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theories that have a high probability. Popper notes that this "may illustrate
Schopenhauer's remark that the solution of a problem often first looks like a paradox and later like a truism". Even a highly unlikely theory that conflicts with a current observation (and is thus false, like "all swans are white") must be considered to be better than one which fits observations perfectly, but is highly probable (like "all swans have a color"). This insight is the crucial difference between naive falsificationism and critical rationalism. The lower probability theory is favoured by critical rationalism because the greater the informative content of a theory the lower will be its probability, for the more information a statement contains, the greater will be the number of ways in which it may turn out to be false. The rationale behind this is simply to make it as easy as possible to find out whether the theory is false so that it can be replaced by one that is closer to the truth. It is not meant as a concession to justificatory epistemology, like assuming a theory to be "justifiable" by asserting that it is highly unlikely and yet fits observation.
1394:(e.g. Popper, 1959) agrees that experience is a test of theories (its only concern) but claims that only negative evidence counts (against), for positive evidence is too easy to come by. True, unsuccessful attempts to refute a theory (or discredit a proposal or an artifact) are more valuable than mere empirical confirmation. However, (a) the most general theories are not refutable, although they are indirectly confirmable by turning them into specific theories upon adjoining them specific hypotheses (Bunge, 1973b); (b) true (or approximately true) predictions are not that cheap, as shown by the predictive barrenness of pseudoscience; (c) positive evidence for the truth of an idea or the efficiency of a proposal, procedure, or artifact, does count: thus the US Food and Drug Administration will rightly demand positive evidence for the efficiency of a drug before permitting its marketing.
928:, attacks the use of "good reasons" in general (including evidence supposed to support the excess content of a hypothesis). He argues that good reasons are neither attainable, nor even desirable. Basically, Miller asserts that all arguments purporting to give valid support for a claim are either circular or question-begging. That is, if one provides a valid deductive argument (an inference from premises to a conclusion) for a given claim, then the content of the claim must already be contained within the premises of the argument (if it is not, then the argument is
160:
807:; it instead holds the exact opposite: that, in general, knowledge is unjustified untrue unbelief. It is unjustified because of the non-existence of good reasons. It is untrue, because it usually contains errors that sometimes remain unnoticed for hundreds of years. And it is not belief either, because scientific knowledge, or the knowledge needed to, for example, build an airplane, is contained in no single person's mind. It is only what is recorded in artifacts such as books.
822:, the view that scientific theories can be justified. Most justificationists do not know that they are justificationists. Justificationism is what Popper called a "subjectivist" view of truth, in which the question of whether some statement is true is confused with the question of whether it can be justified (established, proven, verified, warranted, made well-founded, made reliable, grounded, supported, legitimated, based on evidence) in some way.
43:
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potentially falsifiable can then be admitted to the body of empirical science, and then further differentiated according to whether they are retained or are later actually falsified. If retained, further differentiation may be made on the basis of how much subjection to criticism they have received, how severe such criticism has been, and how probable the theory is, with the
856:. In justificationism, criticism consists of trying to show that a claim cannot be reduced to the authority or criteria that it appeals to. That is, it regards the justification of a claim as primary, while the claim itself is secondary. By contrast, non-justificational criticism works towards attacking claims themselves.
893:
was shown to be illogical by Hume. A thousand observations of some event A coinciding with some event B does not allow one to logically infer that all A events coincide with B events. According to the critical rationalist, if there is a sense in which humans accrue knowledge positively by experience,
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Because of all these differences between law statements and empirical generalizations, the empiricist epistemology, which favors the latter and mistrusts or even rejects the former, does not fit the facts of scientific practice. Nor does critical rationalism, for which all hypotheses are groundless,
876:
them from observational data. Such "proof" would require us to infer a general rule from a number of individual cases, which can have predictive use but is inadmissible by the rules of logic. However, if we find one single black swan, logic allows us to conclude that the statement that all swans are
1537:
On three items, Bunge sharply criticizes Popper: on confirmations, on social institutions and on the mind-body problem. Nevertheless, we need some sense of proportion. Seeing that Popper and Bunge are generally allies, in comparison with most philosophers around, we may then go into detail and try
1486:
While his philosophy shares a great deal of common ground with the critical rationalism of Karl Popper (which Bunge dubs 'logical negativism'), he is adamant that criticism, refutation, and falsification should not be overrated. Bunge, along with others (e.g., Bhaskar 1975; Keuth 1978; Trigg 1980;
760:
approaches to knowledge. Critical rationalism holds that knowledge is objective (in the sense of being embodied in various substrates and in the sense of not being reducible to what humans individually "know"), and also that truth is objective (exists independently of social mediation or individual
799:
In this sense, critical rationalism turns the normal understanding of a traditional rationalist, and a realist, on its head. Especially the view that a theory is better if it is less likely to be true is in direct opposition to the traditional positivistic view, which holds that one should seek
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content) can and should be subjected to tests which may falsify them. Thus claims to knowledge may be contrastingly and normatively evaluated. They are either falsifiable and thus empirical (in a very broad sense), or not falsifiable and thus non-empirical. Those claims to knowledge that are
894:
it is only by pivoting observations off existing conjectural theories pertinent to the observations, or off underlying cognitive schemas which unconsciously handle perceptions and use them to generate new theories. But these new theories advanced in response to perceived particulars are not
1447:
I will endeavor to demonstrate that Popper's theory of the three worlds is unacceptable, that Popper's arguments against materialism do not affect Bunge's ontology, and that starting from this ontology the foundations of rationality can be framed in a more consistent and more 'critical'
955:, who edited a book dedicated to Popper in 1964 that included a paper by Bartley, appreciated critical rationalism but found it insufficient as a comprehensive philosophy of science, so he built upon it (and many other ideas) to formulate his own account of
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knowledge, that there is no source of epistemological absolutism. But they conclude (wrongly, according to the critical rationalist) that there is therefore no rationality, and no objective distinction to be made between the true and the false.
825:
According to
Bartley, some justificationists are positive about this mistake. They are naĂŻve rationalists, and thinking that their knowledge can indeed be founded, in principle, it may be deemed certain to some degree, and rational.
841:) regards knowledge and rationality, reason and science, as neither foundational nor infallible, but nevertheless does not think we must therefore all be relativists. Knowledge and truth still exist, just not in the way we thought.
795:
Supposed positive evidence (such as the provision of "good reasons" for a claim, or its having been "corroborated" by making successful predictions) does nothing to bolster, support, or prove a claim, belief, or theory.
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we do this we are often successful, but this is due to the advanced state of our evolved tendencies. If we were really "inducting" theories from particulars, it would be inductively logical to claim that the sun sets
740:
probable theory that is to be preferred is one of the contrasting differences between critical rationalism and classical views on science, such as positivism, which holds that one should instead accept the
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and so is invalid). Therefore, the claim is already presupposed by the premises, and is no more "supported" than are the assumptions upon which the claim rests, i.e. begging the question.
1580:. More than a thousand headwords about critical rationalism, the most important arguments of K.R. Popper and H. Albert, quotations of the original wording. Edition for students in 2006,
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However, this contrastive, critical approach to objective knowledge is quite different from more traditional views that also hold knowledge to be objective. (These include the
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Other justificationists are negative about these mistakes. They are epistemological relativists, and think (rightly, according to the critical rationalist) that you cannot
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probable theory. The least probable theory is preferred because it is the one with the highest information content and most open to future falsification.
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on the basis that, if a statement cannot be logically deduced (from what is known), it might nevertheless be possible to logically falsify it. Following
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Rescher 1987; Lane 1996; Kukla 1998; Brante 2001), is advocating scientific realism as an alternative to both positivist and antipositivist approaches.
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showed in 1983 that evidence supposed to partly support a hypothesis can, in fact, only be neutral to, or even be counter-supportive of the hypothesis.
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788:.) For criticism is all that can be done when attempting to differentiate claims to knowledge, according to the critical rationalist. Reason is the
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Quintanilla, Miguel A. (1982). "Materialist
Foundations of Critical Rationalism". In Agassi, Joseph; Cohen, Robert S. (eds.).
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none being better than any others except that some resist better the attempts at refuting them (Popper, 1959, 1963, 1974).
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white is false. Falsificationism thus strives for questioning, for falsification, of hypotheses instead of proving them.
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Are all swans white? The classical view of the philosophy of science is that it is the goal of science to “prove” such
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852:. However, not all proponents of critical rationalism oppose justificationism; it is supported most prominently by
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The rejection of "positivist" approaches to knowledge occurs due to various pitfalls that positivism falls into.
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Critical rationalism as a discourse positioned itself against what its proponents took to be epistemologically
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probable theory that still withstands attempts to falsify it being the one to be preferred. That it is the
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I get up in the morning, or that all buses must have drivers in them (if you've never seen an empty bus).
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compared critical rationalism to the very general philosophical approach to knowledge which he called
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1983:
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674:, i.e., any logic that can provide more knowledge than deductive logic. This led Popper to his
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Agassi, Joseph; Bar-Am, Nimrod (2019). "Bunge contra Popper". In
Matthews, Michael R. (ed.).
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David Miller, "Critical
Rationalism: A Restatement and Defense, Open Court Publishing, 1994,
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to contrast their views as best we can, starting with the most important disagreement.
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1456:"Systems and Mechanisms: A Symposium on Mario Bunge's Philosophy of Social Science"
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1415:. Boston Studies in the Philosophy Of Science. Vol. 67. Dordrecht; Boston:
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By dissolving justificationism itself, the critical rationalist (a proponent of
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1645:: Discusses critical rationalism from a libertarianist political point of view
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1572:, (Encyclopaedia of Critical Rationalism), TĂĽbingen (Mohr Siebeck) 2004,
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898:"induced" from them. These new theories may be wrong. The myth that we
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1613:(trial and error in jurisprudence), (Academy of Science, Mainz) 1991,
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302, April 21, "A Proof of the
Impossibility of Inductive Probability"
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Critical rationalism rejects the classical position that knowledge is
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of criticism, not of support; of tentative refutation, not of proof.
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1963:
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Popper wrote about critical rationalism in many works, including:
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1359:. Treatise on Basic Philosophy. Vol. 6. Dordrecht; Boston:
1316:. Treatise on Basic Philosophy. Vol. 5. Dordrecht; Boston:
1113:
The Myth of the
Framework: In Defence of Science and Rationality
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2755:
2179:
1083:
Conjectures and
Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge
720:
1667:
864:
3306:
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1817:
944:
developed a variation of critical rationalism that he called
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can and should be rationally criticized, and (if they have
1357:
Epistemology & Methodology II: Understanding the World
1140:(2nd English ed.). New York, NY: Routledge Classics.
1037:(2nd English ed.). New York, NY: Routledge Classics.
1276:. Science and Technology Studies. New Brunswick, NJ:
1591:
Parusniková, Zuzana & Robert S. Cohen (2009).
67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
27:Epistemological philosophy advanced by Karl Popper
3405:
902:theories from particulars is persistent because
1274:Critical Approaches to Science & Philosophy
1259:Critical Rationalism: A Restatement and Defence
1172:Critical Rationalism: A Restatement and Defence
860:The pitfalls of justificationism and positivism
2344:Fourth Great Debate in international relations
1649:Justified True Belief and Critical Rationalism
2771:
2296:
1833:
1683:
629:
2723:
2333:
2323:
2313:
2029:
1492:
1098:Unended Quest: An Intellectual Autobiography
1410:
1407:See, for example, among secondary sources:
1355:Bunge, Mario (1983). "Producing Evidence".
1160:, section 43, especially footnote *1 and *2
719:Critical rationalists hold that scientific
2778:
2764:
1840:
1826:
1690:
1676:
1071:, Princeton University Press, 2013, p.435.
951:Argentine-Canadian philosopher of science
636:
622:
158:
2247:Relationship between religion and science
844:Non-justificationism is also accepted by
714:
127:Learn how and when to remove this message
1631:Critical Rationalism: a personal account
1262:, Chapter 3 "A Critique of Good Reasons"
1126:
1124:
1122:
863:
567:Library and information science software
2568:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
810:
30:For the 1994 book by David Miller, see
14:
3406:
1923:Machian positivism (empirio-criticism)
1655:"Karl Popper and Critical Rationalism"
1611:Die experimentierende Methode im Recht
1560:Karl Popper, Science and Enlightenment
1453:
1312:Bunge, Mario (1983). "Systematizing".
1208:"Karl Popper and Critical Rationalism"
1169:
1130:
1029:
562:Geographic information system software
2759:
2295:
1821:
1671:
1354:
1311:
1271:
1119:
1570:Lexikon des Kritischen Rationalismus
1495:Mario Bunge: A Centenary Festschrift
780:, or approaches to science based on
65:adding citations to reliable sources
36:
1660:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1213:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
761:perception, but is "really real").
24:
2200:Nomothetic–idiographic distinction
1549:
25:
3445:
2528:The Logic of Scientific Discovery
2512:Materialism and Empirio-criticism
2368:The Course in Positive Philosophy
1765:The Logic of Scientific Discovery
1624:
1562:, UCL Press, London. Free online.
1461:Philosophy of the Social Sciences
1137:The Logic of Scientific Discovery
1035:The Logic of Scientific Discovery
684:The Logic of Scientific Discovery
2785:
1781:The Open Society and Its Enemies
1314:Epistemology & Methodology I
1068:The Open Society and Its Enemies
690:The Open Society and Its Enemies
41:
2520:History and Class Consciousness
1697:
1401:
1302:
1265:
1250:
1236:
52:needs additional citations for
3202:Analytic–synthetic distinction
2384:Critical History of Philosophy
1847:
1220:
1200:
1163:
1104:
1089:
1074:
1059:
1023:
13:
1:
2592:Knowledge and Human Interests
1928:Rankean historical positivism
1454:Pickel, Andreas (June 2004).
1016:
936:
2710:
2376:A General View of Positivism
1507:10.1007/978-3-030-16673-1_15
1425:10.1007/978-94-009-8462-2_14
1326:10.1007/978-94-009-7027-4_10
924:Related to the point above,
7:
3247:Internalism and externalism
2576:Conjectures and Refutations
2408:The Logic of Modern Physics
2225:Deductive-nomological model
1789:Conjectures and Refutations
1413:Scientific Philosophy Today
1369:10.1007/978-94-015-6921-7_2
1272:Bunge, Mario, ed. (1999) .
962:
752:philosophies, particularly
696:Conjectures and Refutations
10:
3450:
2536:The Poverty of Historicism
2432:The Universe in a Nutshell
2416:Language, Truth, and Logic
2400:The Analysis of Sensations
1773:The Poverty of Historicism
1320:. pp. 323–376 (368).
1116:, Routledge, 2014, p. xii.
1101:, Routledge, 2005, p. 132.
959:in his many publications.
29:
3373:
3322:
3171:
3078:Evolutionary epistemology
3048:
2793:
2744:
2692:
2626:
2616:The Rhetoric of Economics
2503:
2442:
2359:
2306:
2302:
2297:Positivist-related debate
2291:
2118:
2087:
2002:
1946:
1890:
1859:
1855:
1805:The Myth of the Framework
1756:
1705:
1643:Critical Rationalism Blog
1086:, Routledge, 2014, p. 34.
979:
708:The Myth of the Framework
589:Qualitative data analysis
3419:Epistemological theories
3350:Philosophy of perception
3153:Representational realism
3123:Naturalized epistemology
2552:Two Dogmas of Empiricism
2269:Structural functionalism
2195:Naturalism in literature
1474:10.1177/0048393103262549
1363:. pp. 59–113 (70).
723:and any other claims to
676:falsifiability criterion
3424:Epistemology of science
3330:Outline of epistemology
3163:Transcendental idealism
2679:Willard Van Orman Quine
2392:Idealism and Positivism
1984:Critique of metaphysics
1918:Sociological positivism
946:pancritical rationalism
3277:Problem of other minds
2724:
2693:Concepts in contention
2334:
2324:
2314:
2205:Objectivity in science
2103:Non-Euclidean geometry
2069:Methodological dualism
2030:
1278:Transaction Publishers
1170:Miller, David (1994).
942:William Warren Bartley
878:
816:William Warren Bartley
715:Criticism, not support
666:, Popper rejected any
468:Inferential statistics
414:Descriptive statistics
361:Human subject research
76:"Critical rationalism"
3434:Metatheory of science
3355:Philosophy of science
3335:Faith and rationality
3217:Descriptive knowledge
3088:Feminist epistemology
3028:Nicholas Wolterstorff
2600:The Poverty of Theory
2220:Philosophy of science
2109:Uncertainty principle
1743:Popper's three worlds
1566:Niemann, Hans-Joachim
1176:Open Court Publishing
867:
805:justified true belief
766:classical rationalism
252:Philosophical schools
3287:Procedural knowledge
3272:Problem of induction
2608:The Scientific Image
2279:Structuration theory
2242:Qualitative research
2143:Criticism of science
2138:Critical rationalism
2074:Problem of induction
1718:Critical rationalism
1501:. pp. 263–272.
1419:. pp. 225–237.
1392:Critical rationalism
969:MĂĽnchhausen trilemma
839:non-justificationism
811:Non-justificationism
649:Critical rationalism
577:Reference management
527:Scientific modelling
269:Critical rationalism
61:improve this article
32:Critical Rationalism
3365:Virtue epistemology
3360:Social epistemology
3340:Formal epistemology
3227:Epistemic injustice
3222:Exploratory thought
3023:Ludwig Wittgenstein
2584:One-Dimensional Man
2032:Geisteswissenschaft
2015:Confirmation holism
1738:Popper's experiment
1728:Growth of knowledge
778:logical positivists
557:Argument technology
3018:Timothy Williamson
2808:Augustine of Hippo
2659:Hans-Georg Gadamer
2460:Alexander Bogdanov
2336:Positivismusstreit
2131:Post-behavioralism
2095:history of science
1947:Principal concepts
1903:Logical positivism
1636:2008-10-16 at the
1607:Reinhold Zippelius
1308:See, for example:
1011:Reinhold Zippelius
974:Positivism dispute
957:scientific realism
879:
854:John W. N. Watkins
551:Tools and software
495:Secondary research
419:Discourse analysis
3401:
3400:
3267:Privileged access
2903:Søren Kierkegaard
2753:
2752:
2740:
2739:
2736:
2735:
2634:Theodor W. Adorno
2450:Richard Avenarius
2326:Werturteilsstreit
2287:
2286:
2235:Sense-data theory
1933:Polish positivism
1908:Positivist school
1815:
1814:
1593:Rethinking Popper
1556:Maxwell, Nicholas
646:
645:
612:Philosophy portal
520:Systematic review
505:Literature review
463:Historical method
446:Social experiment
381:Scientific method
366:Narrative inquiry
217:Interdisciplinary
211:Research strategy
182:Research question
177:Research proposal
137:
136:
129:
111:
16:(Redirected from
3441:
3345:Metaepistemology
3323:Related articles
3297:Regress argument
3232:Epistemic virtue
2983:Bertrand Russell
2958:Duncan Pritchard
2918:Hilary Kornblith
2833:Laurence BonJour
2780:
2773:
2766:
2757:
2756:
2729:
2715:
2639:Gaston Bachelard
2560:Truth and Method
2544:World Hypotheses
2424:The Two Cultures
2339:
2329:
2319:
2304:
2303:
2293:
2292:
2035:
1989:Unity of science
1898:Legal positivism
1857:
1856:
1842:
1835:
1828:
1819:
1818:
1692:
1685:
1678:
1669:
1668:
1664:
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1234:
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1204:
1198:
1197:
1167:
1161:
1159:
1128:
1117:
1108:
1102:
1093:
1087:
1078:
1072:
1063:
1057:
1056:
1027:
1006:Hans Adolf Krebs
820:justificationism
638:
631:
624:
584:Science software
483:Cultural mapping
451:Quasi-experiment
441:Field experiment
409:Content analysis
304:Critical realism
222:Multimethodology
162:
139:
138:
132:
125:
121:
118:
112:
110:
69:
45:
37:
21:
18:Justificationism
3449:
3448:
3444:
3443:
3442:
3440:
3439:
3438:
3404:
3403:
3402:
3397:
3369:
3318:
3237:Gettier problem
3167:
3098:Foundationalism
3044:
2993:Wilfrid Sellars
2948:Alvin Plantinga
2828:George Berkeley
2795:Epistemologists
2789:
2784:
2754:
2749:
2732:
2688:
2654:Paul Feyerabend
2649:Wilhelm Dilthey
2622:
2499:
2438:
2355:
2298:
2283:
2230:Ramsey sentence
2185:Instrumentalism
2114:
2092:
2090:paradigm shifts
2083:
2020:Critical theory
1998:
1994:Verificationism
1942:
1938:Russian Machism
1886:
1851:
1846:
1816:
1811:
1752:
1713:Bold hypothesis
1701:
1696:
1653:
1638:Wayback Machine
1627:
1552:
1550:Further reading
1547:
1546:
1517:
1499:Springer-Verlag
1435:
1406:
1402:
1379:
1336:
1307:
1303:
1288:
1270:
1266:
1255:
1251:
1241:
1237:
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1206:
1205:
1201:
1186:
1168:
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1148:
1129:
1120:
1109:
1105:
1094:
1090:
1079:
1075:
1064:
1060:
1045:
1028:
1024:
1019:
982:
965:
939:
862:
813:
774:verificationism
717:
668:inductive logic
653:epistemological
642:
606:
605:
552:
544:
543:
490:Phenomenography
429:Autoethnography
394:
386:
385:
346:Grounded theory
341:Critical theory
336:Art methodology
331:Action research
326:
316:
315:
254:
244:
243:
212:
204:
203:
172:
170:Research design
133:
122:
116:
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70:
68:
58:
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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3259:
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3209:
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3177:
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3155:
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3145:
3140:
3135:
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3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3063:Constructivism
3060:
3054:
3052:
3046:
3045:
3043:
3042:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3013:Baruch Spinoza
3010:
3008:P. F. Strawson
3005:
3000:
2998:Susanna Siegel
2995:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2973:W. V. O. Quine
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2873:Nelson Goodman
2870:
2865:
2863:Edmund Gettier
2860:
2855:
2850:
2848:René Descartes
2845:
2840:
2838:Gilles Deleuze
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2813:William Alston
2810:
2805:
2803:Thomas Aquinas
2799:
2797:
2791:
2790:
2783:
2782:
2775:
2768:
2760:
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2596:
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2524:
2516:
2507:
2505:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2475:Émile Durkheim
2472:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2446:
2444:
2440:
2439:
2437:
2436:
2428:
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2396:
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2380:
2372:
2363:
2361:
2357:
2356:
2354:
2353:
2347:
2341:
2331:
2321:
2316:Methodenstreit
2310:
2308:
2300:
2299:
2289:
2288:
2285:
2284:
2282:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2265:
2264:
2257:Social science
2254:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2238:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2217:
2212:
2210:Operationalism
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2176:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2134:
2133:
2122:
2120:
2119:Related topics
2116:
2115:
2113:
2112:
2106:
2099:
2097:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2027:
2025:Falsifiability
2022:
2017:
2012:
2010:Antipositivism
2006:
2004:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1950:
1948:
1944:
1943:
1941:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1913:Postpositivism
1910:
1905:
1900:
1894:
1892:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1863:
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1801:
1793:
1785:
1777:
1769:
1760:
1758:
1754:
1753:
1751:
1750:
1748:Verisimilitude
1745:
1740:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1723:Falsifiability
1720:
1715:
1709:
1707:
1703:
1702:
1695:
1694:
1687:
1680:
1672:
1666:
1665:
1651:
1646:
1640:
1626:
1625:External links
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1604:
1589:
1563:
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1541:
1515:
1490:
1468:(2): 169–181.
1451:
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1377:
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1301:
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1199:
1184:
1178:. p. 54.
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1001:Ernest Gellner
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754:post-modernist
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515:Scoping review
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458:Field research
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395:
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356:Historiography
353:
348:
343:
338:
333:
327:
322:
321:
318:
317:
314:
313:
312:
311:
309:Subtle realism
306:
296:
291:
289:Postpositivism
286:
281:
276:
271:
266:
264:Constructivism
261:
259:Antipositivism
255:
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26:
9:
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2:
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3394:
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3315:
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3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3252:Justification
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
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3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3191:
3187:
3185:
3183:
3179:
3178:
3176:
3174:
3170:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3128:Phenomenalism
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3118:NaĂŻve realism
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3068:Contextualism
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3055:
3053:
3051:
3047:
3041:
3040:
3036:
3034:
3033:Vienna Circle
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2968:Hilary Putnam
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2943:Robert Nozick
2941:
2939:
2938:John McDowell
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2898:Immanuel Kant
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2868:Alvin Goldman
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2781:
2776:
2774:
2769:
2767:
2762:
2761:
2758:
2748:
2743:
2728:
2727:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2714:
2713:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2691:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2669:György Lukács
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2625:
2618:
2617:
2613:
2610:
2609:
2605:
2602:
2601:
2597:
2594:
2593:
2589:
2586:
2585:
2581:
2578:
2577:
2573:
2570:
2569:
2565:
2562:
2561:
2557:
2554:
2553:
2549:
2546:
2545:
2541:
2538:
2537:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2525:
2522:
2521:
2517:
2514:
2513:
2509:
2508:
2506:
2502:
2496:
2495:Vienna Circle
2493:
2491:
2490:Berlin Circle
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2470:Eugen DĂĽhring
2468:
2466:
2465:Auguste Comte
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2447:
2445:
2441:
2434:
2433:
2429:
2426:
2425:
2421:
2418:
2417:
2413:
2410:
2409:
2405:
2402:
2401:
2397:
2394:
2393:
2389:
2386:
2385:
2381:
2378:
2377:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2365:
2364:
2362:
2360:Contributions
2358:
2351:
2348:
2345:
2342:
2338:
2337:
2332:
2328:
2327:
2322:
2318:
2317:
2312:
2311:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2294:
2290:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2274:Structuralism
2272:
2270:
2267:
2263:
2260:
2259:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2222:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2215:Phenomenalism
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2150:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2132:
2129:
2128:
2127:
2126:Behavioralism
2124:
2123:
2121:
2117:
2110:
2107:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2098:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2054:Human science
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2034:
2033:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2007:
2005:
2001:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1979:Pseudoscience
1977:
1975:
1974:Justification
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1951:
1949:
1945:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
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1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
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1836:
1831:
1829:
1824:
1823:
1820:
1807:
1806:
1802:
1799:
1798:
1797:Unended Quest
1794:
1791:
1790:
1786:
1783:
1782:
1778:
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1700:
1693:
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1686:
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1656:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1628:
1620:
1619:3-515-05901-6
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3212:Common sense
3190:A posteriori
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3143:Reductionism
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2858:Fred Dretske
2843:Keith DeRose
2787:Epistemology
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2148:Epistemology
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2079:Reflectivism
2039:Hermeneutics
1891:Declinations
1867:Antihumanism
1860:Perspectives
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1112:
1110:Popper, K.,
1106:
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1095:Popper, K.,
1091:
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1080:Popper, K.,
1076:
1067:
1065:Popper, K.,
1061:
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1031:Popper, Karl
1025:
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926:David Miller
919:David Miller
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705:(1976), and
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658:advanced by
648:
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351:Hermeneutics
268:
239:Quantitative
123:
117:January 2008
114:
104:
97:
90:
83:
71:
59:Please help
54:verification
51:
3429:Karl Popper
3414:Rationalism
3292:Proposition
3262:Objectivity
3148:Reliabilism
3138:Rationalism
3083:Fallibilism
3058:Coherentism
3003:Ernest Sosa
2978:Thomas Reid
2963:James Pryor
2933:G. E. Moore
2923:David Lewis
2913:Saul Kripke
2908:Peter Klein
2888:Susan Haack
2818:Robert Audi
2705:Objectivity
2674:Karl Popper
2664:Thomas Kuhn
2644:Mario Bunge
2395:(1879–1884)
2330:(1909–1959)
2064:Metaphysics
2044:Historicism
1959:Demarcation
1954:Consilience
1877:Rationalism
1699:Karl Popper
1597:Description
1174:. Chicago:
996:John Eccles
986:Hans Albert
953:Mario Bunge
850:Karl Popper
660:Karl Popper
424:Ethnography
324:Methodology
279:Fallibilism
227:Qualitative
197:Referencing
3408:Categories
3393:Discussion
3383:Task Force
3302:Simplicity
3282:Perception
3158:Skepticism
3133:Positivism
3108:Infinitism
3073:Empiricism
2928:John Locke
2893:David Hume
2883:Anil Gupta
2878:Paul Grice
2853:John Dewey
2823:A. J. Ayer
2485:Ernst Mach
2480:Ernst Laas
2455:A. J. Ayer
2443:Proponents
2262:Philosophy
2059:Humanities
2003:Antitheses
1872:Empiricism
1849:Positivism
1706:Philosophy
1525:1089222139
1434:902771262X
1378:902771634X
1335:9027715114
1287:0765804271
1185:0812691970
1017:References
937:Variations
930:ampliative
887:empiricism
885:The naĂŻve
870:hypotheses
786:David Hume
750:relativist
672:ampliative
656:philosophy
599:Statistics
594:Simulation
532:Simulation
473:Interviews
436:Experiment
404:Case study
376:Pragmatism
294:Pragmatism
284:Positivism
274:Empiricism
87:newspapers
3257:Knowledge
3242:Induction
3192:knowledge
3184:knowledge
2726:Verstehen
2712:Phronesis
2700:Knowledge
2684:Max Weber
2504:Criticism
2252:Sociology
2190:Modernism
2168:pluralism
2153:anarchism
2049:Historism
1969:Induction
1882:Scientism
1603:Springer.
1601:contents.
1533:199318101
1482:144665982
1417:D. Reidel
1361:D. Reidel
1318:D. Reidel
1134:(2002) .
1033:(2002) .
896:logically
891:induction
782:induction
729:empirical
725:knowledge
232:Art-based
3378:Category
3197:Analysis
3182:A priori
3173:Concepts
3113:Innatism
3050:Theories
2747:Category
2163:nihilism
2158:idealism
2088:Related
1964:Evidence
1634:Archived
1497:. Cham:
1296:38389855
1194:30353251
1156:59377149
1053:59377149
963:See also
721:theories
711:(1994).
699:(1963),
693:(1945),
670:that is
399:Analysis
192:Argument
152:Research
144:a series
142:Part of
3313:more...
3093:Fideism
3039:more...
2627:Critics
2352:(1990s)
2346:(1980s)
2340:(1960s)
2320:(1890s)
2173:realism
2105:(1830s)
2093:in the
1558:(2017)
1448:manner.
1443:7596359
1387:9759870
1344:9412962
1256:In his
909:because
790:organon
776:of the
768:of the
478:Mapping
393:Methods
299:Realism
187:Writing
101:scholar
3207:Belief
3103:Holism
2619:(1986)
2611:(1980)
2603:(1978)
2595:(1968)
2587:(1964)
2579:(1963)
2571:(1962)
2563:(1960)
2555:(1951)
2547:(1942)
2539:(1936)
2531:(1934)
2523:(1923)
2515:(1909)
2435:(2001)
2427:(1959)
2419:(1936)
2411:(1927)
2403:(1886)
2387:(1869)
2379:(1848)
2371:(1830)
2307:Method
2180:Holism
2111:(1927)
1808:(1994)
1800:(1976)
1792:(1963)
1784:(1945)
1776:(1936)
1768:(1934)
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980:People
915:Popper
900:induce
874:induce
772:, the
651:is an
539:Survey
103:
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89:
82:
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3388:Stubs
3307:Truth
2953:Plato
2719:Truth
1757:Works
1529:S2CID
1478:S2CID
738:least
734:least
108:JSTOR
94:books
1615:ISBN
1599:and
1582:ISBN
1574:ISBN
1521:OCLC
1511:ISBN
1439:OCLC
1429:ISBN
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1373:ISBN
1340:OCLC
1330:ISBN
1292:OCLC
1282:ISBN
1228:ISBN
1190:OCLC
1180:ISBN
1152:OCLC
1142:ISBN
1049:OCLC
1039:ISBN
917:and
904:when
848:and
831:find
743:most
664:Hume
80:news
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