: 10319: 10164: 10132: 10094: 10065: 10012: 9900: 9880: 9815: 9667: 9206: 8795: 8693: 8666: 8639: 8609: 8580: 8541: 8508: 8458: 8429: 8400: 8193: 8171: 7910: 7826: 7523: 7503: 7444: 7357: 7264: 7244: 6951: 6920: 6814: 6768: 6549: 6467: 6395: 6366: 6328: 6304: 6203: 6174: 6154: 5973: 5939: 5908: 5786: 5766: 5684: 5413: 5379: 5283: 5087: 5056: 5022: 5002: 4933: 4866: 4825: 4720: 4661: 4620: 4579: 3914: 3888: 3859: 3701: 3655: 3628: 3577: 3557: 3513: 3433: 3355: 3299: 3189: 2760: 2723: 2529: 2332: 2198: 2165: 2138: 2116: 2060: 1995: 1953: 1919: 1843: 1816: 1785: 1739: 1719: 1677: 1623: 1603: 1583: 1525: 1505: 1448: 1307: 1267: 947: 874: 810: 721: 681: 648: 616: 593: 572: 550: 529: 496: 458: 434: 407: 261: 228: 186: 166: 146: 122: 11250: 11133:. Oxford: Pergamon Press. pp. 443, 474–477. 11005: 8581:{\displaystyle V(\mathbf {r} )={\text{constant}}} 5981:is described by the overdamped Langevin equation 4565: 4457: 3221: 39: 11463: 11386: 11089:"Thermal Agitation of Electricity in Conductors" 9972: 4780: 4736: 11442:Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Physics 3209:showing spreading due to the Langevin Equation. 1996:{\displaystyle A=\{\mathbf {x} ,\mathbf {p} \}} 11298: 11296: 11456:Diffusions, Markov Processes, and Martingales 11256: 11227: 11225: 11158:(1st. ed.), USA: Benjamin, p. 231, 10914:Stochastic Processes in Physics and Chemistry 10817: 3558:{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} =d\mathbf {r} /dt} 1506:{\displaystyle \lambda _{i,j}=\lambda _{j,i}} 11372:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 11147: 10854: 9706: 9682: 8131: 8086: 6809: 6785: 5833: 5805: 5729: 5701: 5454: 5432: 5317: 5300: 4970: 4948: 4773: 4751: 4030: 3982: 1990: 1974: 1948: 1940: 942: 929: 889: 11380: 11293: 11171: 10938: 7936:. If the Langevin equations are written as 7365:thus recovering the Boltzmann distribution 1854:In the Brownian motion case one would have 11339: 11222: 11125: 10911: 10860: 8549:-dimensional free space, corresponding to 8509:{\displaystyle \nabla _{\mathbf {p} }^{2}} 7234: 6336:and calculate its average. The average of 3150: 2413: 2412: 11447:R. Friedrich, J. Peinke and Ch. Renner. 10985: 10296: 10218: 10209: 9755: 8597: 8377: 8344: 8295: 8011: 7921: 7463: 6749: 6533: 6513: 4934:{\displaystyle v^{2}(0)=3k_{\text{B}}T/m} 4669:become uncorrelated for time separations 3116: 3061: 44:The original Langevin equation describes 11153: 11001: 10999: 10997: 10944: 10798: 7454: 5926: 3365: 3212: 3200: 2218: 2146:is exact: there is no fluctuating force 1631:is negligible in most cases. The symbol 11451:, Phys. Rev. Lett. 84, 5224–5227 (2000) 11302: 11177: 11086: 11050: 10979: 9777: 9619: 9523: 9152: 9123: 9058: 8997: 8113: 8091: 8069: 6815:{\displaystyle \langle f(x(t))\rangle } 3674: 3593: 3495: 3417:Trajectories of free Brownian particles 2215:Thermal noise in an electrical resistor 1308:{\displaystyle \eta _{i}\left(t\right)} 859: 840: 777: 664: 631: 512: 497:{\displaystyle \eta _{i}\left(t\right)} 244: 211: 102: 11464: 11231: 10973: 8459:{\displaystyle \nabla _{\mathbf {p} }} 8430:{\displaystyle \nabla _{\mathbf {r} }} 6374:should be time-independent for finite 4721:{\displaystyle t_{2}'-t_{1}'\gg t_{c}} 10994: 8701:, corresponding to initial condition 3441:with equation of motion described by 8621:. If the particle is initialized at 8617:, this equation can be solved using 6778:Applying this to the calculation of 5414:{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} (0)\tau } 4662:{\displaystyle \mathbf {a} (t_{2}')} 4621:{\displaystyle \mathbf {a} (t_{1}')} 2740: 2340:, and the Langevin equation becomes 504:is the i-th component of the vector 3356:{\textstyle U={\frac {1}{2}}kx^{2}} 2245:. The slow variable is the voltage 1720:{\displaystyle p_{0}\left(A\right)} 1172: 1095: 1010: 13: 11411: 11156:Basic Principles of Plasma Physics 10922:10.1016/b978-0-444-52965-7.x5000-4 10732: 10704: 10681: 10657: 10649: 10643: 10603: 10595: 10589: 10526: 10509: 10298: 10289: 10220: 10211: 10121: 10066:{\displaystyle A(t+\Delta t)-A(t)} 10039: 10003: 9992: 9979: 9928: 9871: 9378: 9253: 8490: 8445: 8416: 8379: 8368: 8327: 8308: 8271: 8250: 8219: 8211: 8097: 8057: 8020: 7900: 7778: 7774: 7737: 7730: 7725: 7687: 7680: 7675: 7602: 7598: 7568: 7541: 7290: 7282: 7141: 7133: 7012: 7004: 6865: 6857: 6740: 6732: 6689: 6675: 6637: 6629: 6604: 6596: 6182:is the damping constant. The term 6087: 6070: 6037: 6020: 4790: 4746: 3001: 2903: 2849: 2793: 2789: 2361: 2351: 2258: 2091: 2076: 1954:{\displaystyle A=\{\mathbf {p} \}} 1863: 1851:onto the space of slow variables. 1640: 1567: 1541: 1221: 1185: 1150: 1142: 1136: 1073: 1065: 1058: 983: 966: 798: 712: 697: 74: 62: 14: 11488: 11477:Stochastic differential equations 7504:{\displaystyle P\left(A,t\right)} 6211:is white noise, characterized by 5794:of the system is (approximately) 3421:Consider a free particle of mass 1317:Gaussian probability distribution 271:Gaussian probability distribution 154:is the velocity of the particle, 9825: 9768: 9760: 9745: 9730: 9722: 9686: 9634: 9605: 9538: 9143: 9114: 9049: 8988: 8829: 8821: 8782: 8773: 8755: 8746: 8723: 8715: 8683: 8656: 8610:{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{d}} 8563: 8495: 8450: 8421: 8384: 8337: 8313: 8291: 8276: 8255: 8242: 8187: 8138: 8030: 8013: 7988: 7971: 7951: 5395: 5324: 5304: 5293:Hence, the average displacement 5195: 5120: 5103: 5072: 5041: 4867:{\displaystyle 3k_{\text{B}}T/m} 4636: 4595: 4010: 3986: 3908: 3787: 3734: 3717: 3613: 3540: 3529: 3482: 3458: 3136: 3127: 3073: 3045: 2878: 2812: 2132: 2102: 2081: 1986: 1978: 1944: 1873: 822:stochastic differential equation 769: 740: 702: 174:is its damping coefficient, and 140: 94: 67: 29:stochastic differential equation 16:Stochastic differential equation 11454:L.C.G. Rogers and D. Williams. 11421:, Ireland) and Yu P. Kalmykov ( 11119: 9616: 9350: 8925: 8085: 5940:Recovering Boltzmann statistics 5088:{\displaystyle \mathbf {r} (t)} 5057:{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} (t)} 3311:fluctuation dissipation theorem 11080: 11044: 10863:Journal of Statistical Physics 10811: 10792: 10450: 10415: 10378: 10372: 10357: 10347:is a normalization factor and 10308: 10280: 10274: 10259: 10230: 10206: 10200: 10185: 10156: 10127: 10112: 10089: 10083: 10060: 10054: 10045: 10030: 9999: 9975: 9969: 9966: 9960: 9954: 9949: 9943: 9924: 9918: 9867: 9861: 9856: 9850: 9740: 9718: 9697: 9690: 9559: 9549: 9162: 9139: 9133: 9110: 9070: 9044: 9009: 8983: 8968: 8949: 8839: 8817: 8790: 8769: 8763: 8742: 8733: 8711: 8567: 8559: 8341: 8333: 8162: 8145: 8128: 8117: 8109: 8103: 8079: 8073: 8034: 8026: 7905: 7892: 7872: 7866: 7850: 7844: 7413: 7407: 7381: 7375: 7343: 7337: 7308: 7302: 7211: 7205: 7194: 7188: 7159: 7153: 7127: 7121: 7077: 7071: 7065: 7059: 7030: 7024: 6998: 6992: 6946: 6940: 6904: 6898: 6851: 6845: 6806: 6803: 6797: 6791: 6448: 6445: 6439: 6433: 6390: 6384: 6361: 6358: 6352: 6346: 6299: 6282: 6249: 6238: 6232: 6226: 6198: 6192: 6082: 6076: 6058: 6052: 6032: 6026: 5968: 5962: 5830: 5818: 5798:invariant. On the other hand, 5751: 5745: 5726: 5714: 5476: 5470: 5451: 5445: 5405: 5399: 5334: 5328: 5314: 5308: 5249: 5232: 5210: 5199: 5130: 5124: 5113: 5107: 5082: 5076: 5051: 5045: 4967: 4961: 4901: 4895: 4820: 4808: 4787: 4770: 4764: 4743: 4656: 4640: 4615: 4599: 4550: 4524: 4499: 4471: 4447: 4441: 4381: 4353: 4341: 4335: 4270: 4212: 4201: 4169: 4096: 4070: 4059: 4053: 4027: 4014: 4003: 3990: 3972: 3946: 3830: 3813: 3802: 3791: 3744: 3738: 3727: 3721: 3684: 3678: 3623: 3617: 3603: 3597: 3585:is the particle mobility, and 3505: 3499: 3315:Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution 3285: 3279: 3222:Harmonic oscillator in a fluid 3205:Figure 1: Phase portrait of a 2327: 2308: 2199:{\displaystyle \lambda _{x,p}} 2061:{\displaystyle =\delta _{i,j}} 2036: 2010: 1780: 1754: 869: 863: 850: 844: 656:-correlated fluctuating force 40:Brownian motion as a prototype 1: 11236:. New York: Springer-Verlag. 11200:10.1016/s0031-8914(40)90098-2 10785: 10133:{\displaystyle A(t+\Delta t)} 8694:{\displaystyle \mathbf {p} '} 8667:{\displaystyle \mathbf {r} '} 7834:The equilibrium distribution 5694:This expression implies that 5425:can be determined similarly: 3663:of particle collisions, i.e. 1513:for the damping coefficients 581:scale, and in this limit the 10165:{\displaystyle {\tilde {A}}} 9836:Fokker–Planck equation 8194:{\displaystyle \mathbf {p} } 7470:Fokker–Planck equation 3915:{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} } 3688: 2139:{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} } 1460:Onsager reciprocity relation 435:{\displaystyle k_{\text{B}}} 147:{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} } 7: 11186:(4). Elsevier BV: 284–304. 10947:J. Phys. A: Math. Nucl. Gen 10820:American Journal of Physics 10763: 6479:ItĂ´ drift-diffusion process 5421:as the system relaxes. The 3889:{\displaystyle \tau =m\mu } 2209: 2173:and no damping coefficient 948:{\displaystyle A=\{A_{i}\}} 911:Zwanzig projection operator 10: 11493: 10912:van Kampen, N. G. (2007). 7925: 7918:is a stationary solution. 3565:is the particle velocity, 3225: 2737:becomes negligibly small. 1319:with correlation function 273:with correlation function 11259:Reviews of Modern Physics 11030:10.1103/RevModPhys.49.435 11009:Reviews of Modern Physics 10967:10.1088/0305-4470/6/9/004 10780:Stochastic thermodynamics 9888:of the fluctuating force 5423:mean squared displacement 3900:of the particle velocity 2166:{\displaystyle \eta _{x}} 2068:. The equation of motion 1793:is the projection of the 890:Generic Langevin equation 11401:10.1051/jphyscol:1976138 7511:of stochastic variables 6204:{\displaystyle \eta (t)} 6175:{\displaystyle \lambda } 4728:. Besides, the value of 3898:autocorrelation function 2761:{\displaystyle \varphi } 1604:{\displaystyle \lambda } 1526:{\displaystyle \lambda } 617:{\displaystyle \lambda } 167:{\displaystyle \lambda } 11423:UniversitĂ© de Perpignan 11419:Trinity College, Dublin 11279:10.1103/RevModPhys.15.1 11074:10.1103/PhysRev.124.983 8803:, then the solution is 6367:{\displaystyle f(x(t))} 4874:such that it obeys the 649:{\displaystyle \delta } 594:{\displaystyle \delta } 551:{\displaystyle \delta } 466:is the temperature and 11360:10.1103/PhysRevA.8.423 10801:C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 10746: 10341: 10321: 10166: 10134: 10096: 10067: 10014: 9902: 9882: 9817: 9669: 9208: 8797: 8695: 8668: 8641: 8611: 8582: 8543: 8510: 8460: 8431: 8402: 8195: 8173: 7934:Klein–Kramers equation 7928:Klein–Kramers equation 7922:Klein–Kramers equation 7912: 7828: 7525: 7505: 7464:Fokker–Planck equation 7446: 7359: 7266: 7246: 6953: 6922: 6816: 6770: 6551: 6469: 6397: 6368: 6330: 6306: 6205: 6176: 6156: 5975: 5946:Boltzmann distribution 5936: 5910: 5788: 5768: 5686: 5415: 5381: 5285: 5089: 5058: 5024: 5004: 4935: 4868: 4833:is set to be equal to 4827: 4722: 4663: 4622: 4581: 3916: 3890: 3861: 3703: 3657: 3630: 3579: 3559: 3515: 3435: 3413: 3357: 3301: 3218: 3210: 3191: 2762: 2725: 2531: 2334: 2224: 2200: 2167: 2140: 2118: 2062: 1997: 1955: 1921: 1845: 1818: 1797:of the slow variables 1787: 1741: 1721: 1679: 1625: 1605: 1585: 1527: 1507: 1450: 1309: 1277:The fluctuating force 1269: 949: 876: 812: 723: 683: 650: 618: 595: 574: 552: 531: 498: 460: 436: 409: 263: 230: 188: 168: 148: 124: 11472:Statistical mechanics 11154:Ichimaru, S. (1973), 11131:Statistical Mechanics 11113:10.1103/PhysRev.32.97 10758:abstract Wiener space 10747: 10342: 10322: 10167: 10135: 10097: 10068: 10015: 9903: 9901:{\displaystyle \eta } 9883: 9818: 9670: 9209: 8798: 8696: 8669: 8642: 8612: 8583: 8544: 8511: 8461: 8432: 8403: 8196: 8174: 7913: 7829: 7526: 7506: 7455:Equivalent techniques 7447: 7360: 7267: 7247: 6954: 6923: 6817: 6771: 6552: 6470: 6398: 6369: 6331: 6307: 6206: 6177: 6157: 5976: 5933:Euler–Maruyama method 5930: 5916:, which indicates an 5911: 5789: 5787:{\displaystyle \tau } 5769: 5687: 5416: 5382: 5286: 5090: 5059: 5025: 5005: 4936: 4876:equipartition theorem 4869: 4828: 4723: 4664: 4623: 4582: 3917: 3891: 3862: 3704: 3658: 3656:{\displaystyle t_{c}} 3631: 3580: 3560: 3516: 3436: 3369: 3358: 3302: 3216: 3204: 3192: 2763: 2726: 2532: 2335: 2222: 2201: 2168: 2141: 2119: 2063: 1998: 1956: 1922: 1846: 1844:{\displaystyle A_{j}} 1819: 1817:{\displaystyle A_{i}} 1788: 1742: 1722: 1689:of the system, where 1680: 1626: 1606: 1586: 1528: 1508: 1451: 1310: 1270: 950: 877: 813: 724: 684: 651: 619: 596: 575: 553: 532: 499: 461: 437: 410: 264: 231: 189: 169: 149: 125: 11087:Johnson, J. (1928). 10754:quantum field theory 10351: 10331: 10176: 10147: 10106: 10095:{\displaystyle A(t)} 10077: 10024: 9912: 9892: 9842: 9679: 9218: 8807: 8705: 8678: 8651: 8625: 8592: 8553: 8533: 8486: 8441: 8412: 8205: 8183: 7940: 7838: 7535: 7515: 7476: 7369: 7276: 7256: 6963: 6952:{\displaystyle p(x)} 6934: 6826: 6782: 6576: 6484: 6477:ItĂ´'s lemma for the 6407: 6396:{\displaystyle x(t)} 6378: 6340: 6320: 6215: 6186: 6166: 5985: 5974:{\displaystyle x(t)} 5956: 5802: 5778: 5698: 5429: 5391: 5297: 5099: 5068: 5037: 5014: 4945: 4882: 4837: 4732: 4673: 4632: 4591: 3926: 3904: 3871: 3713: 3667: 3640: 3589: 3578:{\displaystyle \mu } 3569: 3525: 3445: 3425: 3398:respectively, with 3 3321: 3235: 2780: 2752: 2745:The dynamics of the 2543: 2344: 2253: 2177: 2150: 2128: 2072: 2007: 1965: 1931: 1858: 1828: 1801: 1751: 1731: 1693: 1635: 1615: 1595: 1537: 1517: 1465: 1323: 1281: 959: 920: 831: 733: 693: 660: 640: 632:Mathematical aspects 608: 585: 564: 542: 508: 470: 450: 419: 277: 240: 207: 178: 158: 136: 52: 11317:1976ZPhyB..23..377J 11271:1943RvMP...15....1C 11232:Risken, H. (1989). 11192:1940Phy.....7..284K 11105:1928PhRv...32...97J 11066:1961PhRv..124..983Z 11022:1977RvMP...49..435H 10959:1973JPhA....6.1289K 10875:1981JSP....24..175V 10832:1997AmJPh..65.1079L 9812: 9791: 9365: 9240: 9095: 9034: 8640:{\displaystyle t=0} 8505: 8394: 6665: 5922:dissipative process 5193: 4704: 4688: 4655: 4614: 4314: 4298: 4269: 4253: 4200: 4184: 4155: 4133: 3785: 3207:harmonic oscillator 11389:J. Phys. Colloques 11325:10.1007/BF01316547 10883:10.1007/bf01007642 10770:Grote–Hynes theory 10742: 10402: 10337: 10317: 10162: 10142:response variables 10130: 10092: 10063: 10010: 9898: 9878: 9813: 9798: 9775: 9665: 9663: 9351: 9226: 9204: 9202: 9081: 9020: 8793: 8691: 8664: 8637: 8619:Fourier transforms 8607: 8578: 8539: 8506: 8489: 8456: 8427: 8398: 8378: 8191: 8169: 8167: 7908: 7824: 7595: 7521: 7501: 7442: 7355: 7272:, it follows that 7262: 7242: 7240: 6949: 6918: 6812: 6766: 6651: 6547: 6465: 6393: 6364: 6326: 6302: 6201: 6172: 6152: 5971: 5937: 5906: 5784: 5764: 5682: 5411: 5377: 5281: 5179: 5085: 5054: 5020: 5000: 4931: 4864: 4823: 4794: 4750: 4718: 4692: 4676: 4659: 4643: 4618: 4602: 4577: 4575: 4302: 4286: 4257: 4241: 4188: 4172: 4134: 4112: 3912: 3886: 3857: 3771: 3699: 3653: 3626: 3575: 3555: 3511: 3431: 3414: 3353: 3297: 3219: 3211: 3187: 3185: 2774:universality class 2758: 2721: 2527: 2330: 2225: 2196: 2163: 2136: 2114: 2058: 1993: 1951: 1917: 1841: 1814: 1783: 1737: 1717: 1675: 1621: 1601: 1581: 1523: 1503: 1446: 1305: 1265: 1180: 1103: 1018: 945: 872: 808: 719: 679: 646: 614: 591: 570: 548: 527: 494: 456: 444:Boltzmann constant 432: 405: 259: 226: 184: 164: 144: 120: 11433:(Third edition), 10931:978-0-444-52965-7 10775:Langevin dynamics 10719: 10672: 10618: 10546: 10534: 10475: 10453: 10418: 10387: 10375: 10340:{\displaystyle N} 10311: 10277: 10233: 10203: 10159: 9475: 9443: 9278: 9188: 9096: 9035: 8972: 8915: 8902: 8576: 8542:{\displaystyle d} 8468:gradient operator 8239: 8226: 8066: 7995: 7978: 7958: 7881: 7792: 7751: 7701: 7633: 7616: 7580: 7575: 7524:{\displaystyle A} 7432: 7425: 7322: 7297: 7265:{\displaystyle f} 7173: 7148: 7044: 7019: 6884: 6872: 6747: 6703: 6669: 6644: 6611: 6423: 6329:{\displaystyle f} 6270: 6147: 6120: 6114: 6094: 6044: 6009: 5885: 5849: 5671: 5661: 5559: 5549: 5023:{\displaystyle t} 4986: 4917: 4850: 4779: 4735: 4426: 4416: 3691: 3489: 3471: 3434:{\displaystyle m} 3338: 3259: 2993: 2944: 2863: 2800: 2741:Critical dynamics 2685: 2662: 2612: 2602: 2495: 2473: 2390: 2369: 2321: 2281: 1906: 1740:{\displaystyle A} 1624:{\displaystyle A} 1533:. The dependence 1458:This implies the 1236: 1171: 1165: 1094: 1088: 1009: 1003: 991: 896:critical dynamics 626:Einstein relation 573:{\displaystyle t} 459:{\displaystyle T} 429: 353: 187:{\displaystyle m} 82: 21:Langevin equation 11484: 11405: 11404: 11384: 11378: 11377: 11371: 11363: 11343: 11337: 11336: 11300: 11291: 11290: 11254: 11248: 11247: 11229: 11220: 11219: 11175: 11169: 11168: 11151: 11145: 11144: 11123: 11117: 11116: 11084: 11078: 11077: 11048: 11042: 11041: 11003: 10992: 10991: 10989: 10977: 10971: 10970: 10953:(9): 1289–1295. 10942: 10936: 10935: 10909: 10903: 10902: 10858: 10852: 10851: 10815: 10809: 10808: 10796: 10751: 10749: 10748: 10743: 10735: 10730: 10726: 10725: 10721: 10720: 10718: 10717: 10716: 10707: 10701: 10700: 10699: 10684: 10678: 10673: 10671: 10670: 10669: 10660: 10654: 10653: 10652: 10646: 10640: 10638: 10637: 10619: 10617: 10616: 10615: 10606: 10600: 10599: 10598: 10592: 10586: 10584: 10580: 10579: 10578: 10566: 10565: 10548: 10547: 10544: 10535: 10533: 10529: 10523: 10522: 10521: 10512: 10506: 10504: 10503: 10483: 10482: 10477: 10476: 10468: 10461: 10460: 10455: 10454: 10446: 10442: 10441: 10426: 10425: 10420: 10419: 10411: 10401: 10377: 10376: 10368: 10346: 10344: 10343: 10338: 10326: 10324: 10323: 10318: 10313: 10312: 10304: 10301: 10292: 10287: 10283: 10279: 10278: 10270: 10235: 10234: 10226: 10223: 10214: 10205: 10204: 10196: 10171: 10169: 10168: 10163: 10161: 10160: 10152: 10139: 10137: 10136: 10131: 10101: 10099: 10098: 10093: 10072: 10070: 10069: 10064: 10019: 10017: 10016: 10011: 10006: 9995: 9990: 9982: 9953: 9952: 9931: 9907: 9905: 9904: 9899: 9887: 9885: 9884: 9879: 9874: 9860: 9859: 9822: 9820: 9819: 9814: 9811: 9806: 9790: 9785: 9780: 9771: 9763: 9754: 9753: 9748: 9733: 9725: 9705: 9704: 9689: 9674: 9672: 9671: 9666: 9664: 9657: 9656: 9641: 9637: 9628: 9627: 9622: 9612: 9608: 9602: 9598: 9597: 9596: 9570: 9569: 9545: 9541: 9532: 9531: 9526: 9519: 9515: 9514: 9509: 9505: 9504: 9503: 9476: 9474: 9473: 9472: 9463: 9462: 9449: 9445: 9444: 9441: 9434: 9425: 9421: 9417: 9416: 9415: 9383: 9382: 9381: 9364: 9359: 9346: 9342: 9341: 9340: 9335: 9331: 9330: 9329: 9279: 9277: 9276: 9275: 9262: 9258: 9257: 9256: 9245: 9239: 9234: 9224: 9213: 9211: 9210: 9205: 9203: 9199: 9195: 9194: 9190: 9189: 9187: 9186: 9185: 9176: 9175: 9165: 9161: 9160: 9155: 9146: 9132: 9131: 9126: 9117: 9102: 9097: 9094: 9089: 9080: 9079: 9078: 9073: 9067: 9066: 9061: 9052: 9047: 9041: 9036: 9033: 9028: 9019: 9018: 9017: 9012: 9006: 9005: 9000: 8991: 8986: 8980: 8973: 8971: 8967: 8966: 8941: 8923: 8916: 8914: 8913: 8908: 8904: 8903: 8901: 8900: 8885: 8883: 8882: 8873: 8872: 8848: 8832: 8824: 8802: 8800: 8799: 8794: 8789: 8785: 8776: 8762: 8758: 8749: 8726: 8718: 8700: 8698: 8697: 8692: 8690: 8686: 8673: 8671: 8670: 8665: 8663: 8659: 8646: 8644: 8643: 8638: 8616: 8614: 8613: 8608: 8606: 8605: 8600: 8587: 8585: 8584: 8579: 8577: 8574: 8566: 8548: 8546: 8545: 8540: 8525: 8520:with respect to 8515: 8513: 8512: 8507: 8504: 8499: 8498: 8481: 8475: 8470:with respect to 8465: 8463: 8462: 8457: 8455: 8454: 8453: 8436: 8434: 8433: 8428: 8426: 8425: 8424: 8407: 8405: 8404: 8399: 8393: 8388: 8387: 8373: 8372: 8371: 8352: 8348: 8340: 8318: 8317: 8316: 8303: 8299: 8294: 8281: 8280: 8279: 8260: 8259: 8258: 8245: 8240: 8232: 8227: 8225: 8217: 8209: 8200: 8198: 8197: 8192: 8190: 8178: 8176: 8175: 8170: 8168: 8161: 8141: 8127: 8116: 8102: 8101: 8100: 8094: 8072: 8067: 8062: 8061: 8060: 8041: 8033: 8016: 7997: 7996: 7991: 7986: 7979: 7974: 7969: 7960: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7917: 7915: 7914: 7909: 7904: 7903: 7882: 7879: 7865: 7864: 7833: 7831: 7830: 7825: 7820: 7816: 7798: 7794: 7793: 7791: 7790: 7789: 7773: 7771: 7770: 7752: 7750: 7749: 7748: 7735: 7734: 7733: 7723: 7721: 7720: 7702: 7700: 7699: 7698: 7685: 7684: 7683: 7673: 7671: 7667: 7666: 7665: 7653: 7652: 7635: 7634: 7631: 7617: 7615: 7614: 7613: 7597: 7594: 7576: 7574: 7566: 7565: 7561: 7539: 7530: 7528: 7527: 7522: 7510: 7508: 7507: 7502: 7500: 7496: 7451: 7449: 7448: 7443: 7438: 7434: 7433: 7431: 7427: 7426: 7423: 7416: 7402: 7364: 7362: 7361: 7356: 7336: 7328: 7324: 7323: 7320: 7298: 7296: 7288: 7280: 7271: 7269: 7268: 7263: 7251: 7249: 7248: 7243: 7241: 7218: 7214: 7204: 7187: 7179: 7175: 7174: 7171: 7149: 7147: 7139: 7131: 7120: 7084: 7080: 7058: 7050: 7046: 7045: 7042: 7020: 7018: 7010: 7002: 6991: 6969: 6958: 6956: 6955: 6950: 6927: 6925: 6924: 6919: 6911: 6907: 6897: 6886: 6885: 6882: 6873: 6871: 6863: 6855: 6844: 6821: 6819: 6818: 6813: 6775: 6773: 6772: 6767: 6762: 6761: 6748: 6746: 6738: 6730: 6728: 6727: 6709: 6705: 6704: 6702: 6701: 6700: 6687: 6683: 6682: 6672: 6670: 6664: 6659: 6650: 6645: 6643: 6635: 6627: 6625: 6624: 6612: 6610: 6602: 6594: 6571: 6556: 6554: 6553: 6548: 6546: 6545: 6532: 6531: 6512: 6511: 6499: 6498: 6474: 6472: 6471: 6466: 6455: 6451: 6424: 6422: 6411: 6402: 6400: 6399: 6394: 6373: 6371: 6370: 6365: 6335: 6333: 6332: 6327: 6311: 6309: 6308: 6303: 6298: 6272: 6271: 6268: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6210: 6208: 6207: 6202: 6181: 6179: 6178: 6173: 6161: 6159: 6158: 6153: 6148: 6146: 6138: 6137: 6136: 6123: 6121: 6116: 6115: 6112: 6100: 6095: 6093: 6085: 6068: 6045: 6043: 6035: 6018: 6010: 6008: 6000: 5992: 5980: 5978: 5977: 5972: 5915: 5913: 5912: 5907: 5887: 5886: 5883: 5865: 5851: 5850: 5847: 5817: 5816: 5793: 5791: 5790: 5785: 5773: 5771: 5770: 5765: 5763: 5762: 5744: 5743: 5713: 5712: 5691: 5689: 5688: 5683: 5672: 5667: 5663: 5662: 5659: 5649: 5644: 5640: 5639: 5638: 5634: 5607: 5603: 5602: 5601: 5597: 5570: 5569: 5560: 5555: 5551: 5550: 5547: 5537: 5532: 5531: 5526: 5522: 5521: 5520: 5516: 5488: 5487: 5469: 5468: 5444: 5443: 5420: 5418: 5417: 5412: 5398: 5386: 5384: 5383: 5378: 5376: 5372: 5371: 5370: 5366: 5327: 5307: 5290: 5288: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5266: 5262: 5261: 5260: 5256: 5248: 5209: 5198: 5192: 5187: 5172: 5168: 5167: 5166: 5162: 5123: 5106: 5094: 5092: 5091: 5086: 5075: 5063: 5061: 5060: 5055: 5044: 5029: 5027: 5026: 5021: 5009: 5007: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4988: 4987: 4984: 4960: 4959: 4940: 4938: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4919: 4918: 4915: 4894: 4893: 4873: 4871: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4852: 4851: 4848: 4832: 4830: 4829: 4824: 4807: 4806: 4793: 4763: 4762: 4749: 4727: 4725: 4724: 4719: 4717: 4716: 4700: 4684: 4668: 4666: 4665: 4660: 4651: 4639: 4627: 4625: 4624: 4619: 4610: 4598: 4586: 4584: 4583: 4578: 4576: 4569: 4568: 4562: 4561: 4557: 4549: 4548: 4536: 4535: 4512: 4511: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4496: 4484: 4483: 4474: 4461: 4460: 4454: 4450: 4440: 4439: 4427: 4422: 4418: 4417: 4414: 4404: 4394: 4393: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4378: 4366: 4365: 4356: 4334: 4333: 4318: 4310: 4294: 4282: 4281: 4277: 4265: 4249: 4237: 4236: 4224: 4223: 4196: 4180: 4168: 4167: 4154: 4153: 4152: 4142: 4132: 4131: 4130: 4120: 4108: 4107: 4103: 4095: 4094: 4082: 4081: 4052: 4051: 4036: 4026: 4025: 4013: 4002: 4001: 3989: 3971: 3970: 3958: 3957: 3945: 3944: 3921: 3919: 3918: 3913: 3911: 3895: 3893: 3892: 3887: 3866: 3864: 3863: 3858: 3853: 3842: 3841: 3837: 3829: 3801: 3790: 3784: 3779: 3767: 3766: 3762: 3737: 3720: 3708: 3706: 3705: 3700: 3692: 3687: 3677: 3671: 3662: 3660: 3659: 3654: 3652: 3651: 3635: 3633: 3632: 3627: 3616: 3596: 3584: 3582: 3581: 3576: 3564: 3562: 3561: 3556: 3548: 3543: 3532: 3520: 3518: 3517: 3512: 3498: 3490: 3485: 3480: 3472: 3470: 3462: 3461: 3452: 3440: 3438: 3437: 3432: 3362: 3360: 3359: 3354: 3352: 3351: 3339: 3331: 3306: 3304: 3303: 3298: 3260: 3258: 3250: 3242: 3196: 3194: 3193: 3188: 3186: 3179: 3178: 3174: 3173: 3149: 3148: 3144: 3143: 3139: 3130: 3102: 3098: 3097: 3096: 3092: 3091: 3080: 3076: 3060: 3059: 3055: 3048: 3022: 3018: 3017: 3016: 3011: 3007: 2994: 2986: 2981: 2980: 2965: 2964: 2955: 2954: 2945: 2937: 2927: 2926: 2907: 2906: 2893: 2892: 2888: 2881: 2864: 2862: 2854: 2853: 2852: 2842: 2827: 2826: 2822: 2815: 2801: 2799: 2788: 2767: 2765: 2764: 2759: 2736: 2730: 2728: 2727: 2722: 2717: 2713: 2712: 2687: 2686: 2683: 2668: 2664: 2663: 2661: 2653: 2649: 2648: 2629: 2613: 2608: 2604: 2603: 2600: 2593: 2588: 2584: 2583: 2579: 2564: 2536: 2534: 2533: 2528: 2523: 2519: 2518: 2496: 2494: 2493: 2492: 2479: 2475: 2474: 2471: 2461: 2456: 2452: 2451: 2447: 2432: 2408: 2391: 2389: 2378: 2370: 2368: 2364: 2358: 2354: 2348: 2339: 2337: 2336: 2331: 2323: 2322: 2319: 2307: 2302: 2301: 2283: 2282: 2279: 2273: 2262: 2261: 2205: 2203: 2202: 2197: 2195: 2194: 2172: 2170: 2169: 2164: 2162: 2161: 2145: 2143: 2142: 2137: 2135: 2123: 2121: 2120: 2115: 2110: 2105: 2094: 2089: 2084: 2079: 2067: 2065: 2064: 2059: 2057: 2056: 2035: 2034: 2022: 2021: 2002: 2000: 1999: 1994: 1989: 1981: 1960: 1958: 1957: 1952: 1947: 1926: 1924: 1923: 1918: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1907: 1904: 1887: 1882: 1881: 1876: 1867: 1866: 1850: 1848: 1847: 1842: 1840: 1839: 1823: 1821: 1820: 1815: 1813: 1812: 1792: 1790: 1789: 1786:{\displaystyle } 1784: 1779: 1778: 1766: 1765: 1746: 1744: 1743: 1738: 1726: 1724: 1723: 1718: 1716: 1705: 1704: 1684: 1682: 1681: 1676: 1674: 1670: 1669: 1644: 1643: 1630: 1628: 1627: 1622: 1610: 1608: 1607: 1602: 1590: 1588: 1587: 1582: 1580: 1579: 1570: 1565: 1560: 1559: 1544: 1532: 1530: 1529: 1524: 1512: 1510: 1509: 1504: 1502: 1501: 1483: 1482: 1455: 1453: 1452: 1447: 1442: 1438: 1437: 1415: 1404: 1403: 1382: 1378: 1377: 1373: 1361: 1360: 1351: 1340: 1339: 1314: 1312: 1311: 1306: 1304: 1293: 1292: 1274: 1272: 1271: 1266: 1261: 1250: 1249: 1237: 1235: 1234: 1233: 1224: 1218: 1217: 1216: 1205: 1204: 1188: 1182: 1179: 1170: 1166: 1164: 1163: 1162: 1153: 1147: 1146: 1145: 1139: 1133: 1131: 1120: 1119: 1102: 1090: 1089: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1076: 1070: 1069: 1068: 1062: 1061: 1054: 1052: 1048: 1047: 1046: 1034: 1033: 1017: 1005: 1004: 1001: 992: 990: 986: 980: 979: 978: 969: 963: 954: 952: 951: 946: 941: 940: 881: 879: 878: 873: 862: 857: 853: 843: 817: 815: 814: 809: 801: 796: 792: 791: 780: 772: 756: 755: 743: 728: 726: 725: 720: 715: 710: 705: 700: 688: 686: 685: 680: 678: 667: 655: 653: 652: 647: 623: 621: 620: 615: 600: 598: 597: 592: 579: 577: 576: 571: 557: 555: 554: 549: 536: 534: 533: 528: 526: 515: 503: 501: 500: 495: 493: 482: 481: 465: 463: 462: 457: 441: 439: 438: 433: 431: 430: 427: 414: 412: 411: 406: 401: 397: 396: 374: 373: 355: 354: 351: 336: 332: 331: 327: 315: 314: 305: 294: 293: 268: 266: 265: 260: 258: 247: 235: 233: 232: 227: 225: 214: 193: 191: 190: 185: 173: 171: 170: 165: 153: 151: 150: 145: 143: 129: 127: 126: 121: 116: 105: 97: 83: 81: 77: 71: 70: 65: 59: 11492: 11491: 11487: 11486: 11485: 11483: 11482: 11481: 11462: 11461: 11414: 11412:Further reading 11409: 11408: 11395:(C1): 247–253. 11385: 11381: 11365: 11364: 11344: 11340: 11301: 11294: 11255: 11251: 11244: 11230: 11223: 11176: 11172: 11166: 11152: 11148: 11141: 11124: 11120: 11085: 11081: 11049: 11045: 11004: 10995: 10978: 10974: 10943: 10939: 10932: 10910: 10906: 10859: 10855: 10840:10.1119/1.18725 10816: 10812: 10797: 10793: 10788: 10766: 10731: 10712: 10708: 10703: 10702: 10689: 10685: 10680: 10679: 10677: 10665: 10661: 10656: 10655: 10648: 10647: 10642: 10641: 10639: 10627: 10623: 10611: 10607: 10602: 10601: 10594: 10593: 10588: 10587: 10585: 10574: 10570: 10561: 10557: 10556: 10552: 10543: 10539: 10525: 10524: 10517: 10513: 10508: 10507: 10505: 10493: 10489: 10488: 10484: 10478: 10467: 10466: 10465: 10456: 10445: 10444: 10443: 10431: 10427: 10421: 10410: 10409: 10408: 10407: 10403: 10391: 10367: 10366: 10352: 10349: 10348: 10332: 10329: 10328: 10303: 10302: 10297: 10288: 10269: 10268: 10255: 10251: 10225: 10224: 10219: 10210: 10195: 10194: 10177: 10174: 10173: 10151: 10150: 10148: 10145: 10144: 10107: 10104: 10103: 10078: 10075: 10074: 10025: 10022: 10021: 10002: 9991: 9986: 9978: 9942: 9938: 9927: 9913: 9910: 9909: 9893: 9890: 9889: 9870: 9849: 9845: 9843: 9840: 9839: 9828: 9807: 9802: 9786: 9781: 9776: 9767: 9759: 9749: 9744: 9743: 9729: 9721: 9700: 9696: 9685: 9680: 9677: 9676: 9662: 9661: 9646: 9642: 9633: 9632: 9623: 9618: 9617: 9604: 9603: 9586: 9582: 9575: 9571: 9562: 9558: 9537: 9536: 9527: 9522: 9521: 9517: 9516: 9510: 9493: 9489: 9482: 9478: 9477: 9468: 9464: 9458: 9454: 9450: 9440: 9436: 9435: 9433: 9423: 9422: 9402: 9398: 9391: 9387: 9377: 9376: 9372: 9360: 9355: 9336: 9319: 9315: 9308: 9304: 9303: 9284: 9280: 9271: 9267: 9263: 9252: 9251: 9247: 9246: 9244: 9235: 9230: 9221: 9219: 9216: 9215: 9201: 9200: 9181: 9177: 9171: 9167: 9166: 9156: 9151: 9150: 9142: 9127: 9122: 9121: 9113: 9103: 9101: 9090: 9085: 9074: 9069: 9068: 9062: 9057: 9056: 9048: 9043: 9042: 9040: 9029: 9024: 9013: 9008: 9007: 9001: 8996: 8995: 8987: 8982: 8981: 8979: 8978: 8974: 8962: 8958: 8945: 8940: 8936: 8932: 8921: 8920: 8909: 8896: 8892: 8884: 8878: 8874: 8868: 8864: 8857: 8853: 8852: 8847: 8845: 8828: 8820: 8810: 8808: 8805: 8804: 8781: 8780: 8772: 8754: 8753: 8745: 8722: 8714: 8706: 8703: 8702: 8682: 8681: 8679: 8676: 8675: 8655: 8654: 8652: 8649: 8648: 8626: 8623: 8622: 8601: 8596: 8595: 8593: 8590: 8589: 8573: 8562: 8554: 8551: 8550: 8534: 8531: 8530: 8521: 8500: 8494: 8493: 8487: 8484: 8483: 8477: 8471: 8449: 8448: 8444: 8442: 8439: 8438: 8420: 8419: 8415: 8413: 8410: 8409: 8389: 8383: 8382: 8367: 8366: 8362: 8336: 8326: 8322: 8312: 8311: 8307: 8290: 8289: 8285: 8275: 8274: 8270: 8254: 8253: 8249: 8241: 8231: 8218: 8210: 8208: 8206: 8203: 8202: 8186: 8184: 8181: 8180: 8166: 8165: 8154: 8137: 8120: 8112: 8096: 8095: 8090: 8089: 8068: 8056: 8055: 8051: 8040: 8029: 8012: 7998: 7987: 7985: 7984: 7981: 7980: 7970: 7968: 7961: 7950: 7948: 7947: 7943: 7941: 7938: 7937: 7930: 7924: 7899: 7898: 7878: 7860: 7856: 7839: 7836: 7835: 7806: 7802: 7785: 7781: 7777: 7772: 7760: 7756: 7744: 7740: 7736: 7729: 7728: 7724: 7722: 7710: 7706: 7694: 7690: 7686: 7679: 7678: 7674: 7672: 7661: 7657: 7648: 7644: 7643: 7639: 7630: 7626: 7622: 7618: 7609: 7605: 7601: 7596: 7584: 7567: 7551: 7547: 7540: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7532: 7516: 7513: 7512: 7486: 7482: 7477: 7474: 7473: 7466: 7457: 7422: 7418: 7417: 7403: 7401: 7397: 7393: 7370: 7367: 7366: 7329: 7319: 7315: 7314: 7289: 7281: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7273: 7257: 7254: 7253: 7239: 7238: 7232: 7226: 7225: 7197: 7180: 7170: 7166: 7165: 7140: 7132: 7130: 7113: 7109: 7105: 7098: 7092: 7091: 7051: 7041: 7037: 7036: 7011: 7003: 7001: 6984: 6980: 6976: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6960: 6935: 6932: 6931: 6890: 6881: 6877: 6864: 6856: 6854: 6837: 6833: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6823: 6783: 6780: 6779: 6757: 6753: 6739: 6731: 6729: 6723: 6719: 6696: 6692: 6688: 6678: 6674: 6673: 6671: 6660: 6655: 6649: 6636: 6628: 6626: 6620: 6616: 6603: 6595: 6593: 6592: 6588: 6577: 6574: 6573: 6558: 6541: 6537: 6527: 6523: 6507: 6503: 6494: 6490: 6485: 6482: 6481: 6429: 6425: 6415: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6404: 6379: 6376: 6375: 6341: 6338: 6337: 6321: 6318: 6317: 6312:(formally, the 6291: 6267: 6263: 6241: 6222: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6212: 6187: 6184: 6183: 6167: 6164: 6163: 6139: 6132: 6128: 6124: 6122: 6111: 6107: 6099: 6086: 6069: 6067: 6036: 6019: 6017: 6001: 5993: 5991: 5986: 5983: 5982: 5957: 5954: 5953: 5942: 5882: 5878: 5861: 5846: 5842: 5812: 5808: 5803: 5800: 5799: 5779: 5776: 5775: 5758: 5754: 5739: 5735: 5708: 5704: 5699: 5696: 5695: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5648: 5630: 5623: 5619: 5612: 5608: 5593: 5586: 5582: 5575: 5571: 5565: 5561: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5536: 5527: 5512: 5505: 5501: 5494: 5490: 5489: 5483: 5479: 5464: 5460: 5439: 5435: 5430: 5427: 5426: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5388: 5362: 5355: 5351: 5344: 5340: 5323: 5303: 5298: 5295: 5294: 5270: 5252: 5241: 5228: 5224: 5217: 5213: 5202: 5194: 5188: 5183: 5158: 5151: 5147: 5140: 5136: 5119: 5102: 5100: 5097: 5096: 5071: 5069: 5066: 5065: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5034: 5015: 5012: 5011: 4992: 4983: 4979: 4955: 4951: 4946: 4943: 4942: 4923: 4914: 4910: 4889: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4879: 4856: 4847: 4843: 4838: 4835: 4834: 4799: 4795: 4783: 4758: 4754: 4739: 4733: 4730: 4729: 4712: 4708: 4696: 4680: 4674: 4671: 4670: 4647: 4635: 4633: 4630: 4629: 4606: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4588: 4574: 4573: 4564: 4563: 4553: 4544: 4540: 4531: 4527: 4520: 4516: 4503: 4498: 4492: 4488: 4479: 4475: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4456: 4455: 4435: 4431: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4403: 4402: 4398: 4385: 4380: 4374: 4370: 4361: 4357: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4329: 4325: 4316: 4315: 4306: 4290: 4273: 4261: 4245: 4232: 4228: 4219: 4215: 4208: 4204: 4192: 4176: 4160: 4156: 4148: 4144: 4143: 4138: 4126: 4122: 4121: 4116: 4099: 4090: 4086: 4077: 4073: 4066: 4062: 4047: 4043: 4034: 4033: 4021: 4017: 4009: 3997: 3993: 3985: 3975: 3966: 3962: 3953: 3949: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3927: 3924: 3923: 3907: 3905: 3902: 3901: 3872: 3869: 3868: 3846: 3833: 3822: 3809: 3805: 3794: 3786: 3780: 3775: 3758: 3751: 3747: 3733: 3716: 3714: 3711: 3710: 3673: 3672: 3670: 3668: 3665: 3664: 3647: 3643: 3641: 3638: 3637: 3612: 3592: 3590: 3587: 3586: 3570: 3567: 3566: 3544: 3539: 3528: 3526: 3523: 3522: 3494: 3481: 3479: 3463: 3457: 3453: 3451: 3446: 3443: 3442: 3426: 3423: 3422: 3419: 3404: 3390: 3376: 3347: 3343: 3330: 3322: 3319: 3318: 3251: 3243: 3241: 3236: 3233: 3232: 3230: 3224: 3184: 3183: 3166: 3159: 3155: 3154: 3135: 3134: 3126: 3125: 3121: 3120: 3103: 3084: 3072: 3071: 3070: 3066: 3065: 3044: 3043: 3039: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3027: 3026: 3012: 3000: 2996: 2995: 2985: 2976: 2972: 2960: 2956: 2950: 2946: 2936: 2935: 2931: 2922: 2918: 2908: 2902: 2901: 2898: 2897: 2877: 2876: 2872: 2871: 2855: 2848: 2847: 2843: 2841: 2828: 2811: 2810: 2806: 2805: 2792: 2787: 2783: 2781: 2778: 2777: 2753: 2750: 2749: 2747:order parameter 2743: 2732: 2705: 2698: 2694: 2682: 2678: 2654: 2641: 2634: 2630: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2599: 2595: 2594: 2592: 2572: 2568: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2544: 2541: 2540: 2511: 2504: 2500: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2460: 2440: 2436: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2398: 2382: 2377: 2360: 2359: 2350: 2349: 2347: 2345: 2342: 2341: 2318: 2314: 2303: 2297: 2293: 2278: 2274: 2269: 2257: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2250: 2217: 2212: 2184: 2180: 2178: 2175: 2174: 2157: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2147: 2131: 2129: 2126: 2125: 2106: 2101: 2090: 2085: 2080: 2075: 2073: 2070: 2069: 2046: 2042: 2030: 2026: 2017: 2013: 2008: 2005: 2004: 1985: 1977: 1966: 1963: 1962: 1943: 1932: 1929: 1928: 1903: 1899: 1892: 1888: 1883: 1877: 1872: 1871: 1862: 1861: 1859: 1856: 1855: 1835: 1831: 1829: 1826: 1825: 1808: 1804: 1802: 1799: 1798: 1795:Poisson bracket 1774: 1770: 1761: 1757: 1752: 1749: 1748: 1732: 1729: 1728: 1706: 1700: 1696: 1694: 1691: 1690: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1639: 1638: 1636: 1633: 1632: 1616: 1613: 1612: 1596: 1593: 1592: 1575: 1571: 1566: 1561: 1549: 1545: 1540: 1538: 1535: 1534: 1518: 1515: 1514: 1491: 1487: 1472: 1468: 1466: 1463: 1462: 1430: 1423: 1419: 1405: 1393: 1389: 1366: 1362: 1356: 1352: 1341: 1335: 1331: 1330: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1320: 1294: 1288: 1284: 1282: 1279: 1278: 1251: 1245: 1241: 1229: 1225: 1220: 1219: 1206: 1194: 1190: 1189: 1184: 1183: 1181: 1175: 1158: 1154: 1149: 1148: 1141: 1140: 1135: 1134: 1132: 1121: 1109: 1105: 1104: 1098: 1081: 1077: 1072: 1071: 1064: 1063: 1057: 1056: 1055: 1053: 1042: 1038: 1029: 1025: 1024: 1020: 1019: 1013: 1000: 996: 982: 981: 974: 970: 965: 964: 962: 960: 957: 956: 936: 932: 921: 918: 917: 892: 858: 839: 838: 834: 832: 829: 828: 797: 781: 776: 768: 761: 757: 751: 747: 739: 734: 731: 730: 711: 706: 701: 696: 694: 691: 690: 668: 663: 661: 658: 657: 641: 638: 637: 634: 609: 606: 605: 586: 583: 582: 565: 562: 561: 543: 540: 539: 516: 511: 509: 506: 505: 483: 477: 473: 471: 468: 467: 451: 448: 447: 426: 422: 420: 417: 416: 389: 382: 378: 363: 359: 350: 346: 320: 316: 310: 306: 295: 289: 285: 284: 280: 278: 275: 274: 248: 243: 241: 238: 237: 215: 210: 208: 205: 204: 179: 176: 175: 159: 156: 155: 139: 137: 134: 133: 106: 101: 93: 73: 72: 66: 61: 60: 58: 53: 50: 49: 46:Brownian motion 42: 34:Brownian motion 17: 12: 11: 5: 11490: 11480: 11479: 11474: 11460: 11459: 11452: 11445: 11438: 11417:W. T. Coffey ( 11413: 11410: 11407: 11406: 11379: 11354:(1): 423–437. 11338: 11311:(4): 377–380. 11292: 11249: 11243:978-0387504988 11242: 11221: 11170: 11164: 11146: 11139: 11118: 11079: 11060:(4): 983–992. 11043: 11016:(3): 435–479. 10993: 10972: 10937: 10930: 10904: 10853: 10810: 10790: 10789: 10787: 10784: 10783: 10782: 10777: 10772: 10765: 10762: 10741: 10738: 10734: 10729: 10724: 10715: 10711: 10706: 10698: 10695: 10692: 10688: 10683: 10676: 10668: 10664: 10659: 10651: 10645: 10636: 10633: 10630: 10626: 10622: 10614: 10610: 10605: 10597: 10591: 10583: 10577: 10573: 10569: 10564: 10560: 10555: 10551: 10542: 10538: 10532: 10528: 10520: 10516: 10511: 10502: 10499: 10496: 10492: 10487: 10481: 10474: 10471: 10464: 10459: 10452: 10449: 10440: 10437: 10434: 10430: 10424: 10417: 10414: 10406: 10400: 10397: 10394: 10390: 10386: 10383: 10380: 10374: 10371: 10365: 10362: 10359: 10356: 10336: 10316: 10310: 10307: 10300: 10295: 10291: 10286: 10282: 10276: 10273: 10267: 10264: 10261: 10258: 10254: 10250: 10247: 10244: 10241: 10238: 10232: 10229: 10222: 10217: 10213: 10208: 10202: 10199: 10193: 10190: 10187: 10184: 10181: 10158: 10155: 10129: 10126: 10123: 10120: 10117: 10114: 10111: 10091: 10088: 10085: 10082: 10062: 10059: 10056: 10053: 10050: 10047: 10044: 10041: 10038: 10035: 10032: 10029: 10009: 10005: 10001: 9998: 9994: 9989: 9985: 9981: 9977: 9974: 9971: 9968: 9965: 9962: 9959: 9956: 9951: 9948: 9945: 9941: 9937: 9934: 9930: 9926: 9923: 9920: 9917: 9897: 9877: 9873: 9869: 9866: 9863: 9858: 9855: 9852: 9848: 9827: 9824: 9810: 9805: 9801: 9797: 9794: 9789: 9784: 9779: 9774: 9770: 9766: 9762: 9758: 9752: 9747: 9742: 9739: 9736: 9732: 9728: 9724: 9720: 9717: 9714: 9711: 9708: 9703: 9699: 9695: 9692: 9688: 9684: 9660: 9655: 9652: 9649: 9645: 9640: 9636: 9631: 9626: 9621: 9615: 9611: 9607: 9601: 9595: 9592: 9589: 9585: 9581: 9578: 9574: 9568: 9565: 9561: 9557: 9554: 9551: 9548: 9544: 9540: 9535: 9530: 9525: 9520: 9518: 9513: 9508: 9502: 9499: 9496: 9492: 9488: 9485: 9481: 9471: 9467: 9461: 9457: 9453: 9448: 9439: 9432: 9429: 9426: 9424: 9420: 9414: 9411: 9408: 9405: 9401: 9397: 9394: 9390: 9386: 9380: 9375: 9371: 9368: 9363: 9358: 9354: 9349: 9345: 9339: 9334: 9328: 9325: 9322: 9318: 9314: 9311: 9307: 9302: 9299: 9296: 9293: 9290: 9287: 9283: 9274: 9270: 9266: 9261: 9255: 9250: 9243: 9238: 9233: 9229: 9225: 9223: 9198: 9193: 9184: 9180: 9174: 9170: 9164: 9159: 9154: 9149: 9145: 9141: 9138: 9135: 9130: 9125: 9120: 9116: 9112: 9109: 9106: 9100: 9093: 9088: 9084: 9077: 9072: 9065: 9060: 9055: 9051: 9046: 9039: 9032: 9027: 9023: 9016: 9011: 9004: 8999: 8994: 8990: 8985: 8977: 8970: 8965: 8961: 8957: 8954: 8951: 8948: 8944: 8939: 8935: 8931: 8928: 8924: 8922: 8919: 8912: 8907: 8899: 8895: 8891: 8888: 8881: 8877: 8871: 8867: 8863: 8860: 8856: 8851: 8846: 8844: 8841: 8838: 8835: 8831: 8827: 8823: 8819: 8816: 8813: 8812: 8792: 8788: 8784: 8779: 8775: 8771: 8768: 8765: 8761: 8757: 8752: 8748: 8744: 8741: 8738: 8735: 8732: 8729: 8725: 8721: 8717: 8713: 8710: 8689: 8685: 8662: 8658: 8647:with position 8636: 8633: 8630: 8604: 8599: 8572: 8569: 8565: 8561: 8558: 8538: 8503: 8497: 8492: 8452: 8447: 8423: 8418: 8397: 8392: 8386: 8381: 8376: 8370: 8365: 8361: 8358: 8355: 8351: 8347: 8343: 8339: 8335: 8332: 8329: 8325: 8321: 8315: 8310: 8306: 8302: 8298: 8293: 8288: 8284: 8278: 8273: 8269: 8266: 8263: 8257: 8252: 8248: 8244: 8238: 8235: 8230: 8224: 8221: 8216: 8213: 8189: 8164: 8160: 8157: 8153: 8150: 8147: 8144: 8140: 8136: 8133: 8130: 8126: 8123: 8119: 8115: 8111: 8108: 8105: 8099: 8093: 8088: 8084: 8081: 8078: 8075: 8071: 8065: 8059: 8054: 8050: 8047: 8044: 8039: 8036: 8032: 8028: 8025: 8022: 8019: 8015: 8010: 8007: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7994: 7990: 7983: 7982: 7977: 7973: 7967: 7964: 7962: 7957: 7953: 7946: 7945: 7926:Main article: 7923: 7920: 7907: 7902: 7897: 7894: 7891: 7888: 7885: 7877: 7874: 7871: 7868: 7863: 7859: 7855: 7852: 7849: 7846: 7843: 7823: 7819: 7815: 7812: 7809: 7805: 7801: 7797: 7788: 7784: 7780: 7776: 7769: 7766: 7763: 7759: 7755: 7747: 7743: 7739: 7732: 7727: 7719: 7716: 7713: 7709: 7705: 7697: 7693: 7689: 7682: 7677: 7670: 7664: 7660: 7656: 7651: 7647: 7642: 7638: 7629: 7625: 7621: 7612: 7608: 7604: 7600: 7593: 7590: 7587: 7583: 7579: 7573: 7570: 7564: 7560: 7557: 7554: 7550: 7546: 7543: 7520: 7499: 7495: 7492: 7489: 7485: 7481: 7465: 7462: 7456: 7453: 7441: 7437: 7430: 7421: 7415: 7412: 7409: 7406: 7400: 7396: 7392: 7389: 7386: 7383: 7380: 7377: 7374: 7354: 7351: 7348: 7345: 7342: 7339: 7335: 7332: 7327: 7318: 7313: 7310: 7307: 7304: 7301: 7295: 7292: 7287: 7284: 7261: 7237: 7233: 7231: 7228: 7227: 7224: 7221: 7217: 7213: 7210: 7207: 7203: 7200: 7196: 7193: 7190: 7186: 7183: 7178: 7169: 7164: 7161: 7158: 7155: 7152: 7146: 7143: 7138: 7135: 7129: 7126: 7123: 7119: 7116: 7112: 7108: 7104: 7101: 7099: 7097: 7094: 7093: 7090: 7087: 7083: 7079: 7076: 7073: 7070: 7067: 7064: 7061: 7057: 7054: 7049: 7040: 7035: 7032: 7029: 7026: 7023: 7017: 7014: 7009: 7006: 7000: 6997: 6994: 6990: 6987: 6983: 6979: 6975: 6972: 6970: 6968: 6948: 6945: 6942: 6939: 6917: 6914: 6910: 6906: 6903: 6900: 6896: 6893: 6889: 6880: 6876: 6870: 6867: 6862: 6859: 6853: 6850: 6847: 6843: 6840: 6836: 6832: 6811: 6808: 6805: 6802: 6799: 6796: 6793: 6790: 6787: 6765: 6760: 6756: 6752: 6745: 6742: 6737: 6734: 6726: 6722: 6718: 6715: 6712: 6708: 6699: 6695: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6677: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6654: 6648: 6642: 6639: 6634: 6631: 6623: 6619: 6615: 6609: 6606: 6601: 6598: 6591: 6587: 6584: 6581: 6544: 6540: 6536: 6530: 6526: 6522: 6519: 6516: 6510: 6506: 6502: 6497: 6493: 6489: 6464: 6461: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6447: 6444: 6441: 6438: 6435: 6432: 6428: 6421: 6418: 6414: 6392: 6389: 6386: 6383: 6363: 6360: 6357: 6354: 6351: 6348: 6345: 6325: 6314:Wiener process 6301: 6297: 6294: 6290: 6287: 6284: 6281: 6278: 6275: 6266: 6262: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6244: 6240: 6237: 6234: 6231: 6228: 6225: 6221: 6200: 6197: 6194: 6191: 6171: 6151: 6145: 6142: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6119: 6110: 6106: 6103: 6098: 6092: 6089: 6084: 6081: 6078: 6075: 6072: 6066: 6063: 6060: 6057: 6054: 6051: 6048: 6042: 6039: 6034: 6031: 6028: 6025: 6022: 6016: 6013: 6007: 6004: 5999: 5996: 5990: 5970: 5967: 5964: 5961: 5941: 5938: 5905: 5902: 5899: 5896: 5893: 5890: 5881: 5877: 5874: 5871: 5868: 5864: 5860: 5857: 5854: 5845: 5841: 5838: 5835: 5832: 5829: 5826: 5823: 5820: 5815: 5811: 5807: 5783: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5750: 5747: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5731: 5728: 5725: 5722: 5719: 5716: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5681: 5678: 5675: 5670: 5666: 5657: 5653: 5647: 5643: 5637: 5633: 5629: 5626: 5622: 5618: 5615: 5611: 5606: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5578: 5574: 5568: 5564: 5558: 5554: 5545: 5541: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5497: 5493: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5475: 5472: 5467: 5463: 5459: 5456: 5453: 5450: 5447: 5442: 5438: 5434: 5410: 5407: 5404: 5401: 5397: 5387:asymptotes to 5375: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5336: 5333: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5319: 5316: 5313: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5280: 5276: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5244: 5240: 5237: 5234: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5205: 5201: 5197: 5191: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5175: 5171: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5132: 5129: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5115: 5112: 5109: 5105: 5084: 5081: 5078: 5074: 5053: 5050: 5047: 5043: 5019: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4982: 4978: 4975: 4972: 4969: 4966: 4963: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4913: 4909: 4906: 4903: 4900: 4897: 4892: 4888: 4863: 4859: 4855: 4846: 4842: 4822: 4819: 4816: 4813: 4810: 4805: 4802: 4798: 4792: 4789: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4775: 4772: 4769: 4766: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4748: 4745: 4742: 4738: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4572: 4567: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4510: 4506: 4501: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4482: 4478: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4459: 4453: 4449: 4446: 4443: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4425: 4421: 4412: 4408: 4401: 4397: 4392: 4388: 4383: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4364: 4360: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4340: 4337: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4321: 4319: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4166: 4163: 4159: 4151: 4147: 4141: 4137: 4129: 4125: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4058: 4055: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4039: 4037: 4035: 4032: 4029: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4005: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3974: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3943: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3931: 3910: 3885: 3882: 3879: 3876: 3856: 3852: 3849: 3845: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3825: 3821: 3818: 3815: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3783: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3743: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3729: 3726: 3723: 3719: 3698: 3695: 3690: 3686: 3683: 3680: 3676: 3650: 3646: 3625: 3622: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3608: 3605: 3602: 3599: 3595: 3574: 3554: 3551: 3547: 3542: 3538: 3535: 3531: 3510: 3507: 3504: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3488: 3484: 3478: 3475: 3469: 3466: 3460: 3456: 3450: 3430: 3418: 3415: 3402: 3388: 3374: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3337: 3334: 3329: 3326: 3296: 3293: 3290: 3287: 3284: 3281: 3278: 3275: 3272: 3269: 3266: 3263: 3257: 3254: 3249: 3246: 3240: 3223: 3220: 3182: 3177: 3172: 3169: 3165: 3162: 3158: 3153: 3147: 3142: 3138: 3133: 3129: 3124: 3119: 3115: 3112: 3109: 3106: 3104: 3101: 3095: 3090: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3069: 3064: 3058: 3054: 3051: 3047: 3042: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3028: 3025: 3021: 3015: 3010: 3006: 3003: 2999: 2992: 2989: 2984: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2968: 2963: 2959: 2953: 2949: 2943: 2940: 2934: 2930: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2914: 2911: 2909: 2905: 2900: 2899: 2896: 2891: 2887: 2884: 2880: 2875: 2870: 2867: 2861: 2858: 2851: 2846: 2840: 2837: 2834: 2831: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2818: 2814: 2809: 2804: 2798: 2795: 2791: 2786: 2785: 2770:critical point 2757: 2742: 2739: 2720: 2716: 2711: 2708: 2704: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2690: 2681: 2677: 2674: 2671: 2667: 2660: 2657: 2652: 2647: 2644: 2640: 2637: 2633: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2616: 2611: 2607: 2598: 2591: 2587: 2582: 2578: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2560: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2526: 2522: 2517: 2514: 2510: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2478: 2469: 2465: 2459: 2455: 2450: 2446: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2428: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2411: 2407: 2404: 2401: 2397: 2394: 2388: 2385: 2381: 2376: 2373: 2367: 2363: 2357: 2353: 2329: 2326: 2317: 2313: 2310: 2306: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2289: 2286: 2277: 2272: 2268: 2265: 2260: 2216: 2213: 2211: 2208: 2193: 2190: 2187: 2183: 2160: 2156: 2134: 2113: 2109: 2104: 2100: 2097: 2093: 2088: 2083: 2078: 2055: 2052: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2038: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2020: 2016: 2012: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1973: 1970: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1939: 1936: 1915: 1911: 1902: 1898: 1895: 1891: 1886: 1880: 1875: 1870: 1865: 1838: 1834: 1811: 1807: 1782: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1736: 1715: 1712: 1709: 1703: 1699: 1673: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1653: 1650: 1647: 1642: 1620: 1600: 1578: 1574: 1569: 1564: 1558: 1555: 1552: 1548: 1543: 1522: 1500: 1497: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1481: 1478: 1475: 1471: 1445: 1441: 1436: 1433: 1429: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1411: 1408: 1402: 1399: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1385: 1381: 1376: 1372: 1369: 1365: 1359: 1355: 1350: 1347: 1344: 1338: 1334: 1329: 1303: 1300: 1297: 1291: 1287: 1264: 1260: 1257: 1254: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1232: 1228: 1223: 1215: 1212: 1209: 1203: 1200: 1197: 1193: 1187: 1178: 1174: 1169: 1161: 1157: 1152: 1144: 1138: 1130: 1127: 1124: 1118: 1115: 1112: 1108: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1084: 1080: 1075: 1067: 1060: 1051: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1032: 1028: 1023: 1016: 1012: 1008: 999: 995: 989: 985: 977: 973: 968: 944: 939: 935: 931: 928: 925: 891: 888: 871: 868: 865: 861: 856: 852: 849: 846: 842: 837: 807: 804: 800: 795: 790: 787: 784: 779: 775: 771: 767: 764: 760: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 718: 714: 709: 704: 699: 677: 674: 671: 666: 645: 633: 630: 613: 590: 569: 547: 525: 522: 519: 514: 492: 489: 486: 480: 476: 455: 425: 404: 400: 395: 392: 388: 385: 381: 377: 372: 369: 366: 362: 358: 349: 345: 342: 339: 335: 330: 326: 323: 319: 313: 309: 304: 301: 298: 292: 288: 283: 257: 254: 251: 246: 224: 221: 218: 213: 183: 163: 142: 119: 115: 112: 109: 104: 100: 96: 92: 89: 86: 80: 76: 69: 64: 57: 41: 38: 19:In physics, a 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11489: 11478: 11475: 11473: 11470: 11469: 11467: 11457: 11453: 11450: 11446: 11443: 11439: 11436: 11432: 11428: 11424: 11420: 11416: 11415: 11402: 11398: 11394: 11390: 11383: 11375: 11369: 11361: 11357: 11353: 11349: 11342: 11334: 11330: 11326: 11322: 11318: 11314: 11310: 11306: 11299: 11297: 11288: 11284: 11280: 11276: 11272: 11268: 11264: 11260: 11253: 11245: 11239: 11235: 11228: 11226: 11217: 11213: 11209: 11205: 11201: 11197: 11193: 11189: 11185: 11181: 11174: 11167: 11161: 11157: 11150: 11142: 11140:0-08-018994-6 11136: 11132: 11128: 11122: 11114: 11110: 11106: 11102: 11098: 11094: 11090: 11083: 11075: 11071: 11067: 11063: 11059: 11056: 11055: 11047: 11039: 11035: 11031: 11027: 11023: 11019: 11015: 11011: 11010: 11002: 11000: 10998: 10988: 10983: 10976: 10968: 10964: 10960: 10956: 10952: 10948: 10941: 10933: 10927: 10923: 10919: 10915: 10908: 10900: 10896: 10892: 10888: 10884: 10880: 10876: 10872: 10868: 10864: 10857: 10849: 10845: 10841: 10837: 10833: 10829: 10825: 10821: 10814: 10806: 10802: 10795: 10791: 10781: 10778: 10776: 10773: 10771: 10768: 10767: 10761: 10759: 10755: 10739: 10736: 10727: 10722: 10713: 10709: 10696: 10693: 10690: 10686: 10674: 10666: 10662: 10634: 10631: 10628: 10624: 10620: 10612: 10608: 10581: 10575: 10571: 10567: 10562: 10558: 10553: 10549: 10540: 10536: 10530: 10518: 10514: 10500: 10497: 10494: 10490: 10485: 10479: 10472: 10469: 10462: 10457: 10447: 10438: 10435: 10432: 10428: 10422: 10412: 10404: 10398: 10395: 10392: 10388: 10384: 10381: 10369: 10363: 10360: 10354: 10334: 10314: 10305: 10293: 10284: 10271: 10265: 10262: 10256: 10252: 10248: 10245: 10242: 10239: 10236: 10227: 10215: 10197: 10191: 10188: 10182: 10179: 10153: 10143: 10124: 10118: 10115: 10109: 10086: 10080: 10057: 10051: 10048: 10042: 10036: 10033: 10027: 10007: 9996: 9987: 9983: 9963: 9957: 9946: 9939: 9935: 9932: 9921: 9915: 9895: 9875: 9864: 9853: 9846: 9837: 9833: 9832:path integral 9826:Path integral 9823: 9808: 9803: 9799: 9795: 9792: 9787: 9782: 9772: 9764: 9756: 9750: 9737: 9734: 9726: 9715: 9712: 9709: 9701: 9693: 9658: 9653: 9650: 9647: 9643: 9638: 9629: 9624: 9613: 9609: 9599: 9593: 9590: 9587: 9583: 9579: 9576: 9572: 9566: 9563: 9555: 9552: 9546: 9542: 9533: 9528: 9511: 9506: 9500: 9497: 9494: 9490: 9486: 9483: 9479: 9469: 9465: 9459: 9455: 9451: 9446: 9437: 9430: 9427: 9418: 9412: 9409: 9406: 9403: 9399: 9395: 9392: 9388: 9384: 9373: 9369: 9366: 9361: 9356: 9352: 9347: 9343: 9337: 9332: 9326: 9323: 9320: 9316: 9312: 9309: 9305: 9300: 9297: 9294: 9291: 9288: 9285: 9281: 9272: 9268: 9264: 9259: 9248: 9241: 9236: 9231: 9227: 9196: 9191: 9182: 9178: 9172: 9168: 9157: 9147: 9136: 9128: 9118: 9107: 9104: 9098: 9091: 9086: 9082: 9075: 9063: 9053: 9037: 9030: 9025: 9021: 9014: 9002: 8992: 8975: 8963: 8959: 8955: 8952: 8946: 8942: 8937: 8933: 8929: 8926: 8917: 8910: 8905: 8897: 8893: 8889: 8886: 8879: 8875: 8869: 8865: 8861: 8858: 8854: 8849: 8842: 8836: 8833: 8825: 8814: 8786: 8777: 8766: 8759: 8750: 8739: 8736: 8730: 8727: 8719: 8708: 8687: 8674:and momentum 8660: 8634: 8631: 8628: 8620: 8602: 8570: 8556: 8536: 8527: 8524: 8519: 8501: 8480: 8474: 8469: 8395: 8390: 8374: 8363: 8359: 8356: 8353: 8349: 8345: 8330: 8323: 8319: 8304: 8300: 8296: 8286: 8282: 8267: 8264: 8261: 8246: 8236: 8233: 8228: 8222: 8214: 8158: 8155: 8151: 8148: 8142: 8134: 8124: 8121: 8106: 8082: 8076: 8063: 8052: 8048: 8045: 8042: 8037: 8023: 8017: 8008: 8005: 8002: 8000: 7992: 7975: 7965: 7963: 7955: 7935: 7929: 7919: 7895: 7889: 7886: 7883: 7875: 7869: 7861: 7857: 7853: 7847: 7841: 7821: 7817: 7813: 7810: 7807: 7803: 7799: 7795: 7786: 7782: 7767: 7764: 7761: 7757: 7753: 7745: 7741: 7717: 7714: 7711: 7707: 7703: 7695: 7691: 7668: 7662: 7658: 7654: 7649: 7645: 7640: 7636: 7627: 7623: 7619: 7610: 7606: 7591: 7588: 7585: 7581: 7577: 7571: 7562: 7558: 7555: 7552: 7548: 7544: 7518: 7497: 7493: 7490: 7487: 7483: 7479: 7471: 7461: 7452: 7439: 7435: 7428: 7419: 7410: 7404: 7398: 7394: 7390: 7387: 7384: 7378: 7372: 7352: 7349: 7346: 7340: 7333: 7330: 7325: 7316: 7311: 7305: 7299: 7293: 7285: 7259: 7235: 7229: 7222: 7219: 7215: 7208: 7201: 7198: 7191: 7184: 7181: 7176: 7167: 7162: 7156: 7150: 7144: 7136: 7124: 7117: 7114: 7110: 7106: 7102: 7100: 7095: 7088: 7085: 7081: 7074: 7068: 7062: 7055: 7052: 7047: 7038: 7033: 7027: 7021: 7015: 7007: 6995: 6988: 6985: 6981: 6977: 6973: 6971: 6943: 6937: 6928: 6915: 6912: 6908: 6901: 6894: 6891: 6887: 6878: 6874: 6868: 6860: 6848: 6841: 6838: 6834: 6830: 6800: 6794: 6788: 6776: 6763: 6758: 6754: 6750: 6743: 6735: 6724: 6720: 6716: 6713: 6710: 6706: 6697: 6693: 6684: 6679: 6666: 6661: 6656: 6652: 6646: 6640: 6632: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6607: 6599: 6589: 6585: 6582: 6579: 6572:is given by 6569: 6565: 6561: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6517: 6514: 6508: 6504: 6500: 6495: 6491: 6487: 6480: 6475: 6462: 6459: 6456: 6452: 6442: 6436: 6430: 6426: 6419: 6416: 6412: 6403:, leading to 6387: 6381: 6355: 6349: 6343: 6323: 6315: 6295: 6292: 6288: 6285: 6279: 6276: 6273: 6264: 6260: 6257: 6253: 6245: 6242: 6235: 6229: 6223: 6219: 6195: 6189: 6169: 6149: 6143: 6140: 6133: 6129: 6125: 6117: 6108: 6104: 6101: 6096: 6090: 6079: 6073: 6064: 6061: 6055: 6049: 6046: 6040: 6029: 6023: 6014: 6011: 6005: 6002: 5997: 5994: 5988: 5965: 5959: 5951: 5947: 5934: 5929: 5925: 5923: 5919: 5903: 5900: 5897: 5894: 5891: 5888: 5879: 5875: 5872: 5869: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5855: 5852: 5843: 5839: 5836: 5827: 5824: 5821: 5813: 5809: 5797: 5796:time-reversal 5781: 5759: 5755: 5748: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5723: 5720: 5717: 5709: 5705: 5692: 5679: 5676: 5673: 5668: 5664: 5655: 5651: 5645: 5641: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5624: 5620: 5616: 5613: 5609: 5604: 5598: 5594: 5590: 5587: 5583: 5579: 5576: 5572: 5566: 5562: 5556: 5552: 5543: 5539: 5533: 5528: 5523: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5506: 5502: 5498: 5495: 5491: 5484: 5480: 5473: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5448: 5440: 5436: 5424: 5408: 5402: 5373: 5367: 5363: 5359: 5356: 5352: 5348: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5331: 5320: 5311: 5291: 5278: 5274: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5257: 5253: 5245: 5242: 5238: 5235: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5218: 5214: 5206: 5203: 5189: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5173: 5169: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5127: 5116: 5110: 5079: 5048: 5033:The velocity 5031: 5017: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4980: 4976: 4973: 4964: 4956: 4952: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4911: 4907: 4904: 4898: 4890: 4886: 4877: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4844: 4840: 4817: 4814: 4811: 4803: 4800: 4796: 4784: 4776: 4767: 4759: 4755: 4740: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4570: 4558: 4554: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4532: 4528: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4508: 4504: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4480: 4476: 4467: 4463: 4451: 4444: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4423: 4419: 4410: 4406: 4399: 4395: 4390: 4386: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4362: 4358: 4349: 4345: 4338: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4320: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4278: 4274: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4220: 4216: 4209: 4205: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4164: 4161: 4157: 4149: 4145: 4139: 4135: 4127: 4123: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4104: 4100: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4078: 4074: 4067: 4063: 4056: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4038: 4022: 4018: 4006: 3998: 3994: 3979: 3977: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3954: 3950: 3941: 3938: 3934: 3899: 3883: 3880: 3877: 3874: 3854: 3850: 3847: 3843: 3838: 3834: 3826: 3823: 3819: 3816: 3810: 3806: 3798: 3795: 3781: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3752: 3748: 3741: 3730: 3724: 3696: 3693: 3681: 3648: 3644: 3620: 3609: 3606: 3600: 3572: 3552: 3549: 3545: 3536: 3533: 3508: 3502: 3491: 3486: 3476: 3473: 3467: 3464: 3454: 3448: 3428: 3411: 3407: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3373: 3368: 3364: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3335: 3332: 3327: 3324: 3316: 3312: 3307: 3294: 3291: 3288: 3282: 3276: 3273: 3270: 3267: 3264: 3261: 3255: 3252: 3247: 3244: 3238: 3229: 3215: 3208: 3203: 3199: 3180: 3175: 3170: 3167: 3163: 3160: 3156: 3151: 3145: 3140: 3131: 3122: 3117: 3113: 3110: 3107: 3105: 3099: 3093: 3088: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3067: 3062: 3056: 3052: 3049: 3040: 3035: 3031: 3023: 3019: 3013: 3008: 3004: 2997: 2990: 2987: 2982: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2966: 2961: 2957: 2951: 2947: 2941: 2938: 2932: 2928: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2912: 2910: 2894: 2889: 2885: 2882: 2873: 2868: 2865: 2859: 2856: 2844: 2838: 2835: 2832: 2830: 2823: 2819: 2816: 2807: 2802: 2796: 2775: 2771: 2755: 2748: 2738: 2735: 2718: 2714: 2709: 2706: 2702: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2688: 2679: 2675: 2672: 2669: 2665: 2658: 2655: 2650: 2645: 2642: 2638: 2635: 2631: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2614: 2609: 2605: 2596: 2589: 2585: 2580: 2576: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2558: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2537: 2524: 2520: 2515: 2512: 2508: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2476: 2467: 2463: 2457: 2453: 2448: 2444: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2426: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2409: 2405: 2402: 2399: 2395: 2392: 2386: 2383: 2379: 2374: 2371: 2365: 2355: 2324: 2315: 2311: 2304: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2287: 2284: 2275: 2270: 2266: 2263: 2248: 2244: 2241: 2237: 2234: 2230: 2229:Johnson noise 2221: 2207: 2191: 2188: 2185: 2181: 2158: 2154: 2111: 2107: 2098: 2095: 2086: 2053: 2050: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2018: 2014: 1982: 1971: 1968: 1937: 1934: 1913: 1909: 1900: 1896: 1893: 1889: 1884: 1878: 1868: 1852: 1836: 1832: 1809: 1805: 1796: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1762: 1758: 1734: 1713: 1710: 1707: 1701: 1697: 1688: 1671: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1651: 1648: 1645: 1618: 1598: 1576: 1572: 1562: 1556: 1553: 1550: 1546: 1520: 1498: 1495: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1479: 1476: 1473: 1469: 1461: 1456: 1443: 1439: 1434: 1431: 1427: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1409: 1406: 1400: 1397: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1383: 1379: 1374: 1370: 1367: 1363: 1357: 1353: 1348: 1345: 1342: 1336: 1332: 1327: 1318: 1301: 1298: 1295: 1289: 1285: 1275: 1262: 1258: 1255: 1252: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1230: 1226: 1213: 1210: 1207: 1201: 1198: 1195: 1191: 1176: 1167: 1159: 1155: 1128: 1125: 1122: 1116: 1113: 1110: 1106: 1099: 1091: 1082: 1078: 1049: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1030: 1026: 1021: 1014: 1006: 997: 993: 987: 975: 971: 937: 933: 926: 923: 914: 912: 908: 904: 899: 897: 887: 885: 866: 854: 847: 835: 825: 823: 818: 805: 802: 793: 788: 785: 782: 773: 765: 762: 758: 752: 748: 744: 736: 716: 707: 675: 672: 669: 643: 629: 627: 611: 602: 588: 567: 559: 545: 523: 520: 517: 490: 487: 484: 478: 474: 453: 445: 423: 402: 398: 393: 390: 386: 383: 379: 375: 370: 367: 364: 360: 356: 347: 343: 340: 337: 333: 328: 324: 321: 317: 311: 307: 302: 299: 296: 290: 286: 281: 272: 255: 252: 249: 222: 219: 216: 203: 202: 197: 181: 161: 130: 117: 113: 110: 107: 98: 90: 87: 84: 78: 55: 47: 37: 35: 30: 26: 25:Paul Langevin 23:(named after 22: 11455: 11448: 11441: 11430: 11392: 11388: 11382: 11368:cite journal 11351: 11348:Phys. Rev. A 11347: 11341: 11308: 11304: 11262: 11258: 11252: 11233: 11183: 11179: 11173: 11155: 11149: 11130: 11121: 11096: 11092: 11082: 11057: 11052: 11046: 11013: 11007: 10987:1506.02650v2 10975: 10950: 10946: 10940: 10916:. Elsevier. 10913: 10907: 10866: 10862: 10856: 10823: 10819: 10813: 10804: 10800: 10794: 10141: 9829: 8528: 8522: 8478: 8472: 7931: 7467: 7458: 6929: 6777: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6476: 5943: 5918:irreversible 5693: 5292: 5032: 3922:is given by 3420: 3409: 3405: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3371: 3308: 3231: 2744: 2733: 2538: 2246: 2242: 2235: 2226: 1853: 1685:denotes the 1457: 1276: 915: 906: 902: 900: 893: 884:ItĂ´ calculus 826: 819: 635: 603: 200: 131: 43: 20: 18: 11265:(1): 1–89. 10102:but not on 10073:depends on 3228:Phase space 2240:capacitance 1747:. Finally, 1687:Hamiltonian 636:A strictly 196:Stokes' law 11466:Categories 11305:Z. Phys. B 11165:0805387536 11127:Pathria RK 11054:Phys. Rev. 10807:: 530–533. 10786:References 5950:overdamped 3226:See also: 2233:resistance 201:noise term 11440:Reif, F. 11437:– Vol 27. 11333:121216943 11287:0034-6861 11208:0031-8914 11099:(1): 97. 11093:Phys. Rev 11038:122636335 10899:122277474 10891:0022-4715 10848:0002-9505 10687:λ 10675:− 10625:λ 10537:− 10491:δ 10473:~ 10463:− 10451:~ 10429:λ 10416:~ 10389:∑ 10385:∫ 10373:~ 10309:~ 10275:~ 10249:⁡ 10243:∫ 10231:~ 10201:~ 10180:∫ 10157:~ 10122:Δ 10049:− 10040:Δ 9984:η 9958:η 9947:η 9896:η 9876:η 9865:η 9854:η 9800:σ 9778:μ 9713:∫ 9707:⟩ 9683:⟨ 9651:ξ 9648:− 9620:μ 9591:ξ 9588:− 9580:− 9564:− 9556:ξ 9524:μ 9498:ξ 9495:− 9487:− 9466:σ 9456:σ 9452:ξ 9428:β 9410:ξ 9404:− 9396:− 9353:σ 9324:ξ 9321:− 9313:− 9301:− 9295:ξ 9269:ξ 9228:σ 9179:σ 9169:σ 9153:μ 9148:− 9137:⋅ 9124:μ 9119:− 9108:β 9099:− 9083:σ 9059:μ 9054:− 9022:σ 8998:μ 8993:− 8960:β 8956:− 8938:− 8930:⁡ 8918:× 8894:β 8890:− 8876:σ 8866:σ 8862:π 8778:− 8767:δ 8751:− 8740:δ 8518:Laplacian 8491:∇ 8446:∇ 8417:∇ 8380:∇ 8360:ξ 8328:∇ 8320:⋅ 8309:∇ 8283:⋅ 8272:∇ 8268:ξ 8251:∇ 8247:⋅ 8220:∂ 8212:∂ 8152:− 8143:δ 8132:⟩ 8114:η 8092:η 8087:⟨ 8070:η 8049:ξ 8021:∇ 8018:− 8009:ξ 8006:− 7993:˙ 7956:˙ 7896:− 7890:⁡ 7884:× 7779:∂ 7775:∂ 7758:λ 7738:∂ 7726:∂ 7708:λ 7688:∂ 7676:∂ 7624:− 7603:∂ 7599:∂ 7582:∑ 7569:∂ 7542:∂ 7399:− 7391:⁡ 7385:∝ 7291:∂ 7283:∂ 7163:− 7142:∂ 7134:∂ 7111:− 7103:∫ 7013:∂ 7005:∂ 6982:− 6974:∫ 6866:∂ 6858:∂ 6835:− 6810:⟩ 6786:⟨ 6741:∂ 6733:∂ 6721:σ 6690:∂ 6676:∂ 6653:σ 6638:∂ 6630:∂ 6618:μ 6605:∂ 6597:∂ 6525:σ 6505:μ 6289:− 6280:δ 6277:λ 6236:η 6224:η 6190:η 6170:λ 6105:λ 6088:∂ 6071:∂ 6065:− 6062:≡ 6050:η 6038:∂ 6021:∂ 6015:− 5989:λ 5876:μ 5856:τ 5837:≃ 5834:⟩ 5828:τ 5825:≫ 5806:⟨ 5782:τ 5733:≃ 5730:⟩ 5724:τ 5721:≪ 5702:⟨ 5674:τ 5636:τ 5625:− 5617:− 5599:τ 5588:− 5580:− 5563:τ 5534:− 5518:τ 5507:− 5499:− 5481:τ 5455:⟩ 5433:⟨ 5409:τ 5368:τ 5357:− 5349:− 5338:τ 5318:⟩ 5301:⟨ 5258:τ 5239:− 5230:− 5222:− 5181:∫ 5177:τ 5164:τ 5153:− 5145:− 5134:τ 4971:⟩ 4949:⟨ 4791:∞ 4788:→ 4774:⟩ 4752:⟨ 4747:∞ 4744:→ 4706:≫ 4690:− 4559:τ 4522:− 4514:− 4509:τ 4486:− 4468:− 4429:− 4391:τ 4368:− 4350:− 4323:≃ 4279:τ 4255:− 4239:− 4210:− 4136:∫ 4114:∫ 4105:τ 4068:− 4031:⟩ 4007:⋅ 3983:⟨ 3980:≡ 3884:μ 3875:τ 3839:τ 3820:− 3811:− 3773:∫ 3764:τ 3753:− 3689:¯ 3675:η 3594:η 3573:μ 3496:η 3487:μ 3477:− 3289:− 3277:η 3268:λ 3265:− 3164:− 3152:δ 3132:− 3118:δ 3114:λ 3063:η 3036:η 3005:φ 3002:∇ 2974:φ 2958:φ 2916:∫ 2869:η 2860:φ 2857:δ 2845:δ 2839:λ 2836:− 2803:φ 2794:∂ 2790:∂ 2756:φ 2703:− 2692:δ 2670:≈ 2639:− 2626:− 2618:⁡ 2509:− 2498:δ 2434:η 2420:η 2396:η 2375:− 2182:λ 2155:η 2044:δ 1655:⁡ 1649:− 1599:λ 1547:λ 1521:λ 1489:λ 1470:λ 1428:− 1417:δ 1391:λ 1354:η 1333:η 1286:η 1243:η 1192:λ 1173:∑ 1107:λ 1096:∑ 1092:− 1011:∑ 860:η 778:η 766:λ 763:− 749:∫ 665:η 644:δ 612:λ 589:δ 558:-function 546:δ 513:η 475:η 387:− 376:δ 361:δ 344:λ 308:η 287:η 245:η 212:η 198:), and a 162:λ 103:η 91:λ 88:− 11216:33337019 11129:(1972). 10764:See also 9639:′ 9610:′ 9543:′ 8787:′ 8760:′ 8688:′ 8661:′ 8575:constant 8466:are the 8159:′ 8125:′ 7334:′ 7202:′ 7185:′ 7118:′ 7056:″ 6989:′ 6909:⟩ 6895:″ 6842:′ 6831:⟨ 6453:⟩ 6427:⟨ 6296:′ 6254:⟩ 6246:′ 6220:⟨ 5275:′ 5246:′ 5207:′ 5010:for all 4702:′ 4686:′ 4653:′ 4612:′ 4312:′ 4296:′ 4267:′ 4251:′ 4198:′ 4182:′ 3851:′ 3827:′ 3799:′ 3171:′ 3141:′ 3100:⟩ 3089:′ 3078:′ 3032:⟨ 2710:′ 2646:′ 2586:⟩ 2577:′ 2548:⟨ 2516:′ 2454:⟩ 2445:′ 2416:⟨ 2210:Examples 1435:′ 1380:⟩ 1371:′ 1328:⟨ 1315:obeys a 394:′ 334:⟩ 325:′ 282:⟨ 11313:Bibcode 11267:Bibcode 11188:Bibcode 11180:Physica 11101:Bibcode 11062:Bibcode 11018:Bibcode 10955:Bibcode 10871:Bibcode 10828:Bibcode 8516:is the 6822:gives 4941:, then 3384:, and 6 442:is the 27:) is a 11427:France 11331:  11285:  11240:  11214:  11206:  11162:  11137:  11036:  10928:  10897:  10889:  10846:  10327:where 9214:where 8482:, and 8179:where 6162:where 3867:where 3521:where 2238:and a 537:. The 415:where 269:has a 132:Here, 11329:S2CID 11212:S2CID 11034:S2CID 10982:arXiv 10895:S2CID 8408:Here 7880:const 11374:link 11283:ISSN 11238:ISBN 11204:ISSN 11160:ISBN 11135:ISBN 10926:ISBN 10887:ISSN 10844:ISSN 8476:and 8437:and 4628:and 2124:for 2003:and 1824:and 916:Let 907:fast 905:and 903:slow 11397:doi 11356:doi 11321:doi 11275:doi 11196:doi 11109:doi 11070:doi 11058:124 11026:doi 10963:doi 10918:doi 10879:doi 10836:doi 10805:146 10246:exp 9973:det 8927:exp 8588:on 8529:In 7887:exp 7388:exp 4781:lim 4737:lim 2615:exp 1961:or 1611:on 1591:of 824:". 11468:: 11429:, 11425:, 11393:37 11391:. 11370:}} 11366:{{ 11350:. 11327:. 11319:. 11309:23 11307:. 11295:^ 11281:. 11273:. 11263:15 11261:. 11224:^ 11210:. 11202:. 11194:. 11182:. 11107:. 11097:32 11095:. 11091:. 11068:. 11032:. 11024:. 11014:49 11012:. 10996:^ 10961:. 10949:. 10924:. 10893:. 10885:. 10877:. 10867:24 10865:. 10842:. 10834:. 10824:65 10822:. 10803:. 10760:. 9830:A 8526:. 7468:A 6959:; 6916:0. 6566:, 5924:. 5920:, 2206:. 1927:, 1652:ln 628:. 446:, 11403:. 11399:: 11376:) 11362:. 11358:: 11352:8 11335:. 11323:: 11315:: 11289:. 11277:: 11269:: 11246:. 11218:. 11198:: 11190:: 11184:7 11143:. 11115:. 11111:: 11103:: 11076:. 11072:: 11064:: 11040:. 11028:: 11020:: 10990:. 10984:: 10969:. 10965:: 10957:: 10951:6 10934:. 10920:: 10901:. 10881:: 10873:: 10850:. 10838:: 10830:: 10740:. 10737:t 10733:d 10728:} 10723:} 10714:j 10710:A 10705:d 10697:j 10694:, 10691:i 10682:d 10667:j 10663:A 10658:d 10650:H 10644:d 10635:j 10632:, 10629:i 10621:+ 10613:j 10609:A 10604:d 10596:H 10590:d 10582:] 10576:j 10572:A 10568:, 10563:i 10559:A 10554:[ 10550:T 10545:B 10541:k 10531:t 10527:d 10519:j 10515:A 10510:d 10501:j 10498:, 10495:i 10486:{ 10480:i 10470:A 10458:j 10448:A 10439:j 10436:, 10433:i 10423:i 10413:A 10405:{ 10399:j 10396:, 10393:i 10382:= 10379:) 10370:A 10364:, 10361:A 10358:( 10355:L 10335:N 10315:, 10306:A 10299:d 10294:A 10290:d 10285:) 10281:) 10272:A 10266:, 10263:A 10260:( 10257:L 10253:( 10240:N 10237:= 10228:A 10221:d 10216:A 10212:d 10207:) 10198:A 10192:, 10189:A 10186:( 10183:P 10154:A 10128:) 10125:t 10119:+ 10116:t 10113:( 10110:A 10090:) 10087:t 10084:( 10081:A 10061:) 10058:t 10055:( 10052:A 10046:) 10043:t 10037:+ 10034:t 10031:( 10028:A 10008:A 10004:d 10000:) 9997:A 9993:d 9988:/ 9980:d 9976:( 9970:) 9967:) 9964:A 9961:( 9955:( 9950:) 9944:( 9940:P 9936:= 9933:A 9929:d 9925:) 9922:A 9919:( 9916:P 9872:d 9868:) 9862:( 9857:) 9851:( 9847:P 9809:2 9804:X 9796:3 9793:+ 9788:2 9783:X 9773:= 9769:p 9765:d 9761:r 9757:d 9751:2 9746:r 9741:) 9738:t 9735:, 9731:p 9727:, 9723:r 9719:( 9716:f 9710:= 9702:2 9698:) 9694:t 9691:( 9687:r 9659:. 9654:t 9644:e 9635:p 9630:= 9625:P 9614:; 9606:p 9600:) 9594:t 9584:e 9577:1 9573:( 9567:1 9560:) 9553:m 9550:( 9547:+ 9539:r 9534:= 9529:X 9512:2 9507:) 9501:t 9491:e 9484:1 9480:( 9470:P 9460:X 9447:T 9442:B 9438:k 9431:= 9419:) 9413:t 9407:2 9400:e 9393:1 9389:( 9385:T 9379:B 9374:k 9370:m 9367:= 9362:2 9357:P 9348:; 9344:] 9338:2 9333:) 9327:t 9317:e 9310:2 9306:( 9298:t 9292:2 9289:+ 9286:1 9282:[ 9273:2 9265:m 9260:T 9254:B 9249:k 9242:= 9237:2 9232:X 9197:] 9192:) 9183:P 9173:X 9163:) 9158:P 9144:p 9140:( 9134:) 9129:X 9115:r 9111:( 9105:2 9092:2 9087:P 9076:2 9071:| 9064:P 9050:p 9045:| 9038:+ 9031:2 9026:X 9015:2 9010:| 9003:X 8989:r 8984:| 8976:( 8969:) 8964:2 8953:1 8950:( 8947:2 8943:1 8934:[ 8911:d 8906:) 8898:2 8887:1 8880:P 8870:X 8859:2 8855:( 8850:1 8843:= 8840:) 8837:t 8834:, 8830:p 8826:, 8822:r 8818:( 8815:f 8791:) 8783:p 8774:p 8770:( 8764:) 8756:r 8747:r 8743:( 8737:= 8734:) 8731:0 8728:, 8724:p 8720:, 8716:r 8712:( 8709:f 8684:p 8657:r 8635:0 8632:= 8629:t 8603:d 8598:R 8571:= 8568:) 8564:r 8560:( 8557:V 8537:d 8523:p 8502:2 8496:p 8479:p 8473:r 8451:p 8422:r 8396:f 8391:2 8385:p 8375:T 8369:B 8364:k 8357:m 8354:+ 8350:) 8346:f 8342:) 8338:r 8334:( 8331:V 8324:( 8314:p 8305:+ 8301:) 8297:f 8292:p 8287:( 8277:p 8265:= 8262:f 8256:r 8243:p 8237:m 8234:1 8229:+ 8223:t 8215:f 8188:p 8163:) 8156:t 8149:t 8146:( 8139:I 8135:= 8129:) 8122:t 8118:( 8110:) 8107:t 8104:( 8098:T 8083:, 8080:) 8077:t 8074:( 8064:T 8058:B 8053:k 8046:m 8043:2 8038:+ 8035:) 8031:r 8027:( 8024:V 8014:p 8003:= 7989:p 7976:m 7972:p 7966:= 7952:r 7906:) 7901:H 7893:( 7876:= 7873:) 7870:A 7867:( 7862:0 7858:p 7854:= 7851:) 7848:A 7845:( 7842:P 7822:. 7818:) 7814:t 7811:, 7808:A 7804:( 7800:P 7796:) 7787:j 7783:A 7768:j 7765:, 7762:i 7754:+ 7746:j 7742:A 7731:H 7718:j 7715:, 7712:i 7704:+ 7696:j 7692:A 7681:H 7669:] 7663:j 7659:A 7655:, 7650:i 7646:A 7641:[ 7637:T 7632:B 7628:k 7620:( 7611:i 7607:A 7592:j 7589:, 7586:i 7578:= 7572:t 7563:) 7559:t 7556:, 7553:A 7549:( 7545:P 7519:A 7498:) 7494:t 7491:, 7488:A 7484:( 7480:P 7440:. 7436:) 7429:T 7424:B 7420:k 7414:) 7411:x 7408:( 7405:V 7395:( 7382:) 7379:x 7376:( 7373:p 7353:, 7350:0 7347:= 7344:) 7341:x 7338:( 7331:p 7326:T 7321:B 7317:k 7312:+ 7309:) 7306:x 7303:( 7300:p 7294:x 7286:V 7260:f 7236:0 7230:= 7223:x 7220:d 7216:) 7212:) 7209:x 7206:( 7199:p 7195:) 7192:x 7189:( 7182:f 7177:T 7172:B 7168:k 7160:) 7157:x 7154:( 7151:p 7145:x 7137:V 7128:) 7125:x 7122:( 7115:f 7107:( 7096:= 7089:x 7086:d 7082:) 7078:) 7075:x 7072:( 7069:p 7066:) 7063:x 7060:( 7053:f 7048:T 7043:B 7039:k 7034:+ 7031:) 7028:x 7025:( 7022:p 7016:x 7008:V 6999:) 6996:x 6993:( 6986:f 6978:( 6947:) 6944:x 6941:( 6938:p 6913:= 6905:) 6902:x 6899:( 6892:f 6888:T 6883:B 6879:k 6875:+ 6869:x 6861:V 6852:) 6849:x 6846:( 6839:f 6807:) 6804:) 6801:t 6798:( 6795:x 6792:( 6789:f 6764:. 6759:t 6755:B 6751:d 6744:x 6736:f 6725:t 6717:+ 6714:t 6711:d 6707:) 6698:2 6694:x 6685:f 6680:2 6667:2 6662:2 6657:t 6647:+ 6641:x 6633:f 6622:t 6614:+ 6608:t 6600:f 6590:( 6586:= 6583:f 6580:d 6570:) 6568:x 6564:t 6562:( 6560:f 6543:t 6539:B 6535:d 6529:t 6521:+ 6518:t 6515:d 6509:t 6501:= 6496:t 6492:X 6488:d 6463:, 6460:0 6457:= 6449:) 6446:) 6443:t 6440:( 6437:x 6434:( 6431:f 6420:t 6417:d 6413:d 6391:) 6388:t 6385:( 6382:x 6362:) 6359:) 6356:t 6353:( 6350:x 6347:( 6344:f 6324:f 6300:) 6293:t 6286:t 6283:( 6274:T 6269:B 6265:k 6261:2 6258:= 6250:) 6243:t 6239:( 6233:) 6230:t 6227:( 6199:) 6196:t 6193:( 6150:, 6144:t 6141:d 6134:t 6130:B 6126:d 6118:T 6113:B 6109:k 6102:2 6097:+ 6091:x 6083:) 6080:x 6077:( 6074:V 6059:) 6056:t 6053:( 6047:+ 6041:x 6033:) 6030:x 6027:( 6024:V 6012:= 6006:t 6003:d 5998:x 5995:d 5969:) 5966:t 5963:( 5960:x 5904:t 5901:D 5898:6 5895:= 5892:t 5889:T 5884:B 5880:k 5873:6 5870:= 5867:m 5863:/ 5859:t 5853:T 5848:B 5844:k 5840:6 5831:) 5822:t 5819:( 5814:2 5810:r 5760:2 5756:t 5752:) 5749:0 5746:( 5741:2 5737:v 5727:) 5718:t 5715:( 5710:2 5706:r 5680:. 5677:t 5669:m 5665:T 5660:B 5656:k 5652:6 5646:+ 5642:) 5632:/ 5628:t 5621:e 5614:3 5610:( 5605:) 5595:/ 5591:t 5584:e 5577:1 5573:( 5567:2 5557:m 5553:T 5548:B 5544:k 5540:3 5529:2 5524:) 5514:/ 5510:t 5503:e 5496:1 5492:( 5485:2 5477:) 5474:0 5471:( 5466:2 5462:v 5458:= 5452:) 5449:t 5446:( 5441:2 5437:r 5406:) 5403:0 5400:( 5396:v 5374:) 5364:/ 5360:t 5353:e 5346:1 5342:( 5335:) 5332:0 5329:( 5325:v 5321:= 5315:) 5312:t 5309:( 5305:r 5279:. 5272:t 5268:d 5264:] 5254:/ 5250:) 5243:t 5236:t 5233:( 5226:e 5219:1 5215:[ 5211:) 5204:t 5200:( 5196:a 5190:t 5185:0 5174:+ 5170:) 5160:/ 5156:t 5149:e 5142:1 5138:( 5131:) 5128:0 5125:( 5121:v 5117:= 5114:) 5111:t 5108:( 5104:r 5083:) 5080:t 5077:( 5073:r 5052:) 5049:t 5046:( 5042:v 5018:t 4998:m 4994:/ 4990:T 4985:B 4981:k 4977:3 4974:= 4968:) 4965:t 4962:( 4957:2 4953:v 4929:m 4925:/ 4921:T 4916:B 4912:k 4908:3 4905:= 4902:) 4899:0 4896:( 4891:2 4887:v 4862:m 4858:/ 4854:T 4849:B 4845:k 4841:3 4821:) 4818:t 4815:, 4812:t 4809:( 4804:v 4801:v 4797:R 4785:t 4777:= 4771:) 4768:t 4765:( 4760:2 4756:v 4741:t 4714:c 4710:t 4698:1 4694:t 4682:2 4678:t 4657:) 4649:2 4645:t 4641:( 4637:a 4616:) 4608:1 4604:t 4600:( 4596:a 4571:, 4566:] 4555:/ 4551:) 4546:2 4542:t 4538:+ 4533:1 4529:t 4525:( 4518:e 4505:/ 4500:| 4494:1 4490:t 4481:2 4477:t 4472:| 4464:e 4458:[ 4452:] 4448:) 4445:0 4442:( 4437:2 4433:v 4424:m 4420:T 4415:B 4411:k 4407:3 4400:[ 4396:+ 4387:/ 4382:| 4376:1 4372:t 4363:2 4359:t 4354:| 4346:e 4342:) 4339:0 4336:( 4331:2 4327:v 4308:2 4304:t 4300:d 4292:1 4288:t 4284:d 4275:/ 4271:) 4263:2 4259:t 4247:1 4243:t 4234:2 4230:t 4226:+ 4221:1 4217:t 4213:( 4206:e 4202:) 4194:2 4190:t 4186:, 4178:1 4174:t 4170:( 4165:a 4162:a 4158:R 4150:2 4146:t 4140:0 4128:1 4124:t 4118:0 4110:+ 4101:/ 4097:) 4092:2 4088:t 4084:+ 4079:1 4075:t 4071:( 4064:e 4060:) 4057:0 4054:( 4049:2 4045:v 4041:= 4028:) 4023:2 4019:t 4015:( 4011:v 4004:) 3999:1 3995:t 3991:( 3987:v 3973:) 3968:2 3964:t 3960:, 3955:1 3951:t 3947:( 3942:v 3939:v 3935:R 3909:v 3881:m 3878:= 3855:, 3848:t 3844:d 3835:/ 3831:) 3824:t 3817:t 3814:( 3807:e 3803:) 3796:t 3792:( 3788:a 3782:t 3777:0 3769:+ 3760:/ 3756:t 3749:e 3745:) 3742:0 3739:( 3735:v 3731:= 3728:) 3725:t 3722:( 3718:v 3697:0 3694:= 3685:) 3682:t 3679:( 3649:c 3645:t 3624:) 3621:t 3618:( 3614:a 3610:m 3607:= 3604:) 3601:t 3598:( 3553:t 3550:d 3546:/ 3541:r 3537:d 3534:= 3530:v 3509:, 3506:) 3503:t 3500:( 3492:+ 3483:v 3474:= 3468:t 3465:d 3459:v 3455:d 3449:m 3429:m 3410:m 3408:/ 3406:T 3403:B 3400:k 3396:m 3394:/ 3392:T 3389:B 3386:k 3382:m 3380:/ 3378:T 3375:B 3372:k 3349:2 3345:x 3341:k 3336:2 3333:1 3328:= 3325:U 3295:x 3292:k 3286:) 3283:t 3280:( 3274:+ 3271:v 3262:= 3256:t 3253:d 3248:v 3245:d 3239:m 3181:. 3176:) 3168:t 3161:t 3157:( 3146:) 3137:x 3128:x 3123:( 3111:2 3108:= 3094:) 3086:t 3082:, 3074:x 3068:( 3057:) 3053:t 3050:, 3046:x 3041:( 3024:, 3020:] 3014:2 3009:) 2998:( 2991:2 2988:1 2983:+ 2978:4 2970:u 2967:+ 2962:2 2952:0 2948:r 2942:2 2939:1 2933:[ 2929:x 2924:d 2920:d 2913:= 2904:H 2895:, 2890:) 2886:t 2883:, 2879:x 2874:( 2866:+ 2850:H 2833:= 2824:) 2820:t 2817:, 2813:x 2808:( 2797:t 2734:C 2719:, 2715:) 2707:t 2700:t 2696:( 2689:T 2684:B 2680:k 2676:R 2673:2 2666:) 2659:C 2656:R 2651:| 2643:t 2636:t 2632:| 2622:( 2610:C 2606:T 2601:B 2597:k 2590:= 2581:) 2574:t 2570:( 2566:U 2562:) 2559:t 2556:( 2552:U 2525:. 2521:) 2513:t 2506:t 2502:( 2490:2 2486:C 2482:R 2477:T 2472:B 2468:k 2464:2 2458:= 2449:) 2442:t 2438:( 2430:) 2427:t 2424:( 2410:, 2406:) 2403:t 2400:( 2393:+ 2387:C 2384:R 2380:U 2372:= 2366:t 2362:d 2356:U 2352:d 2328:) 2325:T 2320:B 2316:k 2312:2 2309:( 2305:/ 2299:2 2295:U 2291:C 2288:= 2285:T 2280:B 2276:k 2271:/ 2267:E 2264:= 2259:H 2247:U 2243:C 2236:R 2192:p 2189:, 2186:x 2159:x 2133:x 2112:m 2108:/ 2103:p 2099:= 2096:t 2092:d 2087:/ 2082:x 2077:d 2054:j 2051:, 2048:i 2040:= 2037:] 2032:j 2028:p 2024:, 2019:i 2015:x 2011:[ 1991:} 1987:p 1983:, 1979:x 1975:{ 1972:= 1969:A 1949:} 1945:p 1941:{ 1938:= 1935:A 1914:) 1910:T 1905:B 1901:k 1897:m 1894:2 1890:( 1885:/ 1879:2 1874:p 1869:= 1864:H 1837:j 1833:A 1810:i 1806:A 1781:] 1776:j 1772:A 1768:, 1763:i 1759:A 1755:[ 1735:A 1714:) 1711:A 1708:( 1702:0 1698:p 1672:) 1667:0 1663:p 1659:( 1646:= 1641:H 1619:A 1577:j 1573:A 1568:d 1563:/ 1557:j 1554:, 1551:i 1542:d 1499:i 1496:, 1493:j 1485:= 1480:j 1477:, 1474:i 1444:. 1440:) 1432:t 1425:t 1421:( 1413:) 1410:A 1407:( 1401:j 1398:, 1395:i 1387:2 1384:= 1375:) 1368:t 1364:( 1358:j 1349:) 1346:t 1343:( 1337:i 1302:) 1299:t 1296:( 1290:i 1263:. 1259:) 1256:t 1253:( 1247:i 1239:+ 1231:j 1227:A 1222:d 1214:) 1211:A 1208:( 1202:j 1199:, 1196:i 1186:d 1177:j 1168:+ 1160:j 1156:A 1151:d 1143:H 1137:d 1129:) 1126:A 1123:( 1117:j 1114:, 1111:i 1100:j 1083:j 1079:A 1074:d 1066:H 1059:d 1050:] 1044:j 1040:A 1036:, 1031:i 1027:A 1022:[ 1015:j 1007:T 1002:B 998:k 994:= 988:t 984:d 976:i 972:A 967:d 943:} 938:i 934:A 930:{ 927:= 924:A 870:) 867:t 864:( 855:| 851:) 848:t 845:( 841:v 836:| 806:. 803:t 799:d 794:) 789:) 786:t 783:( 774:+ 770:v 759:( 753:t 745:= 741:v 737:m 717:t 713:d 708:/ 703:v 698:d 676:) 673:t 670:( 568:t 524:) 521:t 518:( 491:) 488:t 485:( 479:i 454:T 428:B 424:k 403:, 399:) 391:t 384:t 380:( 371:j 368:, 365:i 357:T 352:B 348:k 341:2 338:= 329:) 322:t 318:( 312:j 303:) 300:t 297:( 291:i 256:) 253:t 250:( 223:) 220:t 217:( 182:m 141:v 118:. 114:) 111:t 108:( 99:+ 95:v 85:= 79:t 75:d 68:v 63:d 56:m

Index

Paul Langevin
stochastic differential equation
Brownian motion
Brownian motion
Stokes' law
noise term
Gaussian probability distribution
Boltzmann constant
δ {\displaystyle \delta } -function
Einstein relation
stochastic differential equation
ItĂ´ calculus
critical dynamics
Zwanzig projection operator
Gaussian probability distribution
Onsager reciprocity relation
Hamiltonian
Poisson bracket

Johnson noise
resistance
capacitance
order parameter
critical point
universality class

harmonic oscillator

Phase space
fluctuation dissipation theorem

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