17:
678:
25:
131:
argued that a large bird would be able to produce more young than a small bird. Williams replied that this would be a bad reproductive strategy, as large birds have lower mortality and therefore a higher residual reproductive value over their whole lives (so taking a large short-term risk is
132:
unjustified). Williams' reply "is one of the most cited papers in life history evolution because it ... made it conceptually possible to find the optimal life history strategies in age-structured populations".
111:
of the individual. Williams noted that this would contribute to the discussion on whether (as Lack argued) an organism's reproductive processes are tuned to serve its own reproductive interest (
54:, the principle can be formalised and generalised to apply to reproducing organisms in general, including animals and plants. Work based on Lack's principle by
350:
91:
notes that the argument applies also to organisms other than birds, both animals and plants, giving the example of the production of
527:
Genes increase in frequency when relatedness of recipient to actor times benefit to recipient exceeds reproductive cost to actor
290:
Pasztor, E.; Loeschcke, V. (November 1989). "The
Coherence of Cole's Result and Williams' Refinement of Lack's Principle".
84:(young that successfully fly from the nest) because the parent birds will be unable to collect enough food for them all.
423:
652:
557:
The correlation between the size of an animal and its diet quality; larger animals can consume lower quality diet
50:
to correspond with the largest number of young for which the parents can, on average, provide enough food". As a
343:
244:
88:
55:
80:
Lack's principle implies that birds that happen to lay more eggs than the optimum will most likely have fewer
734:
597:
Sexual size dimorphism increases with size when males are larger, decreases with size when females are larger
729:
617:
A population at limit of tolerance in one aspect is vulnerable to small differences in any other aspect
607:
Groups evolve from character variation in primitive species to a fixed character state in advanced ones
247:(November 1966). "Natural Selection, the Costs of Reproduction, and a Refinement of Lack's Principle".
724:
692:
552:
336:
662:
128:
226:
146:
107:, namely that the effort spent on reproduction must be worth the cost, compared to the long-term
16:
85:
547:
In cladistics, the most primitive species are found in earliest, central, part of group's area
453:
299:
108:
100:
59:
29:
8:
208:
303:
677:
582:
512:
413:
393:
315:
272:
264:
173:
116:
63:
28:
If there are too many mouths to feed, fewer young will survive, reducing the parents'
632:
612:
502:
467:
433:
383:
112:
81:
75:
47:
276:
592:
562:
532:
492:
471:
463:
359:
307:
256:
46:
in 1954, states that "the clutch size of each species of bird has been adapted by
642:
443:
373:
124:
51:
657:
Embryos start from a common form and develop into increasingly specialised forms
622:
602:
482:
403:
718:
700:
567:
Inverse relationship between water temperature and no. of fin rays, vertebrae
522:
40:
542:
190:
104:
667:
Parts in an organism become reduced in number and specialized in function
477:
Small species get larger, large species smaller, after colonizing islands
704:
Large ectothermic animals more easily maintain constant body temperature
319:
268:
168:
96:
43:
141:
311:
99:
as an equivalent case. Williams formalised the argument to create a
637:
No. of eggs of benthic marine invertebrates decreases with latitude
328:
260:
120:
20:
Birds lay only as many eggs as they will be able to provide for.
507:
Hybrid sexes that are absent, rare, or sterile, are heterogamic
448:
Insect social parasites are often in same genus as their hosts
92:
24:
647:
Probability of extinction of a group is constant over time
627:
The top of an animals coloration is darker than the bottom
225:
577:
Birds lay only as many eggs as they can provide food for
289:
119:
proposed, to increase the chances of survival of the
207:
243:
101:
mathematical theory of evolutionary decision-making
172:
537:An animals metabolic rate decreases with its size
716:
213:Animal dispersion in relation to social behavior
696:Where genetics opposes environment as a factor
458:Host and parasite phylogenies become congruent
344:
189:
103:, based on the framework outlined in 1930 by
497:Lighter coloration in colder, drier climates
229:(1955). Cragg, J. B.; Pirie, N. W. (eds.).
167:
517:Parasites co-vary in size with their hosts
351:
337:
163:
161:
587:Latitudinal range increases with latitude
195:The genetical theory of natural selection
23:
15:
158:
717:
428:Loss of complex traits is irreversible
378:Shorter appendages in colder climates
332:
358:
487:Complete competitors cannot coexist
388:Extra limbs mirror their neighbours
13:
438:Parasites co-vary with their hosts
233:. Oliver and Boyd. pp. 54–55.
123:to which the individual belonged (
58:and others has led to an improved
14:
746:
418:Larger bodies in deep-sea animals
676:
398:Larger bodies in colder climates
175:The regulation of animal numbers
283:
237:
231:The numbers of man and animals
219:
201:
183:
1:
152:
69:
7:
408:Bodies get larger over time
135:
10:
751:
197:. Oxford University Press.
73:
60:mathematical understanding
39:, proposed by the British
693:Countergradient variation
685:
674:
543:Hennig's progression rule
366:
227:Cloudsley-Thompson, J. L.
249:The American Naturalist
147:Survival of the fittest
129:J.L. Cloudsley-Thompson
86:Evolutionary biologist
33:
21:
553:Jarman–Bell principle
74:Further information:
27:
19:
735:Evolutionary biology
209:Wynne-Edwards, V. C.
109:reproductive fitness
30:reproductive fitness
304:1989Oikos..56..416P
245:Williams, George C.
730:Evolution of birds
613:Schmalhausen's law
414:Deep-sea gigantism
179:. Clarendon Press.
117:V.C. Wynne-Edwards
89:George C. Williams
64:population biology
56:George C. Williams
34:
22:
712:
711:
468:Insular gigantism
454:Fahrenholz's rule
215:. Oliver and Boy.
127:). The zoologist
113:natural selection
76:Natural selection
48:natural selection
742:
725:Biological rules
705:
697:
680:
669:
668:
659:
658:
649:
648:
639:
638:
629:
628:
619:
618:
609:
608:
599:
598:
589:
588:
579:
578:
573:Lack's principle
569:
568:
559:
558:
549:
548:
539:
538:
529:
528:
519:
518:
509:
508:
499:
498:
489:
488:
479:
478:
472:Insular dwarfism
460:
459:
450:
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440:
439:
430:
429:
420:
419:
410:
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400:
399:
390:
389:
380:
379:
360:Biological rules
353:
346:
339:
330:
329:
324:
323:
287:
281:
280:
255:(916): 687–690.
241:
235:
234:
223:
217:
216:
205:
199:
198:
187:
181:
180:
178:
165:
37:Lack's principle
750:
749:
745:
744:
743:
741:
740:
739:
715:
714:
713:
708:
703:
695:
681:
672:
666:
665:
663:Williston's law
656:
655:
653:von Baer's laws
646:
645:
643:Van Valen's law
636:
635:
626:
625:
616:
615:
606:
605:
596:
595:
586:
585:
583:Rapoport's rule
576:
575:
566:
565:
556:
555:
546:
545:
536:
535:
526:
525:
523:Hamilton's rule
516:
515:
513:Harrison's rule
506:
505:
496:
495:
486:
485:
476:
475:
457:
456:
447:
446:
437:
436:
427:
426:
417:
416:
407:
406:
397:
396:
394:Bergmann's rule
387:
386:
377:
376:
362:
357:
327:
312:10.2307/3565627
288:
284:
242:
238:
224:
220:
206:
202:
188:
184:
166:
159:
155:
138:
125:group selection
78:
72:
52:biological rule
12:
11:
5:
748:
738:
737:
732:
727:
710:
709:
707:
706:
698:
689:
687:
683:
682:
675:
673:
671:
670:
660:
650:
640:
633:Thorson's rule
630:
620:
610:
600:
590:
580:
570:
560:
550:
540:
530:
520:
510:
503:Haldane's rule
500:
490:
480:
461:
451:
441:
434:Eichler's rule
431:
421:
411:
401:
391:
384:Bateson's rule
381:
370:
368:
364:
363:
356:
355:
348:
341:
333:
326:
325:
298:(3): 416–420.
282:
261:10.1086/282461
236:
218:
200:
182:
156:
154:
151:
150:
149:
144:
137:
134:
71:
68:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
747:
736:
733:
731:
728:
726:
723:
722:
720:
702:
701:Gigantothermy
699:
694:
691:
690:
688:
684:
679:
664:
661:
654:
651:
644:
641:
634:
631:
624:
621:
614:
611:
604:
601:
594:
593:Rensch's rule
591:
584:
581:
574:
571:
564:
563:Jordan's rule
561:
554:
551:
544:
541:
534:
533:Kleiber's law
531:
524:
521:
514:
511:
504:
501:
494:
493:Gloger's rule
491:
484:
481:
473:
469:
465:
464:Foster's rule
462:
455:
452:
445:
442:
435:
432:
425:
422:
415:
412:
405:
402:
395:
392:
385:
382:
375:
372:
371:
369:
365:
361:
354:
349:
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342:
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297:
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278:
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266:
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258:
254:
250:
246:
240:
232:
228:
222:
214:
210:
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196:
192:
191:Fisher, R. A.
186:
177:
176:
170:
164:
162:
157:
148:
145:
143:
140:
139:
133:
130:
126:
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118:
114:
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106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
87:
83:
77:
67:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
42:
41:ornithologist
38:
31:
26:
18:
623:Thayer's law
572:
444:Emery's rule
374:Allen's rule
295:
291:
285:
252:
248:
239:
230:
221:
212:
203:
194:
185:
174:
105:R. A. Fisher
79:
36:
35:
603:Rosa's rule
483:Gause's law
424:Dollo's law
404:Cope's rule
169:Lack, David
97:seed plants
719:Categories
153:References
82:fledglings
44:David Lack
142:Evolution
115:), or as
70:Principle
277:84993886
211:(1962).
193:(1930).
171:(1954).
136:See also
686:Related
320:3565627
300:Bibcode
269:2459305
121:species
318:
275:
267:
93:ovules
367:Rules
316:JSTOR
292:Oikos
273:S2CID
265:JSTOR
308:doi
257:doi
253:100
95:by
62:of
721::
474:)
470:,
314:.
306:.
296:56
294:.
271:.
263:.
251:.
160:^
66:.
466:(
352:e
345:t
338:v
322:.
310::
302::
279:.
259::
32:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
