Women in Japan - Knowledge

2678: 1945:(LDP) has made promises to increase the presence of women in Japanese politics, but has not achieved their stated goals. For example, in 2003, the LDP expressed commitment to achieving 30% female representation in political and administrative positions by 2020 per international norms. However, they remain far from this number. Scholars have noted that the internal structure and rules of the LDP do not favor female candidates. The LDP often seeks out candidates with experience in bureaucracy or local politics, which disadvantages women since they are less likely to have been in these positions. The LDP also has a bottom-up nomination process, whereby the initial nominations are made by local party offices. As these local offices are dominated by men, or the 1622: 2274: 1851: 1997:(DPJ) took over the House of Representatives from the LDP in a landslide victory. Out of the 46 female candidates ran by the DPJ, 40 were elected. However, the DPJ also failed to capitalize on this momentum to institutionalize gender quotas. While the DPJ implemented a few non-quota policies with the aim of increasing women's representation, the effects of these policies were only marginal. Similar to the LDP in 2005, the DPJ ran a large number of women candidates not because the party cared about gender equality, but due to political strategy. In fact, the DPJ imitated Prime Minister Koizumi's strategy of indicating reform and societal change through its nomination of women. 2006:

roles, which dictate that women should take care of children and the household. Research suggests that Japanese women are more willing to run for office if parties provide support with household duties during the campaign. Women candidates of reproductive age are also less likely than men to run in SMD in Japan, as opposed to party-list seats, which can be explained by the higher time commitment associated with running in SMD. Furthermore, when Japanese women marry, they often have to leave their home and move in with their husbands. As a result, Japanese women are less able to run for local assemblies because they lack connections with their locality.

2052: 2320: 1842:. In 1986, the Equal Employment Opportunity Law took effect, prohibiting discrimination in aspects like dismissal and retirement. The law was revised in 1997 to be more comprehensive, prohibiting discrimination in recruitment and promotion as well. Another round of revision in 2006 also prohibits job requirements that disproportionately advantage one gender over another, or indirect discrimination. However, women remain economically disadvantaged as a wage gap remains between full-time male and female workers. There also exists a wage gap between full-time and irregular workers despite the rising percentage of irregular workers among women. 37: 1611: 2035: 2235: 160: 2351: 2108: 2027:

1,247 female local assembly members had been sexually harassed by voters or other politicians. Even though the 1997 revision of the EEOL criminalized sexual harassment in the workplace, female politicians in Japan often do not have the same support when they are harassed by male colleagues. The LDP has been reluctant to implement measures to counter harassment within the party and to promote gender equality more generally. However, vocal female politicians of the party like

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that time period". Under article 772, a child born 300 days after divorce is presumed to be the legal child of the previous husband. In a ruling issued on December 16, 2015, the Supreme Court of Japan stated that, in light of the new law requiring 100 days before women's remarriage, any child born after 200 days of remarriage is to be considered the legal child of the current husband, so there is no confusion over the paternity of a child born to a woman who has remarried.

8075: 6793: 1700: 6803: 2503: 8064: 2633: 1680: 1790:, Japanese women and Japanese society are quite different from the strong stereotypes that exist in foreign media or travel guides, which paint the women in Japan as 'submissive' and devoid of any self-determination. Another strong stereotype about Japan is that women always stay in the home as housewives and that they do not participate in public life: in reality most women are employed – the 2095:

certain incomes. Additionally, in 1961, income for wives of working men were untaxed below $ 10,000; income above that amount contributed to overall household income. Corporate culture also plays a role; while many men are expected to socialize with their managers after long work days, women may find trouble balancing child-rearing roles with the demands of mandatory after-work social events.

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cooking, cleaning, and child-rearing and support their husbands so they can work without any worries about the family, as well as balancing the household's finances. Yet, as the number of dual-income households rises, women and men are sharing household chores, and research shows that this has led to increased satisfaction over households that divide labor in traditional ways.

1918:. In 2019, the proportion of female candidates in local assembly elections hit a record high of 17.3% in city assembly elections and 12.1% in town and village assembly elections. Similar to that in national politics, women's representation in Japan's local politics has seen a general upward trend since the 20th century, but still lags behind other developed countries. 2453:

abusive spouses and created support centers in every prefecture, but women are still reluctant to report abuse to doctors out of shame or fear that the report would be shared with the abuser. A 2001 survey showed that many health professionals were not trained to handle domestic abuse and blamed women who sought treatment.

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During the 21st century, Japanese women are working in higher proportions than the United States's working female population. Income levels between men and women in Japan are not equal; the average Japanese woman earns 40 percent less than the average man, and a tenth of management positions are held

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has grown since the reform. However, when it comes to women's representation in politics, Japan remains behind other developed democracies as well as many developing countries. As of 2019, Japan ranks 164th out of 193 countries when it comes to the percentage of women in the lower or single house. In

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were expected not to refuse their parents. Self-reliance of women was encouraged because needy women were seen as a burden on others. In these interviews with Japanese families, Lebra found that girls were assigned helping tasks while boys were more inclined to be left to schoolwork. Lebra's work has

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behavior in Japan followed several patterns of modesty, tidiness, courtesy, compliance, and self-reliance. Modesty extended to the effective use of silence in both daily conversations and activities. Tidiness included personal appearance and a clean home. Courtesy, another trait, was called upon from

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In 1872, the Japanese government issued an edict (May 4, 1872, Grand Council of State Edict 98) stating, "Any remaining practices of female exclusion on shrine and temple lands shall be immediately abolished, and mountain climbing for the purpose of worship, etc., shall be permitted". However, women

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to a daughter. Heads of households were responsible for house finances, but could delegate to another family member or retainer (employee). Women in these households were typically subject to arranged marriages at the behest of the household's patriarch, with more than half of all marriages in Japan

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is a traditional Japanese female entertainer who acts as a hostess and whose skills include performing various Japanese arts such as classical music, dance, games, serving tea and conversation, mainly to entertain male customers. Geisha are trained very seriously as skilled entertainers and are not

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In 2015, Article 733 of Japan's Civil Code stating that women could not remarry until six months after divorce was amended to specify 100 days. The six-month ban on remarriage for women previously aimed to "avoid uncertainty regarding the identity of the legally presumed father of any child born in

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after marriage. When mothers do work, they often pick up part-time, low-paying jobs based on their children's or husband's schedule. Taking care of the family and household is seen as a predominately female role, and working women are expected to fulfill it. Nevertheless, in recent years the number

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himself placed women at the top of the PR lists. As a result, all of the 26 LDP's women candidates won either by plurality in their SMD or from the PR list. However, Koizumi's top-down nomination was not a reflection of the LDP's prioritization of gender equality, but rather a political strategy to

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Products reflect several common anxieties among Japanese women. Multiple polls suggest that women worry about "fatness, breast size, hairiness and bust size". The idealized figure of a Japanese woman is generally fragile and petite. Japanese beauty ideals favor small features and narrow faces. Big

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By 1898, cruelty was added to the grounds for a woman to divorce; the law also allowed divorce through mutual agreement of the husband and wife. However, children were assumed to remain with the male head of the household. In contemporary Japan, children are more likely to live with single mothers

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Given the dominance of men in Japanese politics, female politicians often face gender-based discrimination and harassment in Japan. They experience harassment from the public, both through social media and in-person interactions, and from their male colleagues. A 2021 survey revealed that 56.7% of

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Survey experiments show that Japanese voters do not have a bias against female candidates; rather, the low levels of female representation in Japanese politics is due to Japanese women's reluctance to seek office. Japanese women are less likely to run for office because of socially mandated gender

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After a spate of research during the 1990s, Japan passed the Prevention of Spousal Violence and the Protection of Victims act in 2001. The law referred to domestic violence as "a violation of the constitutional principle of equal rights between sexes". This law established protection orders from

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The traditional role of women in Japan has been defined as "three submissions": young women submit to their fathers, married women submit to their husbands, and elderly women submit to their sons. Strains of this arrangement can be seen in contemporary Japan, where housewives are responsible for

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Some economists suggest that a better support system for working mothers, such as a shorter daily work schedule, would allow more women to work, increasing Japan's economic growth. To that end, in 2003, the Japanese government set a goal to have 30% of senior government roles filled by women. In

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Marriage shall be based only on the mutual consent of both sexes and it shall be maintained through mutual cooperation with the equal rights of husband and wife as a basis. With regard to choice of spouse, property rights, inheritance, choice of domicile, divorce and other matters pertaining to

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A number of government and private post-war policies have contributed to a gendered division of labor. These include a family wage offered by corporations which subsidized health and housing subsidies, marriage bonuses and additional bonuses for each child; and pensions for wives who earn below

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Under the Meiji system, however, the law limited grounds for divorce to seven events: sterility, adultery, disobedience to the parents-in-law, loquacity, larceny, jealousy, and disease. However, the law offered a protection for divorcees by guaranteeing a wife could not be sent away if she had

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household in which the husband is the breadwinner for the family while the wife is a dependant. When the wife is not employed, the family is eligible for social insurance services and tax deductions. With this system, the Japanese state can depend on the housewives for care-related work, which

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By the end of the Meiji period, there was a women's school in every prefecture in Japan, operated by a mix of government, missionary, and private interests. By 1910, very few universities accepted women. Graduation was not assured, as often women were pulled out of school to marry or to study

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The use of women-only cars in Japan has been critiqued from various perspectives. Some suggest that the presence of the cars makes women who choose not to use them more vulnerable. Public comment sometimes include the argument that women-only cars are a step too far in protecting women. Some

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as the central task of women, and allowed education of women toward this end. In Japanese society, mothers usually place a strong emphasis on their children's education and moral growth, with a special focus on nurturing values like politeness, respect and responsibility. Traditionally and

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that emphasized young-looking girls, or Lolitas. While these characters typically included larger eyes, research suggests that it was not a traditional standard of beauty in Japan, preferred in medical research and described as "unsightly" by cosmetic researchers of the Edo era.

2665:. Maiko (literally "dance girl") are apprentice geisha, and this stage can last for years. Maiko learn from their senior geisha mentor and follow them to all their engagements. Then at around the age of 20–22, the maiko is promoted to a full-fledged geisha in a ceremony called 2203:

The Ministry of Japan revealed the outline of an amendment for the Civil Code of Japan on February 18, 2016. This amendment shortens the women's remarriage period to 100 days and allows any woman who is not pregnant during the divorce to remarry immediately after divorce.

1982:, who were facing accusations of bribery, a sex scandal, and public dismay at its consumption tax policies at the time. As a result, these "Madonnas" were typical housewives with little to no political experience. However, the JSP quickly lost momentum afterwards. In the 2518:

academics have argued that the cars impose the burden of social segregation to women, rather than seeking the punishment of criminals. Another critique suggests the cars send the signal that men create a dangerous environment for women, who cannot protect themselves.

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The Japanese cosmetics industry is the second largest in the world, earning over $ 15 billion per year. The strong market for beauty products has been connected to the value placed on self-discipline and self-improvement in Japan, where the body is mastered through

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Government policies to increase the birthrate include early education designed to develop citizens into capable parents. Some critics of these policies believe that this emphasis on birth rate is incompatible with a full recognition of women's equality in Japan.

2312:. The 1871 education code established that students should be educated "without any distinction of class or sex". Nonetheless, after 1891 students were typically segregated after third grade, and many girls did not extend their educations past middle school. 2123:, relied on a patriarchal lineage of succession, with disobedience to the male head of the household punishable by expulsion from the family unit. Male heads of households with only daughters would adopt male heirs to succeed them, sometimes through 2562:

Another ideal is pale skin. Tanned skin was historically associated with the working-class, and pale skin associated with the nobility. Many women in Japan will take precaution to avoid the sun, and some lotions are sold to make the skin whiter.

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aimed to enforce equal education between sexes; this included a recommendation in 1946 to provide compulsory co-education until the age of 16. By the end of 1947, nearly all middle schools and more than half of high schools were co-educational.

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In the early Meiji period, many girls married at age 16; by the post-war period, it had risen to 23, and continued to rise. The average age for a Japanese woman's first marriage has steadily risen since 1970, from 24 to 29.3 years old in 2015.

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by women. Women are often found in part time or temporary jobs. 77% of these jobs were filled by women in 2012. Among women who do work, women-only unions are small in size and in relative power. A common occupation for young women is that of

1895:, which resulted in women winning 10.1 percent of House seats. The decrease in women's representation has taken place although the Japanese government has expressed a will to address this inequality of numbers in the 21st century of the 4221:

Anne Allison. 2000. Japanese Mothers and Obentōs: The Lunch Box as Ideological State Apparatus. Permitted and Prohibited Desires: Mothers, Comics, and Censorship in Japan, pp. 81-104. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

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nowhere else to go. Furthermore, the law allowed a woman to request a divorce, so long as she was accompanied by a male relative and could prove desertion or imprisonment of the husband, profligacy, or mental or physical illness.

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In 2012, 98.1% of female students and 97.8% of male students were able to reach senior high school. Of those, 55.6% of men and 45.8% of women continued with undergraduate studies, although 10% of these female graduates attended

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The percentage of births to unmarried women in selected countries, 1980 and 2007. As can be seen in the figure, Japan has not followed the trend of other Western countries of children born outside of marriage to the same

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Modern education of women began in earnest during the Meiji era's modernization campaign. The first schools for women began during this time, though education topics were highly gendered, with women learning arts of the

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requires legally married spouses to have the same surname. Although the law is gender-neutral, meaning that either spouse is allowed to change his/her name to that of the other spouse, Japanese women have traditionally

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upheld the constitutionality of the law, noting that women could use their maiden names informally, and stating that it was for the legislature to decide on whether to pass new legislation on separate spousal names.

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This established several changes to women's roles in the family, such as the right to inherit the family home or land, and the right of women (over the age of 20) to marry without the consent of the house patriarch.

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who had been a stalking victim. With nearly 21,000 reports of stalking in 2013, 90.3% of the victims were women and 86.9% of the perpetrators were men. Anti-stalking laws in Japan were expanded in 2013 to include

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to the wife or mother of the man they are supposed to care for. Because women's abuse would be detrimental to the family of the abused, legal, medical and social intervention in domestic disputes was rare.

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is legal under some restrictions. The number per year has declined by 500,000 since 1975. Of the 200,000 abortions performed per year, however, 10% are teenage women, a number which has risen since 1975.

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of women who work has increased: in 2014, women made up 42.7% of the labour force of Japan. Japan has an especially high proportion of women who work part-time, and a majority of those women are mothers.

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reduces state social expenditures. Yet, the "male breadwinner" model has also entrenched gender roles by providing an optimal life course for families that discourage women participating in public life.

2331:, the first woman in Japan to earn a PhD, did so in the US, as no Meiji-era institution would allow her to receive her doctorate. She and other women who studied abroad and returned to Japan, such as 1589:

in 1945. While Japanese women's status has steadily improved in the decades since then, traditional expectations for married women and mothers are cited as a barrier to full economic equality. The

1728:, spelled out expectations for Japanese women, stating that "such is the stupidity of her character that it is incumbent on her, in every particular, to distrust herself and to obey her husband". 1838:. This allowed them greater freedom, equality to men, and a higher status within Japanese society. Other postwar reforms opened education institutions to women and required that women receive 2494:. They are raped in brothels and other locations and experience physical and psychological trauma. Japanese anti-sex trafficking legislation and laws have been criticized as being lacking. 5454: 2250:

Today, Japanese mothers are still seen as managers of a household, including the behavior of their children. For example, media reports often focus on the apologies of criminals' mothers.

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Briskin, Linda (1999). "Autonomy, diversity and integration: Union women's separate organising in North America and Western Europe in the context of restructuring and globalization".

272: 2476:, after the widely publicized 2012 murder of a young woman who had reported such harassment to police. Stalking reports are growing at a faster rate in Japan than any other country. 1671:, women in Japan could inherit property in their own names and manage it by themselves: "Women could own property, be educated, and were allowed, if discrete (sic), to take lovers." 1667:

The extent to which women could participate in Japanese society has varied over time and social classes. In the 8th century, Japan had an empress, and in the 12th century during the

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In 2013, 100,000 women reported domestic violence to shelters. Of the 10,000 entering protective custody at the shelter, nearly half arrived with children or other family members.

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In Japan, domestic disputes have traditionally been seen as a result of negligence or poor support from the female partner. A partner's outburst can therefore be a source of

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is 1.4 children born per woman (2015 estimate), which is below the replacement rate of 2.1. Japanese women have their first child at an average age of 30.3 (2012 estimate).

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Horii, Mitsutoshi; Burgess, Adam (February 2012). "Constructing sexual risk: 'Chikan', collapsing male authority and the emergence of women-only train carriages in Japan".

2589:, full-length silk robes, are worn by women on special occasions. Traditional patterns for women include many varieties of flowers found in Japan and across Asia such as 2181:

their wives simply through stating their intention to do so in a letter. Wives could not legally arrange for a divorce, but options included joining convents, such as at

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though there are no penalties for men to ride in a women-only car. Gropers can be punished with seven years or less of jail time and/or face fines of just under $ 500.

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After the Meiji period, the head of the household was required to approve of any marriage. Until 1908, it remained legal for husbands to murder wives for infidelity.

1949:, it is difficult for Japanese women to be nominated by the LDP. A break from this bottom-up process took place in 2005, when Prime Minister and President of the LDP 5592: 4338: 3994: 1891:

were women. Of these 186 candidates, 45 were elected, constituting 9.7 percent of the 465 seats in the lower chamber. This number represents a decline from the

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Beauty corporations have had a role in creating contemporary standards of beauty in Japan since the Meiji era. For example, the Japanese cosmetics firm,

1582:, economic conditions for women remain unbalanced. Modern policy initiatives to encourage motherhood and workplace participation have had mixed results. 1911: 1561: 4522: 2987: 5313:

Nemoto, Keiko; Rodriguez, Rachel; Valhmu, Lucy Mkandawire (May 2006). "Exploring the Health Care Needs of Women in Abusive Relationships in Japan".

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With the development of society, more and more girls are going to colleges to receive higher education. Today, more than half of Japanese women are

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Bochel, Catherine; Bochel, Hugh; Kasuga, Masashi; Takeyasu, Hideko (2003-04-01). "Against the System? Women in Elected Local Government in Japan".

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is another element in beauty standards for women in Japan, especially with traditional aesthetics. Again, femininity is a large factor; therefore,

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Tokyoto Iryo Syakai Jigyo Kyokai Iryo Fukushi Mondai Kenkyu Kai (2001). "Iryokikan ni okeru domesutikku baiorensu ni tsuite no chosa hokokusho ".

7771: 5462: 5108: 5514: 1978:, the JSP ran women outside of conventional political circles and emphasized their clean, "outsider" status to juxtapose themselves against the 3546: 3076: 4782:

Lenz, Ilse (2006). "From Mothers of the Nation to Global Civil Society: The changing role of the Japanese women's movement in Globalization".

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The Roles of Women, Animals, and Nature in Traditional Japanese and Western Folk Tales Carry Over into Modern Japanese and Western Culture

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The gender roles that discourage Japanese women from seeking elected office have been further consolidated through Japan's model of the

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Patessio, Mara (December 2013). "Women getting a 'university' education in Meiji Japan: discourses, realities, and individual lives".

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Women in Japan were forbidden from participation in Yamakasa, parades in which Shinto shrines are carried through a town, until 2001.

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tradition, where mothers prepare elaborate lunches for their children to take to school, is an example of a domestic female role.

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Huang, Placier, Haigen, Peggy (October 2015). "Four Generations of Women's Educational Experience in a Rural Chinese Community".

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marriage and the family, laws shall be enacted from the standpoint of individual dignity and the essential equality of the sexes.

420: 6405: 5082: 4983: 2540:, feminine beauty standards favored darkened teeth, some body fat, and eyebrows painted above the original (which were shaved). 1986:, only 4 women members of the JSP were reelected. The JSP also failed to take advantage of the Madonna Boom to institutionalize 6839: 4660: 2800: 2196:

When divorce was granted under equal measures to both sexes under the post-war constitution, divorce rates steadily increased.

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historically women were typically responsible for both parenting and managing household matters within the family structure.

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McAndrew, Malia (2014). "Beauty, Soft Power, and the Politics of Womanhood During the U.S. Occupation of Japan, 1945–1952".

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than single fathers; in 2013, 7.4% of children were living in single-mother households; only 1.3% live with their fathers.

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Japanese women fare better when it comes to local politics. As of 2015, women made up 27.8% of the local assemblies in the

713: 7584: 5711:"Japan Tries Women Only Train Cars to Stop Groping: Tokyo Subway Experiment Attempts to Slow Epidemic of Subway Fondling" 2929: 780: 6200:

Gelb, J; Estevez-Abe, M (1 October 1998). "Political women in Japan: a case study of the Seikatsusha network movement".

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DeWitt, Lindsey Elizabeth (1 March 2016). "Envisioning and Observing Women's Exclusion from Sacred Mountains in Japan".

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While women before the Meiji period were often considered incompetent in the raising of children, the Meiji period saw

2339:, were among the first wave of women's educators who lead the way to the incorporation of women in Japanese academia. 2087:

In one poll, 30% of mothers who returned to work reported being victims of "maternity harassment", or "matahara". The

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was legalized in 1999, much later than in most Western countries. Its use is still low, with many couples preferring

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2015, only 3.5% were; the government has since slashed the 2020 goal to 7%, and set a private industry goal to 15%.

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Francks, Penelope (June 2015). "Was Fashion a European Invention?: The Kimono and Economic Development in Japan".

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https://www.loc.gov/law/foreign-news/article/japan-new-instructions-allow-women-to-remarry-100-days-after-divorce/

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draw in votes by signaling change. After this election, the LDP has returned to its bottom-up nomination process.

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Bae, Jihey (2010). "Gender Role Division in Japan and Korea: The Relationship between Realities and Attitudes".

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Surveys show that between 28% and 70% of women have been groped on train cars. Some railway companies designate

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Tipton, Elise K. (1 May 2009). "How to Manage a Household: Creating Middle Class Housewives in Modern Japan".

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women in domestic roles and in entertaining guests, extended to activities such as preparing and serving tea.

7369: 6923: 4236: 2810: 1233: 800: 1970:(JSP), the largest left-wing opposition party to the LDP at the time, succeeded in electing 22 women to the 7552: 7364: 6911: 2732: 1807: 1468: 703: 621: 596: 529: 4262: 2013:. In particular, since the postwar period, Japan has adopted the "male breadwinner" model, which favors a 7175: 5734:

Freedman, Alisa (1 March 2002). "Commuting Gazes: Schoolgirls, Salarymen, and Electric Trains in Tokyo".

2863: 2124: 1974:. The record number of women elected to the Diet was dubbed the "Madonna Boom." Under the leadership of 1752: 698: 336: 4323: 3924:"A feminist critical discourse analysis of sexual harassment in the Japanese political and media worlds" 7801: 7471: 7344: 7316: 7100: 6832: 6517: 2705: 1493: 1083: 3923: 8104: 7981: 7695: 7577: 7537: 7459: 7409: 7271: 7241: 7160: 7058: 6933: 6918: 6763: 3178:

Tamanoi, Mariko Asano (October 1990). "Women's Voices: Their Critique of the Anthropology of Japan".

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who was enlisted to the subcommittee assigned to writing the section of the constitution devoted to

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The Post-War Constitution, however, codified women's right to choose their partners. Article 24 of

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Nemoto, Kumiko (September 2013). "Long Working Hours and the Corporate Gender Divide in Japan".

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found that nearly 70% of all Japanese polled agreed that men were given preferential treatment.

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Garon, Sheldon (1 August 2010). "State and family in modern Japan: a historical perspective".

5027: 4571: 3859:"What Explains Low Female Political Representation? Evidence from Survey Experiments in Japan" 2551:, with beauty advice for women emphasizing hair styles and contemporary fashion. The pre-war " 8024: 7956: 7946: 7848: 7786: 7752: 7722: 7651: 7476: 7444: 6996: 6825: 6677: 6642: 6597: 6111: 6047: 6003: 4838: 4298: 2146: 1967: 1513: 1458: 1388: 1368: 1353: 1223: 745: 708: 616: 480: 316: 7083: 6244:

Hastings, Sally A. (1 June 1993). "The Empress' New Clothes and Japanese Women, 1868–1912".

4913: 8039: 7781: 7520: 7481: 7389: 7349: 6966: 6567: 6562: 6457: 5425: 4687:"East Asia/Southeast Asia :: Japan — The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency" 3561:"Record no. of female city mayors, assembly members elected in Japan's unified local polls" 2468: 2258: 1926: 1915: 1835: 1398: 1393: 1338: 1288: 1273: 1158: 1048: 998: 878: 439: 400: 235: 225: 211: 4686: 4412: 3047: 1751:, but at the same time the Meiji Civil Code of 1898 (specifically the introduction of the 36: 8: 8029: 7961: 7951: 7834: 7712: 7594: 7564: 7261: 6747: 6687: 6662: 6577: 6557: 6507: 6477: 6467: 6418: 6222: 5687: 5196: 5171: 4380:

The Too-Good Wife: Alcohol, codependency, and the politics of nurturance in postwar Japan

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The too-good wife: alcohol, codependency, and the politics of nurturance in postwar Japan

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been critiqued for focusing specifically on a single economic segment of Japanese women.

1586: 1503: 1433: 1363: 1238: 1213: 1193: 1173: 1053: 928: 918: 795: 626: 548: 541: 536: 451: 356: 341: 301: 262: 76: 65: 4172: 3191: 1658: 1610: 7971: 7883: 7806: 7759: 7732: 7727: 7676: 7449: 7359: 7332: 7203: 7155: 7133: 7078: 7051: 6773: 6652: 6647: 6527: 6382: 6303: 6257: 6231:

Modern women in China and Japan: Gender, feminism and global modernity between the wars

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Umeda, S. (2016, February 26). Global Legal Monitor. Retrieved December 04, 2016, from

4476: 3951: 3886: 3836: 3751: 3703: 3540: 3357: 2992: 2693: 2687: 2289: 1811: 1518: 1413: 1373: 1243: 1138: 1103: 913: 903: 828: 770: 755: 606: 586: 563: 415: 395: 174: 5554:"The Sexual Exploitation of Young Girls in Japan Is 'On the Increase,' an Expert Says" 4032: 2555:" of Japan followed Western fashions as filtered through this kind of Japanese media. 7893: 7791: 7764: 7737: 7428: 7185: 7170: 7068: 6896: 6802: 6717: 6667: 6622: 6602: 6592: 6492: 6386: 6307: 6182: 6153: 6145: 6039: 5878: 5818: 5793: 5755: 5669: 5330: 5006: 4968: 4889: 4830: 4762: 4743: 4559: 4480: 4441: 4431: 4383: 4158: 4125: 4082: 3955: 3943: 3878: 3828: 3790: 3755: 3743: 3707: 3695: 3528: 3518: 3361: 3349: 3158: 3119: 3027: 2764: 2603: 2578: 2427: 2402: 2381: 2328: 2120: 1950: 1819: 1736: 1590: 1438: 1408: 1333: 1313: 1298: 1253: 1218: 1183: 1118: 1058: 993: 973: 968: 838: 823: 750: 740: 728: 638: 631: 611: 495: 410: 366: 296: 206: 6324:

Women and public life in early Meiji Japan: The development of the feminist movement

5976: 5875:

The search for the beautiful woman a cultural history of Japanese and Chinese beauty

5205: 5180: 5161: 4280:

The Animal-Wife: A Comparison of Japanese Folktales with their European Counterparts

3890: 2039: 1933:. The number of women candidates at the election also reached a record high of 181. 8034: 7873: 7826: 7811: 7747: 7629: 7572: 7454: 7073: 6878: 6868: 6692: 6607: 6587: 6472: 6462: 6374: 6295: 6253: 6209: 6170: 6141: 5743: 5657: 5322: 5147: 5137: 5056: 4956: 4818: 4791: 4731: 4468: 4154: 4028: 3935: 3870: 3820: 3782: 3735: 3687: 3637: 3341: 3187: 2815: 2754: 2282: 2234: 2129: 1871: 1786:

Although Japan remains a socially conservative society, with relatively pronounced

1778:'s traits for internal comportment of femininity included compliance; for example, 1523: 1508: 1498: 1478: 1448: 1383: 1358: 1283: 1263: 1258: 1203: 1123: 1088: 1073: 1038: 1023: 1003: 948: 933: 923: 908: 893: 888: 883: 833: 810: 653: 648: 434: 405: 382: 245: 7001: 5342: 5228: 4822: 2954: 2506:

Women-only passenger cars were introduced to combat groping and sexual harassment.

1767:

In interviews with Japanese housewives in 1985, researchers found that socialized

7898: 7868: 7863: 7776: 7742: 7661: 7354: 7246: 7165: 7145: 7046: 6906: 6737: 6672: 6637: 6572: 6552: 6542: 6502: 6487: 6482: 6194: 6174: 6089: 5661: 5430: 4960: 4405: 3676:"Quota Nonadoption in Japan: The Role of the Women's Movement and the Opposition" 3094: 2749: 2417: 2385: 2350: 1993:

Another spike in the number of women in the Japanese Diet came in 2009, when the

1946: 1791: 1690: 1473: 1463: 1453: 1428: 1418: 1348: 1328: 1308: 1248: 1188: 1168: 1153: 1108: 1098: 1078: 1013: 963: 958: 943: 898: 843: 658: 331: 90: 6971: 6070: 6051: 5575:"For vulnerable high school girls in Japan, a culture of 'dates' with older men" 5355: 4709:

Shōshika shakai hakusho (Heisei 17nen han) – Shōshika taisaku no genjō to kadai

3138: 2570:" had emerged as a desirable aesthetic, which some scholars linked to a boom in 2128:

being preemptively arranged until the 1960s. Married women marked themselves by

2107: 8078: 8014: 7966: 7923: 7717: 7095: 6901: 6778: 6697: 6657: 6632: 6612: 6522: 6512: 6497: 4585: 3939: 3217: 2590: 2369: 2332: 2254: 2014: 1528: 1443: 1423: 1403: 1378: 1343: 1303: 1278: 1268: 1208: 1178: 1133: 1128: 1113: 1093: 1043: 988: 983: 938: 860: 693: 643: 553: 502: 446: 52: 6378: 5326: 4735: 3874: 3786: 3739: 3691: 3532: 3345: 2034: 1686: 8093: 7976: 7888: 7877: 7646: 7510: 7266: 6796: 6617: 6582: 6537: 6532: 6441: 5930: 5455:"Japan toughens anti-stalking laws, includes repeated emailing as harassment" 4894:. Cambridge, MA: Fleming H. Revell (Harvard University Preservation Program). 4445: 4197:"'You Mean Women Deserve Careers?' Patriarchal Japan Has Breakthrough Moment" 3947: 3882: 3832: 3794: 3747: 3699: 3353: 3284: 2858: 2839: 2820: 2598: 2473: 2139: 2010: 1971: 1896: 1725: 1533: 1318: 1293: 1228: 1198: 1148: 1143: 1068: 1008: 978: 853: 688: 558: 519: 507: 485: 467: 282: 7219: 6991: 5126:"Envisioning and Observing Women's Exclusion from Sacred Mountains in Japan" 2790: 2185:, where men were not permitted to go, thus assuring a permanent separation. 1826:

for Japan in February 1946. Four women were in the working group, including

8068: 8044: 7987: 7853: 7681: 7500: 7025: 7013: 7008: 6986: 6981: 6976: 6311: 6299: 6213: 6102: 6043: 5533:"Why are foreign women continuing to be forced into prostitution in Japan?" 5334: 5152: 4403:

Yoshizumi, Kyoko (1995). Fujimura-Fanselow, Kumiko; Kameda, Atsuko (eds.).

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Adams, Kenneth Alan (2009). "Modernization and dangerous women in Japan".

4795: 3243:"Beate Gordon, Long-Unsung Heroine of Japanese Women's Rights, Dies at 89" 2875: 7256: 7020: 6806: 5627: 4759:

Race for the exits: the unraveling of Japan's system of social protection

4411:. New York: Feminist Press at the City University of New York]. pp. 4223: 2785: 2712:

is highly valued. However, births outside marriage remain rare in Japan.

2655: 2615: 2552: 2336: 2065: 2061: 1930: 1775: 765: 735: 512: 7090: 5856: 5747: 5611:"LIGHTHOUSE NGO SERVES AS BEACON OF HOPE FOR VICTIMS OF SEX TRAFFICKING" 4606:

Niwa, Akiko (1993). "The Formation of the Myth of Motherhood in Japan".

3811:

Tomoaki, Iwai (1993). ""The Madonna Boom": Women in the Japanese Diet".

41:

A photograph of Japanese women from the book "Japan And Japanese" (1902)

7913: 7278: 7180: 7128: 7041: 6359: 6345: 6331: 6280: 6065: 5080: 4102: 3404:"'It is bullying, pure and simple': being a woman in Japanese politics" 2889: 2611: 2467:

were passed in 2000 after the media attention given to the murder of a

2293: 2174: 2080: 2028: 1975: 1768: 1713: 848: 790: 785: 6406:"Gender and Sexuality in Japan" syllabus by Professor Jeffry T. Hester 6315: 3840: 1699: 8003: 7306: 7150: 7140: 6352:

The New Japanese Woman: Modernity, Media, and Women in Interwar Japan

5593:"Schoolgirls for sale: why Tokyo struggles to stop the 'JK business'" 4586:"Japan top court upholds law on married couples' surnames - BBC News" 4536:"Japanese women in court fight to keep their surnames after marriage" 2502: 2253:

There is continuing debate about the role women's education plays in

2069: 5142: 5125: 3515:

Women and political inequality in Japan: gender-imbalanced democracy

1914:, 16.1% in general cities, 10.4% in towns and villages, and 9.1% in 5977:"Changing Patterns of Nonmarital Childbearing in the United States" 4472: 3857:

Kage, Rieko; Rosenbluth, Frances M.; Tanaka, Seiki (27 July 2018).

3824: 3308:

Mikanagi, Yumiko (2011). "The Japanese conception of citizenship".

2833: 2709: 2567: 2544: 2464: 2296:

graduates. The proportion of female researchers in Japan is 14.6%.

2182: 2138:

As late as the 1930s, arranged marriages continued, and so-called "

250: 7997: 5792:(2. ed.). Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. 2805: 8009: 7936: 7931: 6817: 2857:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

2586: 2356: 2309: 2301: 2178: 1748: 805: 760: 6410: 6107:

Women and the economic miracle: Gender and work in postwar Japan

5913:"High heels at work are necessary, says Japan's labour minister" 4993:. Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports and Technology 4407:

Japanese Women: new perspectives on the past, present and future

3971:"The Overlooked Issue of Sexual Harassment in Japanese Politics" 8019: 7941: 7918: 7903: 7858: 7192: 5723:"Women Only Cars on Commuter Trains Cause Controversy in Japan" 4982:(MEXT), Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports and Technology. 3332:

Eto, Mikiko (2010-06-01). "Women and Representation in Japan".

3207:, by Adriana Boscaro, Franco Gatti, Massimo Raveri, pp. 164-173 2697: 2666: 2641: 2632: 2627: 2533:, repeated actions aspiring toward perfection, such as bowing. 2398:

in Japan today do not have complete access to all such places.

2243: 1957: 1887:, less than 18 percent of candidates (186 out of 1051) for the 1744: 321: 6236:

Hastings, Sally A. "Gender and Sexuality in Modern Japan." in

2559:

eyes are admired, especially when they have "double eyelids".

7993: 7843: 7839: 6848: 4984:"Gakko kihon chosa - Heisei 24 nendo (sokuho) kekka no gaiyo" 3432:"Japan's lower house has fewer women despite empowerment law" 2780: 2662: 2661:

A young geisha in training, under the age of 20, is called a

2571: 2445: 2390:

The first female Zen master in Japan was the Japanese abbess

2361: 2088: 2073: 1854:

Proportion of women in Japan's national parliament, 1997–2020

1779: 1705:

Yanagiwara Byakuren, a poet and member of the imperial family

1679: 255: 193: 5815:

The world of the shining prince: court life in ancient Japan

4382:. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 68. 3476: 3095:"Heroines: Heian Period (Women in World History Curriculum)" 2700:. Sexuality in Japan has developed separately from mainland 2221:

and 96% of women continue to do so as of 2015. In 2015, the

2031:

have publicly condemned male politicians' sexist statements.

2000: 1899:

through several focused initiatives, and a 2012 poll by the

5515:"Seven Cambodians Rescued in Sex Trafficking Bust in Japan" 5373:

Josei No Anzen to Kenko No Tameno Shien Kyoiku Senta Tushin

3157:(Pbk. ed.). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. 3077:"Goldman's Matsui Turns Abe to Womenomics for Japan Growth" 2701: 2594: 2582: 2529: 1795: 1641:

Late 19th/early 20th century depictions of Japanese women,

1632: 5788:

Beauty up: exploring contemporary Japanese body aesthetics

4638:

The Japanese Woman: Traditional Image and Changing Reality

4173:"Labor force, female (% of total labor force) | Data" 3725: 3139:

The Meiji Reforms and Obstacles for Women Japan, 1878–1927

3048:"Birth of the Constitution of Japan - Chronological Table" 2490:

Japanese and foreign women and girls have been victims of

1878:. In general, the proportion of female legislators in the 1716:, the status of women declined. In the 17th century, the " 1578:

were recognized as having equal legal rights to men after

6061:"Women At Work Toward Equality In The Japanese Workplace" 5356:

The Gender Equality Bureau of the Cabinet Office (2002).

5123: 3205:

Rethinking Japan: Social sciences, ideology & thought

2585:, reds, bows, and frills are all found in their apparel. 2111:

A Japanese family as presented in a magazine in the 1950s

2064:, that is, a female office worker who performs generally 3638:"Record 35 Women Win Upper House Seats in Sun. Election" 5931:"Japan 'glasses ban' for women at work sparks backlash" 4653:"Tokyo official ties birth decline to higher education" 3904:

Takeda, Hiroko (2011). "Gender-related social policy".

1593:

is strictly male-only and a princess has to resign her

5838: 5836: 5834: 5081:

SUSAN SACHSPublished: November 22, 1998 (1998-11-22).

4761:(. ed.). Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. 4425: 218:

Gender representation on corporate boards of directors

5843:

Keene, Donald (1989). "The Japanese Idea of Beauty".

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Cabinet Office, Gender Equality Bureau (April 2014).

4492: 4490: 4081:(1st Tuttle ed.). Rutland, Vt.: C.E. Tuttle Co. 3087: 2238:

A Japanese mother with children on her back, ca. 1947

6191:

Women's history and local community in postwar Japan

5946: 5944: 5877:. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. 4430:. Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers. p. 38. 4237:"Japan slashes target for women in senior positions" 3856: 3282: 2610:

Some employers require their female workers to wear

2405:(Anglican Church in Japan) started to ordain women. 2021: 1936: 1845: 1759:

and subjugated them to the will of household heads.

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Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 441:Science, technology, engineering and mathematics 6199: 6079:Widows of Japan: An anthropological perspective 6001: 5643: 5641: 5639: 5637: 5635: 5057:"Mugai Nyodai, First Woman to Head a Zen Order" 3115:Onna Daigaku A Treasure Box of Women's Learning 2981: 2979: 2977: 2975: 2042:, pioneering female author on 5000 yen banknote 5083:"Japanese Zen Master Honored by Her Followers" 5025: 4915:The changing social position of women in Japan 4808: 4330: 3612:"Record 35 women elected to Japan upper house" 3586:"Record 35 women elected to Japan upper house" 2672: 2646: 6833: 6426: 6058: 5919:. Agence France-Presse in Tokyo. 5 June 2019. 5873:Selden, Cho Kyo; translated by Kyoko (2012). 5358:Heisei 14 nenban danjo kyodo sankaku hakusho 4869:. Japan Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office 4503:. Japan Cabinet Office Gender Equality Bureau 4235:Yan, Sophia; Ogura, Junko (7 December 2015). 3494:. Japan Cabinet Office Gender Equality Bureau 3148: 3146: 2900: 1555: 5897:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 5647: 5632: 5011:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4843:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4365:Journal of Political Science & Sociology 4012: 3376:"Women in Parliaments: World Classification" 3234: 2988:"To Rescue Economy, Japan Turns to Supermom" 2972: 2890:"Women in Parliaments: World Classification" 2079:Japan has a strong tradition of women being 1958:Opposition parties and female representation 1801: 6266:Liquid Life: Abortion and Buddhism in Japan 5963: 5548: 5546: 5107:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 5074: 4942: 4940: 4938: 4936: 3906:The Routledge Handbook of Japanese Politics 3310:The Routledge Handbook of Japanese Politics 3278: 3276: 3274: 2323:Girls' high school in early period, c. 1939 1923:2022 Japanese House of Councillors election 6840: 6826: 6433: 6419: 6002:Cosgrove-Mather, Bootie (20 August 2004). 5779: 5777: 5775: 5773: 5771: 5769: 5767: 5765: 5394: 5308: 5306: 5304: 5302: 5293:Japanese Women: Constraint and Fulfillment 5263: 5251:Women in the Language and Society of Japan 4680: 4678: 4459:Iwasaki, Yasu (1930). "Divorce in Japan". 4072: 4070: 4068: 4066: 4064: 4062: 3545:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3482: 3449: 3334:International Feminist Journal of Politics 3218:"Employment - Employment rate - OECD Data" 3155:Japanese women: constraint and fulfillment 3143: 1925:a record 35 women were elected to Japan's 1762: 1562: 1548: 35: 6401:Japanese Equal Employment Opportunity Law 6119:Lost leaves: women writers of Meiji Japan 5981:CDC/National Center for Health Statistics 5969: 5951:Dalby, Liza (1992). "Kimona and Geisha". 5727: 5151: 5141: 4975: 4907: 4905: 4903: 4901: 4700: 4402: 4396: 4293:Moscicki, Helen (8 July 1944). : 19. 4060: 4058: 4056: 4054: 4052: 4050: 4048: 4046: 4044: 4042: 3987: 3017: 3015: 3013: 3011: 3009: 2001:Explanations of low female representation 1794:of women (age 15–64) is 69.6% (data from 6285: 6243: 5733: 5543: 5395:Cabinet Office, Gender Equality Bureau. 5264:Cabinet Office, Gender Equality Bureau. 5248: 5242: 5124:Dewitt, Lindsey Elizabeth (March 2016). 4946: 4933: 4858:Gender Equality Bureau, Cabinet Office. 4527: 4292: 4282:. Los Angeles: University of California. 4277: 4271: 4234: 4120:Hirata, Keiko; Warschauer, Mark (2014). 4101: 4095: 3483:Cabinet Office, Gender Equality Bureau. 3307: 3271: 3070: 3068: 2676: 2631: 2501: 2349: 2318: 2272: 2233: 2106: 2050: 2033: 1849: 7113:Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 6131: 5868: 5866: 5806: 5762: 5706: 5704: 5364: 5299: 5295:. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. 5229:"When churches started to ordain women" 4756: 4750: 4675: 4458: 4452: 4377: 4267:. USA: East Tennessee State University. 4228: 4018: 3810: 3768: 3673: 3401: 3177: 3171: 3021: 1990:due to other priorities on its agenda. 14: 8092: 6364: 5872: 5812: 5783: 5452: 5446: 5168: 4911: 4898: 4887: 4881: 4721: 4715: 4650: 4644: 4260: 4254: 4224:http://fds.duke.edu/db/attachment/1111 4144: 4138: 4113: 4076: 4039: 3968: 3921: 3917: 3915: 3903: 3458:"Unleashing the Power of 'Womenomics'" 3426: 3424: 3074: 3006: 2801:Overview of gender inequality in Japan 6821: 6414: 6338:The hidden sun: Women of modern Japan 6160: 6086:Women and Democracy in Cold War Japan 6029: 5950: 5842: 5290: 5284: 5049: 5028:"White Paper on Gender Equality 2013" 4625:THE UNIQUE IDENTITY OF JAPANESE GIRLS 4534:Reuters in Tokyo (11 December 2015). 4336: 4194: 4188: 3852: 3850: 3806: 3804: 3721: 3719: 3717: 3669: 3667: 3665: 3663: 3661: 3659: 3397: 3395: 3327: 3325: 3323: 3321: 3319: 3303: 3301: 3152: 3111: 3105: 3065: 2985: 2434: 2279:Summer Evening Beside the Lake (1897) 6097:Recreating Japanese Women, 1600–1945 5863: 5701: 4781: 4775: 4707:(Cabinet Office), Naikakufu (2005). 4635: 4629: 4605: 4599: 3075:Nohara, Yoshiaki (21 January 2014). 2930:"Human Development Report 2021/2022" 2439: 2401:In 1998 the General Assembly of the 2046: 714:Gender representation in video games 5628:"Tokyo police act on train gropers" 5426:"Stalker-killer's life term upheld" 5315:Health Care for Women International 4888:Burton, Margaret Emerstine (1914). 4362: 4356: 4195:Beech, Hannah (30 September 2013). 4021:Women's Studies International Forum 3928:Women's Studies International Forum 3912: 3512: 3455: 3421: 3402:McCurry, Justin (26 October 2021). 3331: 3262: 3240: 3192:10.1146/annurev.an.19.100190.000313 2219:adopted their husband's family name 2168: 1600: 24: 7289:2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami 6847: 6258:10.1111/j.1540-6563.1993.tb00918.x 6023: 4981: 4498:"Population, Family and Household" 4371: 3847: 3801: 3769:Gaunder, Alisa (26 January 2016). 3714: 3656: 3485:"Perceptions of Gender Inequality" 3392: 3316: 3298: 2986:Soble, Jonathan (1 January 2015). 2479: 2424:of any sex anywhere in the world. 2119:Families, prior to and during the 1984:1992 House of Councillors election 25: 8116: 7156:Imperial Constitution (1890–1947) 6440: 6394: 5360:. Tokyo: Zaimusyou insatsu Kyoku. 3456:Abe, Shinzo (25 September 2013). 3285:""Womenomics" in Japan: In Brief" 3241:Fox, Margalit (January 1, 2013). 2909:"LFS by sex and age - indicators" 2497: 2207: 2022:Sexism and harassment in politics 1937:The LDP and female representation 1846:Female representation in politics 1689:, wife of notable diplomat Count 8074: 8073: 8062: 6801: 6792: 6791: 6146:10.2752/175174115X14223685749368 5995: 5923: 5905: 5736:The Journal of Transport History 5716: 5676: 4684: 4659:. New York Times. Archived from 4159:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2012.00599.x 3674:Gaunder, Alisa (17 March 2015). 2906: 2852: 1698: 1678: 1647:Under the Shade of a Tree (1898) 1631: 1620: 1609: 231:Diversity, equity, and inclusion 158: 6238:A Companion to Japanese History 5621: 5603: 5585: 5525: 5507: 5418: 5349: 5221: 5115: 4891:The Education of Women in Japan 4860:"Education and Research Fields" 4802: 4618: 4578: 4515: 4426:Van Houten, Elizabeth. (2005). 4419: 4286: 4215: 4179: 4165: 4147:Gender, Work & Organization 3969:Dalton, Emma (8 October 2021). 3962: 3897: 3762: 3630: 3604: 3578: 3553: 3506: 3368: 3210: 3198: 2955:"Global Gender Gap Report 2022" 2354:Japanese schoolgirls wearing a 1720:", or "Learning for Women", by 7642:Agriculture, forestry, fishing 6759:British Indian Ocean Territory 6128:(U of California Press, 2007). 6099:(U of California Press, 1991). 6004:"Japanese Women Shun The Pill" 4651:Sanger, David (14 June 1990). 4339:"Holding back half the nation" 3995:"Holding back half the nation" 3292:Congressional Research Service 3153:Lebra, Takie Sugiyama (1985). 2947: 2922: 2882: 2704:, and Japan did not adopt the 2102: 2068:tasks such as serving tea and 1885:2021 Japanese general election 1824:drafting of a new constitution 13: 1: 6326:(U of Michigan Press, 2020). 5032:Statistical Topics (Japanese) 4823:10.1080/09540253.2015.1069799 4461:American Journal of Sociology 4122:Japan: the paradox of harmony 4105:(1978). Corbyn, Marie (ed.). 4033:10.1016/S0277-5395(99)00053-9 3775:Journal of East Asian Studies 3180:Annual Review of Anthropology 2846: 2811:Women in agriculture in Japan 2636:Geisha in Miyagawa-chō, Kyoto 2277:Teenage girls reading books, 2229: 6202:Social Science Japan Journal 6175:10.1080/03085147.2010.486214 6081:(Trans Pacific Press, 2010). 6059:Akiba, Fumiko (March 1998). 6032:The Journal of Psychohistory 5686:. 2007-12-26. Archived from 5662:10.1080/13698575.2011.641523 5453:Aquino, Faith (2013-06-27). 4961:10.1080/09555803.2013.788053 4757:Schoppa, Leonard J. (2008). 4109:. Penguin Books. p. 98. 4107:Aspects of Japanese Marriage 3052:National Diet Library, Japan 2733:List of idol anime and manga 2268: 2132:and shaving their eyebrows. 1643:Woman in Red Clothing (1912) 1585:Women in Japan obtained the 682:Portrayal in American comics 273:Heads of state or government 7: 7230:1923 Great Kantō earthquake 7176:Abolition of the han system 4428:Women in the Japanese world 3922:Dalton, Emma (2019-11-01). 3813:Journal of Japanese Studies 3257:Correction: January 4, 2013 3099:www.womeninworldhistory.com 2935:. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORTS 2738: 2673:Contraception and sexuality 2459: 2375: 2255:Japan's declining birthrate 1858:In 1994, Japan implemented 1597:if she marries a commoner. 10: 8121: 6288:Journal of Women's History 6121:(U of Hawaii Press, 2000). 5650:Health, Risk & Society 3940:10.1016/j.wsif.2019.102276 2715: 2706:Confucian view of marriage 2685: 2625: 2483: 2379: 1812:Japanese surrender in WWII 8057: 7825: 7703: 7694: 7637: 7628: 7563: 7440: 7436: 7427: 7340: 7331: 7299: 7242:Japan during World War II 7212: 7121: 7059:Mongol invasions of Japan 7034: 6959: 6886: 6877: 6859: 6787: 6746: 6706: 6448: 6379:10.1080/10371390902780555 6095:Bernstein, Lee Gail. ed. 5485:"Japan's stalking crisis" 5327:10.1080/07399330500511774 4736:10.1017/s0047279498005285 4542:. Reuters. Archived from 4278:Kitamura, Mariko (1982). 3875:10.1017/S1743923X18000223 3787:10.1017/S1598240800008092 3740:10.1080/03003930308559368 3692:10.1017/S1743923X1400066X 3346:10.1080/14616741003665227 2870:Federal Research Division 2669:(turning of the collar). 2647: 2621: 2521: 2512:women-only passenger cars 2411: 2394:(born 1223 - died 1298). 1995:Democratic Party of Japan 1802:Political status of women 1743:reduced the authority of 135: 127: 120: 112: 104: 97: 85: 74: 64: 51: 46: 34: 7516:House of Representatives 7312:2019 imperial transition 7284:Great Hanshin earthquake 7252:Second Sino-Japanese War 7225:Japan during World War I 6508:East Timor (Timor-Leste) 6220:Goldstein-Gidoni, Ofra. 6189:Gayle, Curtis Anderson. 5397:"Violence against Women" 5266:"Women and Men in Japan" 5249:Takemaru, Naoko (2010). 5231:. Religioustolerance.org 4912:Koyama, Takashi (1961). 4724:Journal of Social Policy 4608:US Japan Women's Journal 4261:Cooper, Jessica (2013). 3728:Local Government Studies 2720: 2492:sex trafficking in Japan 2486:Sex trafficking in Japan 1943:Liberal Democratic Party 1889:House of Representatives 1880:House of Representatives 1840:equal pay for equal work 7199:First Sino-Japanese War 6769:Cocos (Keeling) Islands 6340:(Westview Press, 1983) 6336:Robins-Mowry, Dorothy. 6273:Women in changing Japan 4640:. New York: Free Press. 3112:Ekken, Kaibara (2010). 1868:single-member districts 1836:women's rights in Japan 1763:Behavioral expectations 1693:. Photographed in 1888. 268:Conservatives in the US 241:Explorers and travelers 122:Global Gender Gap Index 99:Gender Inequality Index 7667:Science and technology 7106:Council of Five Elders 7101:Azuchi–Momoyama period 6300:10.1353/jowh.2014.0063 5784:Miller, Laura (2006). 4306:Cite journal requires 2960:. World Economic Forum 2776:Good Wife, Wise Mother 2770:Gender Equality Bureau 2760:Family policy in Japan 2745:Birth control in Japan 2683: 2637: 2547:published a magazine, 2507: 2364: 2324: 2285: 2239: 2223:Japanese Supreme Court 2130:blackening their teeth 2112: 2056: 2043: 1864:mixed electoral system 1855: 571:In Shakespeare's works 7612:Deputy Prime Minister 6997:Asuka Kiyomihara Code 6268:(Princeton UP, 1992). 6117:Copeland, Rebecca L. 6112:U of California Press 5953:The Threepenny Review 5813:Morris, Ivan (1995). 5291:Lebra, Takie (1984). 4636:Iwao, Sumiko (1993). 4588:. Bbc.com. 2015-12-16 4378:Borovoy, Amy (2005). 3863:Politics & Gender 3680:Politics & Gender 3464:. Wall Street Journal 3022:Borovoy, Amy (2005). 2686:Further information: 2680: 2635: 2505: 2420:of Japanese women is 2353: 2322: 2316:"practical matters". 2276: 2237: 2110: 2054: 2037: 1968:Japan Socialist Party 1908:Tokyo's Special Wards 1893:2017 general election 1853: 1806:Women were given the 1755:system) denied women 1655:Japanese Woman (1903) 327:Nobel Prize laureates 86:Women in labour force 7521:House of Councillors 7415:World Heritage Sites 6683:United Arab Emirates 6264:LaFleur, William R. 6214:10.1093/ssjj/1.2.263 5845:The Wilson Quarterly 5713:An ABC News article. 5690:on December 26, 2007 4811:Gender and Education 4784:Social Science Japan 4077:Hendry, Joy (1986). 3513:Eto, Mikiko (2021). 2654:to be confused with 2259:total fertility rate 2147:Japan's Constitution 1927:House of Councillors 1657:by Hungarian artist 1484:United Arab Emirates 421:in the United States 236:Economic development 226:Diversity (politics) 212:Female entrepreneurs 7538:Self-Defense Forces 6710:limited recognition 6229:Gulliver, Katrina. 6223:Housewives of Japan 6193:(Routledge, 2013). 6163:Economy and Society 6088:(Bloomsbury, 2015) 5748:10.7227/TJTH.23.1.4 5684:"Untitled Document" 5579:The Washington Post 5560:. October 29, 2019. 5537:Mainichi Daily News 5521:. January 24, 2017. 5495:on 5 September 2015 5434:. December 21, 2005 5197:semanticscholar.org 5172:semanticscholar.org 4796:10.1093/ssjj/jyk011 4546:on 11 December 2015 3565:Mainichi Daily News 3462:Wall Street Journal 3436:Mainichi Daily News 2214:Civil Code of Japan 2055:A Kimono-clad woman 1866:that included both 1828:Beate Sirota Gordon 1810:in 1945, after the 1469:Trinidad and Tobago 704:Speculative fiction 597:Theological figures 542:Feminist philosophy 342:Reproductive rights 148:Part of a series on 77:secondary education 75:Women over 25 with 66:Women in parliament 56: (per 100,000) 31: 7672:Telecommunications 7204:Russo-Japanese War 7134:Tokugawa shogunate 7084:Nanboku-chō period 7079:Ashikaga shogunate 7052:Kamakura shogunate 6275:(Routledge, 20190 6233:(IB Tauris, 2012). 5937:. 8 November 2019. 5088:The New York Times 4570:has generic name ( 3517:. Abingdon, Oxon. 3268:Dower, pp. 365-367 3247:The New York Times 3118:. Gardners Books. 2993:The New York Times 2694:contraceptive pill 2688:Sexuality in Japan 2684: 2638: 2508: 2469:university student 2465:Anti-stalking laws 2435:Laws of protection 2365: 2325: 2310:flower arrangement 2286: 2240: 2113: 2057: 2044: 1856: 1034:Dominican Republic 801:Mixed martial arts 771:Fastpitch softball 352:Violence and abuse 337:Positions of power 53:Maternal mortality 47:General Statistics 29: 8087: 8086: 8053: 8052: 7802:Sexual minorities 7690: 7689: 7624: 7623: 7620: 7619: 7533:Political parties 7472:Foreign relations 7423: 7422: 7327: 7326: 7317:COVID-19 pandemic 7186:Satsuma Rebellion 7171:Meiji Restoration 7069:Kenmu Restoration 6929:Foreign relations 6815: 6814: 6752:other territories 6354:(Duke UP, 2003). 6312:Project MUSE 5459:Japan Daily Press 4318:Missing or empty 3524:978-1-003-05691-1 3492:www.gender.go.jp/ 2842:, female warriors 2765:Feminism in Japan 2604:camellia japonica 2474:e-mail harassment 2440:Domestic violence 2428:Abortion in Japan 2416:At 87 years, the 2403:Nippon Sei Ko Kai 2382:Women in Buddhism 2344:Allied occupation 2329:Tsuruko Haraguchi 2125:arranged marriage 2121:Meiji restoration 2047:Professional life 1951:Junichiro Koizumi 1947:old boys' network 1912:designated cities 1862:and introduced a 1820:Douglas MacArthur 1737:industrialization 1572: 1571: 776:Football / soccer 699:Fictional pirates 491:Art history field 367:Exchange of women 143: 142: 16:(Redirected from 8112: 8105:Women by country 8077: 8076: 8069:Japan portal 8067: 8066: 8065: 7982:National symbols 7701: 7700: 7635: 7634: 7438: 7437: 7434: 7433: 7338: 7337: 7272:Economic miracle 7074:Muromachi period 6884: 6883: 6842: 6835: 6828: 6819: 6818: 6805: 6795: 6794: 6764:Christmas Island 6450:Sovereign states 6435: 6428: 6421: 6412: 6411: 6390: 6367:Japanese Studies 6322:Patessio, Mara. 6319: 6271:Lebra, Joyce C. 6261: 6217: 6186: 6157: 6124:Faison, Elyssa. 6103:Brinton, Mary C. 6074: 6069:. Archived from 6055: 6018: 6017: 6015: 6014: 5999: 5993: 5992: 5990: 5988: 5973: 5967: 5961: 5960: 5948: 5939: 5938: 5927: 5921: 5920: 5909: 5903: 5902: 5896: 5888: 5870: 5861: 5860: 5840: 5829: 5828: 5810: 5804: 5803: 5791: 5781: 5760: 5759: 5731: 5725: 5720: 5714: 5708: 5699: 5698: 5696: 5695: 5680: 5674: 5673: 5645: 5630: 5625: 5619: 5618: 5607: 5601: 5600: 5599:. June 15, 2019. 5589: 5583: 5582: 5571: 5562: 5561: 5550: 5541: 5540: 5539:. June 10, 2017. 5529: 5523: 5522: 5511: 5505: 5504: 5502: 5500: 5491:. Archived from 5481: 5475: 5474: 5472: 5470: 5461:. Archived from 5450: 5444: 5443: 5441: 5439: 5422: 5416: 5415: 5413: 5411: 5401: 5392: 5381: 5380: 5368: 5362: 5361: 5353: 5347: 5346: 5310: 5297: 5296: 5288: 5282: 5281: 5279: 5277: 5261: 5255: 5254: 5246: 5240: 5239: 5237: 5236: 5225: 5219: 5216: 5215:on 3 March 2019. 5214: 5208:. 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Stats.oecd.org 2904: 2898: 2897: 2886: 2873: 2856: 2855: 2816:Yamato nadeshiko 2755:Empress of Japan 2652: 2650: 2649: 2342:After 1945, the 2283:Fujishima Takeji 2169:Right to divorce 1929:, the country's 1860:electoral reform 1818:ruler of Japan, 1702: 1682: 1659:Bertalan Székely 1635: 1624: 1613: 1601:Cultural history 1564: 1557: 1550: 1234:Marshall Islands 811:Paralympic Games 442: 219: 184: 162: 153:Women in society 145: 144: 139:116th out of 146 57: 39: 32: 28: 21: 8120: 8119: 8115: 8114: 8113: 8111: 8110: 8109: 8090: 8089: 8088: 8083: 8063: 8061: 8049: 7869:Class S (genre) 7821: 7797:Sex trafficking 7772:Life expectancy 7708:Anti-monarchism 7686: 7616: 7559: 7526:List of members 7506:Law enforcement 7419: 7323: 7295: 7247:Mukden Incident 7208: 7166:Meiji oligarchy 7146:Empire of Japan 7117: 7047:Kamakura period 7030: 6955: 6873: 6855: 6846: 6816: 6811: 6783: 6751: 6742: 6723:Northern Cyprus 6709: 6702: 6444: 6439: 6397: 6350:Sato, Barbara. 6084:Bardsley, Jan. 6026: 6024:Further reading 6021: 6012: 6010: 6000: 5996: 5986: 5984: 5975: 5974: 5970: 5964: 5949: 5942: 5929: 5928: 5924: 5911: 5910: 5906: 5890: 5889: 5885: 5871: 5864: 5841: 5832: 5825: 5811: 5807: 5800: 5782: 5763: 5732: 5728: 5721: 5717: 5709: 5702: 5693: 5691: 5682: 5681: 5677: 5646: 5633: 5626: 5622: 5617:. May 15, 2018. 5615:UW–Madison News 5609: 5608: 5604: 5591: 5590: 5586: 5581:. May 16, 2017. 5573: 5572: 5565: 5552: 5551: 5544: 5531: 5530: 5526: 5513: 5512: 5508: 5498: 5496: 5483: 5482: 5478: 5468: 5466: 5451: 5447: 5437: 5435: 5431:The Japan Times 5424: 5423: 5419: 5409: 5407: 5399: 5393: 5384: 5369: 5365: 5354: 5350: 5311: 5300: 5289: 5285: 5275: 5273: 5262: 5258: 5247: 5243: 5234: 5232: 5227: 5226: 5222: 5212: 5191: 5187: 5153:1854/LU-8636481 5143:10.5109/1654566 5120: 5116: 5100: 5099: 5093: 5091: 5079: 5075: 5066: 5064: 5063:. Lisa Erickson 5055: 5054: 5050: 5040: 5038: 5024: 5020: 5004: 5003: 4996: 4994: 4986: 4980: 4976: 4945: 4934: 4924: 4922: 4921:. 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Time Magazine 4193: 4189: 4184: 4180: 4171: 4170: 4166: 4143: 4139: 4132: 4118: 4114: 4100: 4096: 4089: 4075: 4040: 4017: 4013: 4003: 4001: 3993: 3992: 3988: 3979: 3977: 3967: 3963: 3920: 3913: 3902: 3898: 3855: 3848: 3809: 3802: 3767: 3763: 3724: 3715: 3672: 3657: 3647: 3645: 3636: 3635: 3631: 3621: 3619: 3610: 3609: 3605: 3595: 3593: 3584: 3583: 3579: 3570: 3568: 3559: 3558: 3554: 3538: 3537: 3525: 3511: 3507: 3497: 3495: 3487: 3481: 3477: 3467: 3465: 3454: 3450: 3441: 3439: 3430: 3429: 3422: 3412: 3410: 3400: 3393: 3384: 3382: 3380:archive.ipu.org 3374: 3373: 3369: 3330: 3317: 3306: 3299: 3287: 3281: 3272: 3267: 3263: 3251: 3249: 3239: 3235: 3226: 3224: 3216: 3215: 3211: 3203: 3199: 3176: 3172: 3165: 3151: 3144: 3137: 3133: 3126: 3110: 3106: 3093: 3092: 3088: 3073: 3066: 3056: 3054: 3046: 3045: 3041: 3034: 3020: 3007: 2998: 2996: 2984: 2973: 2963: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2952: 2948: 2938: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2927: 2923: 2914: 2912: 2905: 2901: 2888: 2887: 2883: 2865:Country Studies 2862: 2853: 2849: 2823:Women in Shinto 2750:Class S (genre) 2741: 2723: 2718: 2690: 2675: 2644: 2630: 2624: 2591:cherry blossoms 2566:By the 1970s, " 2524: 2500: 2488: 2482: 2480:Sex trafficking 2462: 2442: 2437: 2418:life expectancy 2414: 2388: 2386:Women in Shinto 2378: 2304:class, such as 2271: 2232: 2210: 2175:Tokugawa period 2171: 2105: 2049: 2024: 2003: 1960: 1939: 1848: 1804: 1792:employment rate 1765: 1710: 1709: 1708: 1707: 1706: 1703: 1695: 1694: 1691:Mutsu Munemitsu 1683: 1665: 1664: 1663: 1662: 1638: 1637: 1636: 1627: 1626: 1625: 1616: 1615: 1614: 1603: 1568: 1539: 1538: 874: 864: 863: 856: 844:Track and field 731: 721: 720: 672: 671:Popular culture 664: 663: 592: 591: 576: 575: 530:Science fiction 476: 475: 457: 456: 440: 391: 390: 372: 371: 347:Venture capital 312:Law enforcement 217: 202:Animal advocacy 198: 178: 175:Women's history 170: 116:22nd out of 191 91:employment rate 55: 42: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8118: 8108: 8107: 8102: 8100:Women in Japan 8085: 8084: 8082: 8081: 8071: 8058: 8055: 8054: 8051: 8050: 8048: 8047: 8042: 8037: 8032: 8027: 8022: 8017: 8012: 8007: 8000: 7991: 7984: 7979: 7974: 7969: 7964: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7939: 7934: 7929: 7926: 7924:Henohenomoheji 7921: 7916: 7911: 7906: 7901: 7896: 7891: 7886: 7881: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7837: 7831: 7829: 7823: 7822: 7820: 7819: 7814: 7809: 7804: 7799: 7794: 7789: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7769: 7768: 7767: 7757: 7756: 7755: 7745: 7740: 7735: 7730: 7725: 7720: 7715: 7710: 7704: 7698: 7692: 7691: 7688: 7687: 7685: 7684: 7679: 7674: 7669: 7664: 7659: 7654: 7649: 7644: 7638: 7632: 7626: 7625: 7622: 7621: 7618: 7617: 7615: 7614: 7609: 7608: 7607: 7600:Prime Minister 7597: 7592: 7590:Foreign policy 7587: 7582: 7581: 7580: 7569: 7567: 7561: 7560: 7558: 7557: 7556: 7555: 7550: 7545: 7535: 7530: 7529: 7528: 7523: 7518: 7508: 7503: 7498: 7497: 7496: 7486: 7485: 7484: 7474: 7469: 7467:Imperial House 7464: 7463: 7462: 7452: 7447: 7441: 7431: 7425: 7424: 7421: 7420: 7418: 7417: 7412: 7407: 7402: 7397: 7392: 7387: 7382: 7377: 7375:Extreme points 7372: 7367: 7362: 7357: 7352: 7347: 7341: 7335: 7329: 7328: 7325: 7324: 7322: 7321: 7320: 7319: 7314: 7303: 7301: 7297: 7296: 7294: 7293: 7292: 7291: 7286: 7276: 7275: 7274: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7234: 7233: 7232: 7227: 7216: 7214: 7210: 7209: 7207: 7206: 7201: 7196: 7190: 7189: 7188: 7183: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7163: 7158: 7148: 7143: 7138: 7137: 7136: 7125: 7123: 7119: 7118: 7116: 7115: 7110: 7109: 7108: 7103: 7096:Sengoku period 7093: 7088: 7087: 7086: 7081: 7071: 7066: 7061: 7056: 7055: 7054: 7044: 7038: 7036: 7035:Post-Classical 7032: 7031: 7029: 7028: 7023: 7018: 7017: 7016: 7006: 7005: 7004: 6999: 6994: 6984: 6979: 6974: 6969: 6963: 6961: 6957: 6956: 6954: 6953: 6952: 6951: 6946: 6941: 6931: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6915: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6890: 6888: 6881: 6875: 6874: 6872: 6871: 6866: 6860: 6857: 6856: 6845: 6844: 6837: 6830: 6822: 6813: 6812: 6810: 6809: 6799: 6788: 6785: 6784: 6782: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6766: 6761: 6755: 6753: 6744: 6743: 6741: 6740: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6720: 6714: 6712: 6704: 6703: 6701: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6665: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6454: 6452: 6446: 6445: 6442:Women in Asia 6438: 6437: 6430: 6423: 6415: 6409: 6408: 6403: 6396: 6395:External links 6393: 6392: 6391: 6362: 6348: 6334: 6320: 6283: 6269: 6262: 6252:(4): 677–692. 6241: 6234: 6227: 6218: 6208:(2): 263–279. 6197: 6187: 6169:(3): 317–336. 6158: 6140:(3): 331–361. 6134:Fashion Theory 6129: 6122: 6115: 6100: 6093: 6082: 6077:Aoki, Debora. 6075: 6073:on 2002-03-21. 6056: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6019: 5994: 5983:. May 13, 2009 5968: 5962: 5940: 5922: 5904: 5883: 5862: 5851:(1): 128–135. 5830: 5824:978-1568360294 5823: 5805: 5798: 5761: 5726: 5715: 5700: 5675: 5631: 5620: 5602: 5584: 5563: 5542: 5524: 5506: 5476: 5445: 5417: 5382: 5363: 5348: 5321:(4): 290–306. 5298: 5283: 5256: 5241: 5220: 5218: 5217: 5185: 5166: 5114: 5073: 5048: 5018: 4974: 4955:(4): 556–581. 4932: 4897: 4880: 4850: 4817:(6): 599–617. 4801: 4774: 4768:978-0801474453 4767: 4749: 4730:(2): 173–190. 4714: 4699: 4674: 4663:on 25 May 2015 4657:New York Times 4643: 4628: 4617: 4598: 4577: 4568:|author1= 4526: 4514: 4486: 4473:10.1086/215417 4467:(3): 435–446. 4451: 4436: 4418: 4395: 4388: 4370: 4355: 4329: 4308:|journal= 4285: 4270: 4253: 4227: 4214: 4187: 4178: 4164: 4153:(5): 512–527. 4137: 4131:978-0300186079 4130: 4112: 4094: 4087: 4038: 4027:(5): 543–554. 4011: 3986: 3961: 3911: 3896: 3869:(2): 285–309. 3846: 3825:10.2307/132866 3819:(1): 103–120. 3800: 3781:(3): 441–466. 3761: 3713: 3686:(1): 176–186. 3655: 3644:. 11 July 2022 3629: 3618:. 11 July 2022 3603: 3592:. 11 July 2022 3577: 3552: 3523: 3505: 3475: 3448: 3420: 3391: 3367: 3340:(2): 177–201. 3315: 3297: 3270: 3261: 3233: 3209: 3197: 3170: 3163: 3142: 3131: 3125:978-0955979675 3124: 3104: 3086: 3064: 3039: 3032: 3005: 2971: 2946: 2921: 2899: 2880: 2879: 2878: 2848: 2845: 2844: 2843: 2837: 2836:, female spies 2825: 2824: 2818: 2813: 2808: 2803: 2798: 2788: 2783: 2778: 2773: 2767: 2762: 2757: 2752: 2747: 2740: 2737: 2736: 2735: 2730: 2722: 2719: 2717: 2714: 2692:In Japan, the 2674: 2671: 2626:Main article: 2623: 2620: 2599:chrysanthemums 2523: 2520: 2499: 2498:Sexual assault 2496: 2484:Main article: 2481: 2478: 2461: 2458: 2441: 2438: 2436: 2433: 2413: 2410: 2377: 2374: 2370:junior college 2333:Yoshioka Yayoi 2306:tea ceremonies 2270: 2267: 2231: 2228: 2209: 2208:Surname change 2206: 2170: 2167: 2158: 2157: 2104: 2101: 2048: 2045: 2040:Ichiyō Higuchi 2023: 2020: 2015:nuclear-family 2002: 1999: 1959: 1956: 1938: 1935: 1901:Cabinet Office 1847: 1844: 1803: 1800: 1764: 1761: 1712:From the late 1704: 1697: 1696: 1684: 1677: 1676: 1675: 1674: 1673: 1640: 1639: 1630: 1629: 1628: 1619: 1618: 1617: 1608: 1607: 1606: 1605: 1604: 1602: 1599: 1595:imperial title 1576:women in Japan 1570: 1569: 1567: 1566: 1559: 1552: 1544: 1541: 1540: 1537: 1536: 1531: 1526: 1521: 1516: 1511: 1506: 1501: 1496: 1491: 1489:United Kingdom 1486: 1481: 1476: 1471: 1466: 1461: 1456: 1451: 1446: 1441: 1436: 1431: 1426: 1421: 1416: 1411: 1406: 1401: 1396: 1391: 1386: 1381: 1376: 1371: 1366: 1361: 1356: 1351: 1346: 1341: 1336: 1331: 1326: 1321: 1316: 1311: 1306: 1301: 1296: 1291: 1286: 1281: 1276: 1271: 1266: 1261: 1256: 1251: 1246: 1241: 1236: 1231: 1226: 1221: 1216: 1211: 1206: 1201: 1196: 1191: 1186: 1181: 1176: 1171: 1166: 1161: 1156: 1151: 1146: 1141: 1136: 1131: 1126: 1121: 1116: 1111: 1106: 1101: 1096: 1091: 1086: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1046: 1041: 1036: 1031: 1026: 1021: 1011: 1006: 1001: 996: 991: 986: 981: 976: 971: 966: 961: 956: 951: 946: 941: 936: 931: 926: 921: 916: 911: 906: 901: 896: 891: 886: 881: 875: 870: 869: 866: 865: 861:List of sports 858: 857: 851: 846: 841: 836: 831: 826: 821: 816: 813: 808: 803: 798: 793: 788: 783: 778: 773: 768: 763: 758: 753: 748: 743: 738: 732: 727: 726: 723: 722: 719: 718: 717: 716: 706: 701: 696: 691: 686: 685: 684: 673: 670: 669: 666: 665: 662: 661: 656: 651: 646: 641: 636: 635: 634: 629: 624: 614: 609: 604: 599: 593: 590: 589: 583: 582: 581: 578: 577: 574: 573: 568: 567: 566: 561: 551: 546: 545: 544: 534: 533: 532: 522: 517: 516: 515: 513:"Chick flicks" 505: 500: 499: 498: 496:Women's cinema 488: 483: 477: 474: 473: 470: 464: 463: 462: 459: 458: 455: 454: 449: 444: 437: 432: 427: 426: 425: 424: 423: 408: 403: 398: 392: 389: 388: 385: 379: 378: 377: 374: 373: 370: 369: 364: 359: 354: 349: 344: 339: 334: 329: 324: 319: 314: 309: 304: 299: 294: 293: 292: 291: 290: 280: 275: 270: 260: 259: 258: 248: 243: 238: 233: 228: 223: 222: 221: 214: 204: 197: 196: 190: 189: 186: 185: 171: 168: 167: 164: 163: 155: 154: 150: 149: 141: 140: 137: 133: 132: 129: 125: 124: 118: 117: 114: 110: 109: 106: 102: 101: 95: 94: 87: 83: 82: 79: 72: 71: 68: 62: 61: 58: 49: 48: 44: 43: 40: 30:Women in Japan 18:Japanese women 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8117: 8106: 8103: 8101: 8098: 8097: 8095: 8080: 8072: 8070: 8060: 8059: 8056: 8046: 8043: 8041: 8038: 8036: 8033: 8031: 8028: 8026: 8023: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8005: 8001: 7999: 7995: 7992: 7990: 7989: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7940: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7927: 7925: 7922: 7920: 7917: 7915: 7912: 7910: 7907: 7905: 7902: 7900: 7897: 7895: 7892: 7890: 7887: 7885: 7882: 7879: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7833: 7832: 7830: 7828: 7824: 7818: 7815: 7813: 7810: 7808: 7805: 7803: 7800: 7798: 7795: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7766: 7763: 7762: 7761: 7758: 7754: 7751: 7750: 7749: 7746: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7734: 7731: 7729: 7726: 7724: 7721: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7705: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7693: 7683: 7680: 7678: 7675: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7657:Manufacturing 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7639: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7627: 7613: 7610: 7606: 7603: 7602: 7601: 7598: 7596: 7593: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7585:Fiscal policy 7583: 7579: 7576: 7575: 7574: 7571: 7570: 7568: 7566: 7562: 7554: 7551: 7549: 7546: 7544: 7541: 7540: 7539: 7536: 7534: 7531: 7527: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7513: 7512: 7511:National Diet 7509: 7507: 7504: 7502: 7499: 7495: 7494:Supreme Court 7492: 7491: 7490: 7487: 7483: 7480: 7479: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7461: 7458: 7457: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7448: 7446: 7443: 7442: 7439: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7426: 7416: 7413: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7403: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7391: 7388: 7386: 7383: 7381: 7378: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7368: 7366: 7363: 7361: 7358: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7342: 7339: 7336: 7334: 7330: 7318: 7315: 7313: 7310: 7309: 7308: 7305: 7304: 7302: 7298: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 7281: 7280: 7277: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7239: 7238: 7235: 7231: 7228: 7226: 7223: 7222: 7221: 7218: 7217: 7215: 7211: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7197: 7194: 7191: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7154: 7153: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7135: 7132: 7131: 7130: 7127: 7126: 7124: 7120: 7114: 7111: 7107: 7104: 7102: 7099: 7098: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7089: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7076: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7062: 7060: 7057: 7053: 7050: 7049: 7048: 7045: 7043: 7040: 7039: 7037: 7033: 7027: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7015: 7012: 7011: 7010: 7007: 7003: 7002:Hakuhō period 7000: 6998: 6995: 6993: 6990: 6989: 6988: 6985: 6983: 6980: 6978: 6975: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6965: 6964: 6962: 6958: 6950: 6949:Imperial Navy 6947: 6945: 6944:Imperial Army 6942: 6940: 6937: 6936: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6894: 6892: 6891: 6889: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6876: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6861: 6858: 6854: 6850: 6843: 6838: 6836: 6831: 6829: 6824: 6823: 6820: 6808: 6804: 6800: 6798: 6790: 6789: 6786: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6756: 6754: 6749: 6745: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6733:South Ossetia 6731: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6716: 6715: 6713: 6711: 6705: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6456: 6455: 6453: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6436: 6431: 6429: 6424: 6422: 6417: 6416: 6413: 6407: 6404: 6402: 6399: 6398: 6388: 6384: 6380: 6376: 6373:(1): 95–110. 6372: 6368: 6363: 6361: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6333: 6329: 6325: 6321: 6317: 6313: 6309: 6305: 6301: 6297: 6294:(4): 83–107. 6293: 6289: 6284: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6246:The Historian 6242: 6240:(2007): 372+. 6239: 6235: 6232: 6228: 6225: 6224: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6198: 6196: 6192: 6188: 6184: 6180: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6164: 6159: 6155: 6151: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6130: 6127: 6123: 6120: 6116: 6113: 6109: 6108: 6104: 6101: 6098: 6094: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6080: 6076: 6072: 6068: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6028: 6027: 6009: 6005: 5998: 5987:September 24, 5982: 5978: 5972: 5966: 5958: 5954: 5947: 5945: 5936: 5932: 5926: 5918: 5914: 5908: 5900: 5894: 5886: 5884:9781442218956 5880: 5876: 5869: 5867: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5839: 5837: 5835: 5826: 5820: 5816: 5809: 5801: 5799:9780520245082 5795: 5790: 5789: 5780: 5778: 5776: 5774: 5772: 5770: 5768: 5766: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5730: 5724: 5719: 5712: 5707: 5705: 5689: 5685: 5679: 5671: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5644: 5642: 5640: 5638: 5636: 5629: 5624: 5616: 5612: 5606: 5598: 5594: 5588: 5580: 5576: 5570: 5568: 5559: 5555: 5549: 5547: 5538: 5534: 5528: 5520: 5516: 5510: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5480: 5465:on 2015-09-28 5464: 5460: 5456: 5449: 5438:September 16, 5433: 5432: 5427: 5421: 5405: 5398: 5391: 5389: 5387: 5378: 5374: 5367: 5359: 5352: 5344: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5316: 5309: 5307: 5305: 5303: 5294: 5287: 5271: 5267: 5260: 5252: 5245: 5230: 5224: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5198: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5173: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5135: 5131: 5127: 5122: 5121: 5118: 5110: 5104: 5090: 5089: 5084: 5077: 5062: 5061:Buddhism Site 5058: 5052: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5022: 5014: 5008: 4992: 4985: 4978: 4970: 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Economist 3996: 3990: 3976: 3972: 3965: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3918: 3916: 3907: 3900: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3853: 3851: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3807: 3805: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3765: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3722: 3720: 3718: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3670: 3668: 3666: 3664: 3662: 3660: 3643: 3639: 3633: 3617: 3613: 3607: 3591: 3587: 3581: 3566: 3562: 3556: 3548: 3542: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3520: 3516: 3509: 3493: 3486: 3479: 3463: 3459: 3452: 3437: 3433: 3427: 3425: 3409: 3405: 3398: 3396: 3381: 3377: 3371: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3328: 3326: 3324: 3322: 3320: 3311: 3304: 3302: 3293: 3286: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3265: 3258: 3248: 3244: 3237: 3223: 3219: 3213: 3206: 3201: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3174: 3166: 3160: 3156: 3149: 3147: 3140: 3135: 3127: 3121: 3117: 3116: 3108: 3100: 3096: 3090: 3082: 3078: 3071: 3069: 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As the new 1813: 1809: 1808:right to vote 1799: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1784: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1770: 1760: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1729: 1727: 1726:Kaibara Ekken 1723: 1719: 1715: 1701: 1692: 1688: 1681: 1672: 1670: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1634: 1623: 1612: 1598: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1587:right to vote 1583: 1581: 1577: 1565: 1560: 1558: 1553: 1551: 1546: 1545: 1543: 1542: 1535: 1532: 1530: 1527: 1525: 1522: 1520: 1517: 1515: 1512: 1510: 1507: 1505: 1502: 1500: 1497: 1495: 1494:United States 1492: 1490: 1487: 1485: 1482: 1480: 1477: 1475: 1472: 1470: 1467: 1465: 1462: 1460: 1457: 1455: 1452: 1450: 1447: 1445: 1442: 1440: 1437: 1435: 1432: 1430: 1427: 1425: 1422: 1420: 1417: 1415: 1412: 1410: 1407: 1405: 1402: 1400: 1397: 1395: 1392: 1390: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1380: 1377: 1375: 1372: 1370: 1367: 1365: 1362: 1360: 1357: 1355: 1352: 1350: 1347: 1345: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1335: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1325: 1322: 1320: 1317: 1315: 1312: 1310: 1307: 1305: 1302: 1300: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1290: 1287: 1285: 1282: 1280: 1277: 1275: 1272: 1270: 1267: 1265: 1262: 1260: 1257: 1255: 1252: 1250: 1247: 1245: 1242: 1240: 1237: 1235: 1232: 1230: 1227: 1225: 1222: 1220: 1217: 1215: 1212: 1210: 1207: 1205: 1202: 1200: 1197: 1195: 1192: 1190: 1187: 1185: 1182: 1180: 1177: 1175: 1172: 1170: 1167: 1165: 1162: 1160: 1157: 1155: 1152: 1150: 1147: 1145: 1142: 1140: 1137: 1135: 1132: 1130: 1127: 1125: 1122: 1120: 1117: 1115: 1112: 1110: 1107: 1105: 1102: 1100: 1097: 1095: 1092: 1090: 1087: 1085: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1075: 1072: 1070: 1067: 1065: 1064:FS Micronesia 1062: 1060: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1050: 1047: 1045: 1042: 1040: 1037: 1035: 1032: 1030: 1027: 1025: 1022: 1019: 1015: 1012: 1010: 1007: 1005: 1002: 1000: 997: 995: 992: 990: 987: 985: 982: 980: 977: 975: 972: 970: 967: 965: 962: 960: 957: 955: 952: 950: 947: 945: 942: 940: 937: 935: 932: 930: 927: 925: 922: 920: 917: 915: 912: 910: 907: 905: 902: 900: 897: 895: 892: 890: 887: 885: 882: 880: 877: 876: 873: 868: 867: 862: 855: 854:Winter sports 852: 850: 847: 845: 842: 840: 837: 835: 832: 830: 827: 825: 822: 820: 817: 814: 812: 809: 807: 804: 802: 799: 797: 794: 792: 789: 787: 784: 782: 779: 777: 774: 772: 769: 767: 764: 762: 759: 757: 754: 752: 749: 747: 744: 742: 739: 737: 734: 733: 730: 725: 724: 715: 712: 711: 710: 707: 705: 702: 700: 697: 695: 692: 690: 689:Film industry 687: 683: 680: 679: 678: 675: 674: 668: 667: 660: 657: 655: 652: 650: 647: 645: 642: 640: 637: 633: 630: 628: 625: 623: 620: 619: 618: 615: 613: 610: 608: 605: 603: 600: 598: 595: 594: 588: 585: 584: 580: 579: 572: 569: 565: 562: 560: 557: 556: 555: 552: 550: 549:Photographers 547: 543: 540: 539: 538: 535: 531: 528: 527: 526: 523: 521: 518: 514: 511: 510: 509: 506: 504: 501: 497: 494: 493: 492: 489: 487: 484: 482: 479: 478: 471: 469: 466: 465: 461: 460: 453: 450: 448: 445: 443: 438: 436: 433: 431: 430:Organizations 428: 422: 419: 418: 417: 414: 413: 412: 409: 407: 404: 402: 399: 397: 394: 393: 386: 384: 381: 380: 376: 375: 368: 365: 363: 360: 358: 357:Voting rights 355: 353: 350: 348: 345: 343: 340: 338: 335: 333: 330: 328: 325: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 310: 308: 305: 303: 300: 298: 295: 289: 286: 285: 284: 283:Queen regnant 281: 279: 276: 274: 271: 269: 266: 265: 264: 261: 257: 254: 253: 252: 249: 247: 244: 242: 239: 237: 234: 232: 229: 227: 224: 220: 215: 213: 210: 209: 208: 205: 203: 200: 199: 195: 192: 191: 188: 187: 182: 176: 173: 172: 166: 165: 161: 157: 156: 152: 151: 147: 146: 138: 134: 130: 126: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 78: 73: 69: 67: 63: 59: 54: 50: 45: 38: 33: 27: 19: 8025:Tea ceremony 8002: 7996: / 7988:No-pan kissa 7986: 7957:Martial arts 7947:LGBT culture 7849:Architecture 7842: / 7816: 7787:Prostitution 7753:Homelessness 7723:Demographics 7647:Central bank 7477:Human rights 7445:Constitution 7300:Contemporary 7122:Early Modern 7026:Heian period 7014:Monmu period 7009:Taika Reform 6987:Asuka period 6982:Kofun period 6977:Yayoi period 6972:Jōmon period 6748:Dependencies 6678:Turkmenistan 6643:Saudi Arabia 6547: 6370: 6366: 6351: 6337: 6323: 6291: 6287: 6272: 6265: 6249: 6245: 6237: 6230: 6221: 6205: 6201: 6190: 6166: 6162: 6137: 6133: 6125: 6118: 6105: 6096: 6085: 6078: 6071:the original 6064: 6038:(1): 33–44. 6035: 6031: 6011:. 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