J. Robert Oppenheimer

934: 2969: 2042: 1332: 3130: 1031:("hot dog" in Spanish). Later, he used to say that "physics and desert country" were his "two great loves". He recovered from tuberculosis and returned to Berkeley, where he prospered as an advisor and collaborator to a generation of physicists who admired him for his intellectual virtuosity and broad interests. His students and colleagues saw him as mesmerizing: hypnotic in private interaction, but often frigid in more public settings. His associates fell into two camps: one saw him as an aloof and impressive genius and aesthete, the other as a pretentious and insecure poseur. His students almost always fell into the former category, adopting his walk, speech, and other mannerisms, and even his inclination for reading entire texts in their original languages. 13900: 2714:. Unknown to Oppenheimer, both versions were recorded during his interrogations of a decade before. He was surprised on the witness stand with transcripts of these, which he had not been given a chance to review. In fact, Oppenheimer had never told Chevalier that he had finally named him, and the testimony had cost Chevalier his job. Both Chevalier and Eltenton confirmed mentioning that they had a way to get information to the Soviets, Eltenton admitting he said this to Chevalier and Chevalier admitting he mentioned it to Oppenheimer, but both put the matter in terms of gossip and denied any thought or suggestion of treason or thoughts of espionage, either in planning or in deed. Neither was ever convicted of any crime. 1676:

what had already been done, but at the border he tended to feel there was much more of the mysterious and novel than there actually was ... away from the hard, crude methods of theoretical physics into a mystical realm of broad intuition.... In Oppenheimer the element of earthiness was feeble. Yet it was essentially this spiritual quality, this refinement as expressed in speech and manner, that was the basis of his charisma. He never expressed himself completely. He always left a feeling that there were depths of sensibility and insight not yet revealed. These may be the qualities of the born leader who seems to have reserves of uncommitted strength.

1806:. Groves also detected in Oppenheimer something that many others did not, an "overweening ambition", which Groves reckoned would supply the drive necessary to push the project to a successful conclusion. Oppenheimer's past associations were not overlooked, but on July 20, 1943, Groves directed that he receive a security clearance "without delay irrespective of the information which you have concerning Mr Oppenheimer. He is absolutely essential to the project." Rabi considered Oppenheimer's appointment "a real stroke of genius on the part of General Groves, who was not generally considered to be a genius". 2698: 807: 2421: 1870: 1968: 13912: 2154: 2576: 447: 2367:, then known as "the Super". Oppenheimer had been aware of the possibility of a thermonuclear weapon since the days of the Manhattan Project and had allocated a limited amount of theoretical research work toward the possibility at the time, but nothing more than that, given the pressing need to develop a fission weapon. Immediately following the end of the war, Oppenheimer argued against continuing work on the Super at that time, due to both lack of need and the enormous human casualties that would result from its use. 58: 2327: 861:), who often neglected to eat during periods of intense concentration. Many friends said he could be self-destructive. Fergusson once tried to distract Oppenheimer from apparent depression by telling him about his girlfriend, Frances Keeley, and how he had proposed to her. Oppenheimer did not take the news well. He jumped on Fergusson and tried to strangle him. Oppenheimer was plagued by periods of depression throughout his life, and once told his brother, "I need physics more than friends." 13924: 3297: 2030: 13708: 3043:, did so in a December 1963 ceremony at which he cited Oppenheimer's "contributions to theoretical physics as a teacher and originator of ideas, leadership of the Los Alamos Laboratory and the atomic energy program during critical years." He called the signing of the award one of Kennedy's greatest acts as president. Oppenheimer told Johnson, "I think it is just possible, Mr. President, that it has taken some charity and some courage for you to make this award today." 1757: 2371:

than the atomic bomb itself the policy of exterminating civilian populations." They also had practical qualms, as there was no workable design for a hydrogen bomb at the time. Regarding the possibility of the Soviet Union developing a thermonuclear weapon, the GAC felt that the United States could have an adequate stockpile of atomic weapons to retaliate against any thermonuclear attack. In that connection, Oppenheimer and the others were concerned about the

12826: 1926:, a sub-critical sphere of fissile material could be squeezed into a smaller and denser form. The metal needed to travel only very short distances, so the critical mass would be assembled in much less time. In August 1944, Oppenheimer implemented a sweeping reorganization of the Los Alamos laboratory to focus on implosion. He concentrated the development efforts on the gun-type device, but now with a simpler design that only had to work with 2981:

Japan in 1960, just 15 years after the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. He indicated interest in seeing Hiroshima, but the Japan Committee for Intellectual Interchange, which sponsored the tour, decided it would be best not to stop at Hiroshima or Nagasaki, and Oppenheimer never went to either city. In 1963 he spoke about the importance of studying the history of science at the dedication of the Niels Bohr Library and Archives of the

13969: 11970: 13986: 3178:, who worked with Oppenheimer on the State Department Panel of Consultants, wrote: "Quite aside from Oppenheimer's extraordinary rise and fall in prestige and power, his character has fully tragic dimensions in its combination of charm and arrogance, intelligence and blindness, awareness and insensitivity, and perhaps above all daring and fatalism. All these, in different ways, were turned against him in the hearings." 13888: 13952: 2739:

AEC upheld the findings of the Personnel Security Board, by a 4–1 decision, with Strauss writing the majority opinion. In that opinion, he stressed Oppenheimer's "defects of character", "falsehoods, evasions and misrepresentations", and past associations with Communists and people close to Communists as the primary reasons for his determination. He did not comment on Oppenheimer's loyalty.

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Historians have interpreted this as an attempt by Oppenheimer to please his colleagues in the government and perhaps to divert attention from his own previous left-wing ties and those of his brother. In the end, it became a liability when it became clear Oppenheimer had really doubted Peters's loyalty, and recommending him for the Manhattan Project was reckless, or at least contradictory.

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adjunct of Europe to world leadership." Because his scientific attentions often changed rapidly, he never worked long enough on any one topic and carried it to fruition to merit the Nobel Prize, though his investigations contributing to the theory of black holes might have warranted the prize had he lived long enough to see them brought to fruition by later astrophysicists. An asteroid,

1953:, Fermi, and Lawrence to advise it on scientific issues. In its presentation to the Interim Committee, the panel offered its opinion not just on an atomic bomb's likely physical effects but also on its likely military and political impact. This included opinions on such sensitive issues as whether the Soviet Union should be advised of the weapon in advance of its use against Japan. 3158:

personal enmities, and reflected a stark divide in the nuclear weapons community. One group passionately feared the Soviet Union as a mortal enemy, and believed having the most powerful weaponry capable of providing the most massive retaliation was the best strategy to combat that threat. The other group thought developing the H-bomb would not improve Western security and that

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there were about eight or ten graduate students in his group and about six Post-doctoral Fellows. He met this group once a day in his office and discussed with one after another the status of the student's research problem. He was interested in everything, and in one afternoon they might discuss quantum electrodynamics, cosmic rays, electron pair production and nuclear physics.

2534:, which first urged that the United States postpone its planned first test of the hydrogen bomb and seek a thermonuclear test ban with the Soviet Union, on the grounds that avoiding a test might forestall the development of a catastrophic new weapon and open the way for new arms agreements between the two nations. But the panel lacked political allies in Washington, and the 2686:, general manager of the AEC. Nichols, who had thought highly of Oppenheimer's work on the earlier Long-Range Objectives Panel, said that "in spite of record he is loyal to the United States." He nonetheless drafted the letter, but later wrote that he was "not happy with the inclusion of a reference concerning Oppenheimer's opposition to the hydrogen bomb development." 13876: 2412:, another member who had opposed the H-bomb decision, left the GAC when their terms expired in August 1952. Truman had declined to reappoint them, as he wanted new voices on the committee who were more in support of H-bomb development. In addition, various opponents of Oppenheimer had communicated to Truman their desire that Oppenheimer leave the committee. 2678:, sent Hoover a letter saying that "more probably than not J. Robert Oppenheimer is an agent of the Soviet Union." Eisenhower never exactly believed the allegations in the letter but felt compelled to move forward with an investigation, and on December 3, he ordered that a "blank wall" be placed between Oppenheimer and any government or military secrets. 2495:, which had recently been founded to study issues of air defense, this in turn led to the Lincoln Summer Study Group, in which Oppenheimer became a key figure. Oppenheimer's and other scientists' urging that resources be allocated to air defense in preference to large retaliatory strike capabilities brought an immediate response of objection from the 2255:. Some of these activities were resented by a few members of the mathematics faculty, who wanted the institute to stay a bastion of pure scientific research. Abraham Pais said that Oppenheimer himself thought that one of his failures at the institute was being unable to bring together scholars from the natural sciences and the humanities. 3465:. As a cultured, intellectual, theoretical physicist who became a disciplined military organizer, Oppenheimer represented the shift away from the idea that scientists had their "heads in the clouds" and that knowledge of esoteric subjects like the composition of the atomic nucleus had no "real-world" applications. 1511:. She and Oppenheimer created a minor scandal by sleeping together after one of Tolman's parties, and in the summer of 1940 she stayed with Oppenheimer at his ranch in New Mexico. When she became pregnant, Kitty asked Harrison for a divorce and he agreed to it. On November 1, 1940, she obtained a quick divorce in 2808:

The frontiers of science are separated now by long years of study, by specialized vocabularies, arts, techniques, and knowledge from the common heritage even of a most civilized society; and anyone working at the frontier of such science is in that sense a very long way from home, a long way too from

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had been following Oppenheimer since before the war, when he showed Communist sympathies as a professor at Berkeley and had been close to members of the Communist Party, including his wife and brother. They strongly suspected that he himself was a member of the party, based on wiretaps in which party

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One of the panel's recommendations, which Oppenheimer felt was especially important, was that the U.S. government practice less secrecy and more openness toward the American people about the realities of the nuclear balance and the dangers of nuclear warfare. This notion found a receptive audience in

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As a scientist, Oppenheimer was remembered by his students and colleagues as a brilliant researcher and engaging teacher who founded modern theoretical physics in the United States. "More than any other man", Bethe wrote, "he was responsible for raising American theoretical physics from a provincial

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in 1969, but the position required an FBI security clearance, which never came through due to the old charges against her father. She moved to the family beach house on St. John and committed suicide by hanging there in 1977. She left the property to "the people of St. John." The house was built too

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vacated the 1954 revocation of Oppenheimer's security clearance. Her statement said, "In 1954, the Atomic Energy Commission revoked Dr. Oppenheimer's security clearance through a flawed process that violated the Commission's own regulations. As time has passed, more evidence has come to light of the

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During his hearing, Oppenheimer testified on the left-wing activities of ten of his colleagues and previous acquaintances, mostly in reference to activities in the late 1930s. These ten people's activities were already public knowledge through prior hearings and activities (such as Addis, Chevelier,

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At the conclusion of the hearings, the board revoked Oppenheimer's clearance by a 2–1 vote. It unanimously cleared him of disloyalty, but a majority found that 20 of the 24 charges were either true or substantially true and that Oppenheimer would represent a security risk. Then on June 29, 1954, the

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In a great number of cases, I have seen Dr. Oppenheimer act—I understand that Dr. Oppenheimer acted—in a way which for me was exceedingly hard to understand. I thoroughly disagreed with him in numerous issues and his actions frankly appeared to me confused and complicated. To this extent I feel that

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which would be more useful in a limited theater conflict against enemy forces. Strategic thermonuclear weapons delivered by long-range jet bombers would necessarily be under the control of the U.S. Air Force, whereas the Vista conclusions recommended an increased role for the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy

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Now in October 1949, Oppenheimer and the GAC recommended against the development of the Super. He and the other GAC members were motivated partly by ethical concerns, feeling that such a weapon could only be strategically used, resulting in millions of deaths: "Its use therefore carries much further

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Deprived of political influence, Oppenheimer continued to lecture, write, and work on physics. He toured Europe and Japan, giving talks about the history of science, the role of science in society, and the nature of the universe. Oppenheimer was warmly received during his three-week lecture tour in

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confirmed that Oppenheimer never was involved in espionage for the Soviet Union, though Soviet intelligence tried repeatedly to recruit him. Further, he had several persons removed from the Manhattan Project who had sympathies to the Soviet Union. For their part, Jerrold and Leona Schecter conclude

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Thus by 1953, Oppenheimer had reached another peak of influence, being involved in multiple different government posts and projects and having access to crucial strategic plans and force levels. But at the same time, he had become the enemy of the proponents of strategic bombardment, who viewed his

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A majority of the AEC subsequently endorsed the GAC recommendation, and Oppenheimer thought that the fight against the Super would triumph, but proponents of the weapon lobbied the White House vigorously. On January 31, 1950, Truman, who was predisposed to proceed with the development of the weapon

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After the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) came into being in 1947 as a civilian agency in control of nuclear research and weapons issues, Oppenheimer was appointed as the chairman of its General Advisory Committee (GAC). From this position, he advised on a number of nuclear-related issues, including

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During a series of conferences in New York from 1947 through 1949, physicists transitioned from war work back to theoretical issues. Under Oppenheimer's direction, physicists tackled the greatest outstanding problem of the pre-war years: infinite, divergent, and seemingly nonsensical expressions in

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He did not direct from the head office. He was intellectually and physically present at each decisive step. He was present in the laboratory or in the seminar rooms, when a new effect was measured, when a new idea was conceived. It was not that he contributed so many ideas or suggestions; he did so

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Oppenheimer at first had difficulty with the organizational division of large groups but rapidly learned the art of large-scale administration after he took up permanent residence at Los Alamos. He was noted for his mastery of all scientific aspects of the project and for his efforts to control the

1060:. In 1936, Berkeley promoted him to full professor at an annual salary of $ 3,300 (equivalent to $ 72,000 in 2023). In return, he was asked to curtail his teaching at Caltech, so a compromise was reached whereby Berkeley released him for six weeks each year, enough to teach one term at Caltech. 1039:

Probably the most important ingredient he brought to his teaching was his exquisite taste. He always knew what were the important problems, as shown by his choice of subjects. He truly lived with those problems, struggling for a solution, and he communicated his concern to the group. In its heyday,

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shot went ahead as scheduled. The panel then issued a final report in January 1953, which, influenced by many of Oppenheimer's deeply felt beliefs, presented a pessimistic vision of the future in which neither the United States nor the Soviet Union could establish effective nuclear superiority but

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project funding, laboratory construction and even international policy—though the GAC's advice was not always heeded. As chairman of the GAC, Oppenheimer lobbied vigorously for international arms control and funding for basic science, and attempted to influence policy away from a heated arms race.

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and belief that atomic energy should be under international control. Truman became infuriated when Oppenheimer said, "Mr. President, I feel I have blood on my hands", responding that he (Truman) bore sole responsibility for the decision to use atomic weapons against Japan, and later said, "I don't

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Los Alamos was initially supposed to be a military laboratory, and Oppenheimer and other researchers were to be commissioned into the Army. He went so far as to order himself a lieutenant colonel's uniform and take the Army physical test, which he failed. Army doctors considered him underweight at

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Oppenheimer's mother died in 1931, and he became closer to his father who, although still living in New York, became a frequent visitor in California. When his father died in 1937, leaving $ 392,602 (equivalent to $ 8.3 million in 2023) to be divided between Oppenheimer and his brother Frank,

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When Oppenheimer was stripped of his political influence in 1954, he symbolized for many the folly of scientists who believed they could control the use of their research, and the dilemmas of moral responsibility presented by science in the nuclear age. The hearings were motivated by politics and

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The hearing that followed in April–May 1954, which was held in secret, focused on Oppenheimer's past communist ties and his association during the Manhattan Project with suspected disloyal or communist scientists. It then continued with an examination of Oppenheimer's opposition to the H-bomb and

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opposition to the H-bomb, followed by these accumulated positions and stances, with a combination of bitterness and distrust. This view was paired with their fear that Oppenheimer's fame and powers of persuasion had made him dangerously influential in government, military, and scientific circles.

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The program we had in 1949 was a tortured thing that you could well argue did not make a great deal of technical sense. It was therefore possible to argue also that you did not want it even if you could have it. The program in 1951 was technically so sweet that you could not argue about that. The

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Groves selected Oppenheimer to head the project's secret weapons laboratory, although it is not known precisely when. This decision surprised many, because Oppenheimer had left-wing political views and no record as a leader of large projects. Groves worried that because Oppenheimer did not have a

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Oppenheimer was overeducated in those fields which lie outside the scientific tradition, such as his interest in religion, in the Hindu religion in particular, which resulted in a feeling for the mystery of the universe that surrounded him almost like a fog. He saw physics clearly, looking toward

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On December 21, 1953, Strauss told Oppenheimer that his security clearance had been suspended, pending resolution of a series of charges outlined in a letter, and discussed his resigning by way of requesting termination of his consulting contract with the AEC. Oppenheimer chose not to resign and

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Dr. Oppenheimer, on whom had rested a very heavy burden, grew tenser as the last seconds ticked off. He scarcely breathed. He held on to a post to steady himself. For the last few seconds, he stared directly ahead and then when the announcer shouted "Now!" and there came this tremendous burst of

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Oppenheimer favored a location for the laboratory in New Mexico, not far from his ranch. On November 16, 1942, he, Groves and others toured a prospective site. Oppenheimer feared that the high cliffs surrounding it would feel claustrophobic, and there was concern about possible flooding. He then

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calculations, a task Oppenheimer threw himself into with full vigor. He was given the title "Coordinator of Rapid Rupture"; "rapid rupture" is a technical term that refers to the propagation of a fast neutron chain reaction in an atomic bomb. One of his first acts was to host a summer school for

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Oppenheimer worked very hard but had a gift of concealing his assiduous application with an air of easy nonchalance. Actually, he was engaged in a very difficult calculation of the opacity of surfaces of stars to their internal radiation, an important constant in the theoretical construction of

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called it an "angry play and a partisan play" that sided with Oppenheimer but portrayed him as a "tragic fool and genius." Oppenheimer had difficulty with this portrayal. After reading a transcript of Kipphardt's play soon after it began to be performed, Oppenheimer threatened to sue Kipphardt,

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during 1951, which examined the possibility of creating an effective air defense of the United States against atomic attack, and in the follow-on Project East River in 1952, which, with Oppenheimer's input, recommended building a warning system that would provide one-hour notice of an impending

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of 1946. The Baruch Plan introduced many additional provisions regarding enforcement, in particular requiring inspection of the Soviet Union's uranium resources. It was seen as an attempt to maintain the United States' nuclear monopoly and rejected by the Soviets. With this, it became clear to

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might be progressing faster than the Manhattan Project. In a letter dated May 25, 1943, Oppenheimer responded to a proposal by Fermi to use radioactive materials to poison German food supplies. Oppenheimer asked Fermi whether he could produce enough strontium without letting too many in on the

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was "very easy and quite marvelous". He later called it "the most beautiful philosophical song existing in any known tongue", and gave copies of it as presents to his friends and kept a personal, worn-out copy on the bookshelf by his desk. He kept referring to it while directing the Los Alamos

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Oppenheimer's papers were considered difficult to understand even by the standards of the abstract topics he was expert in. He was fond of using elegant, if extremely complex, mathematical techniques to demonstrate physical principles, though he was sometimes criticized for making mathematical

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Popular depictions of Oppenheimer view his security struggles as a confrontation between right-wing militarists (represented by Teller) and left-wing intellectuals (represented by Oppenheimer) over the moral question of weapons of mass destruction. Biographers and historians have often viewed

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The FBI furnished Oppenheimer's political enemies with evidence that intimated communist ties. These enemies included Strauss, an AEC commissioner who had long harbored resentment against Oppenheimer both for his activity in opposing the hydrogen bomb and for his humiliation of Strauss before

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once asked Oppenheimer what he considered his most important scientific contributions—Oppenheimer cited his work on electrons and positrons, not his work on gravitational contraction. Oppenheimer was nominated for the Nobel Prize for physics three times, in 1946, 1951 and 1967, but never won.

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Oppenheimer's diverse interests sometimes interrupted his focus on science. He liked things that were difficult and since much of the scientific work appeared easy for him, he developed an interest in the mystical and the cryptic. After going to Harvard, he began to acquaint himself with the

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Throughout the development of the atomic bomb, Oppenheimer was under investigation by both the FBI and the Manhattan Project's internal security arm for his past left-wing associations. He was followed by Army security agents during a trip to California in June 1943 to visit Tatlock, who was

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Rather than consistently oppose the "Red-baiting" of the late 1940s and early 1950s, Oppenheimer testified against former colleagues and students, before and during his hearing. In one incident, his damning testimony against former student Bernard Peters was selectively leaked to the press.

2137:. Nuclear physics became a powerful force as nations realized the strategic and political power that atomic weapons conferred. Like many scientists of his generation, Oppenheimer felt that security from atomic bombs could come only from a transnational organization such as the newly formed 2734:

said that the suspension of the security clearance was unnecessary: "he is a consultant, and if you don't want to consult the guy, you don't consult him, period." But Groves testified that, under the stricter security criteria in effect in 1954, he "would not clear Dr. Oppenheimer today".

2338:. In this report, the committee advocated the creation of an international Atomic Development Authority, which would own all fissionable material and the means of its production, such as mines and laboratories, and atomic power plants where it could be used for peaceful energy production. 2852:, in which he outlined his philosophy and his thoughts on the role of science in the modern world. He had been selected for the final episode of the lecture series two years prior to the security hearing, though the university remained adamant that he stay on even after the controversy. 775:

in 1922 at age 18. He majored in chemistry; Harvard also required studies in history, literature, and philosophy or mathematics. To compensate for the delay caused by his illness, he took six courses each term instead of the usual four. He was admitted to the undergraduate honor society

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Once the public learned of the Manhattan Project after the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Oppenheimer—suddenly a household name as the "father of the atomic bomb"—became a national spokesman for science, emblematic of a new type of technocratic power; he appeared on the covers of

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Lambert, May, Pitman, and I. Folkoff) or already known to the FBI. Some believe that had his clearance not been stripped, he might have been remembered as someone who "named names" to save his own reputation, but as it happened, most in the scientific community saw him as a martyr to

849:, Oppenheimer once confessed to leaving a poisoned apple on Blackett's desk, and Oppenheimer's parents convinced the university authorities not to expel him. There are no records of either a poisoning incident or probation, but Oppenheimer had regular sessions with a psychiatrist in 2510:

Teller, who had been so uninterested in work on the atomic bomb at Los Alamos during the war that Oppenheimer had given him time instead to work on his own project of the hydrogen bomb, left Los Alamos in 1951 to help found, in 1952, a second laboratory at what would become the

3116:. She was 62. Oppenheimer's ranch in New Mexico was then inherited by their son Peter, and the beach property was inherited by their daughter Katherine "Toni" Oppenheimer Silber. Toni's two marriages ended in divorce. She obtained a temporary position as a translator at the 1860:

sometimes, but his main influence came from something else. It was his continuous and intense presence, which produced a sense of direct participation in all of us; it created that unique atmosphere of enthusiasm and challenge that pervaded the place throughout its time.

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Teller's testimony outraged the scientific community, and he was virtually ostracized from academic science. Ernest Lawrence refused to testify, pleading an attack of ulcerative colitis, but an interview in which Lawrence condemned Oppenheimer was submitted in evidence.

2089: ... this kind of strut. He had done it." Despite many scientists' opposition to using the bomb on Japan, Compton, Fermi, and Oppenheimer believed that a test explosion would not convince Japan to surrender. At an August 6 assembly at Los Alamos, the evening of the 840:

Oppenheimer was very unhappy at Cambridge and wrote to a friend: "I am having a pretty bad time. The lab work is a terrible bore, and I am so bad at it that it is impossible to feel that I am learning anything." He developed an antagonistic relationship with his tutor,

3166:; they advocated instead a more flexible response to the Soviets involving tactical nuclear weapons, strengthened conventional forces, and arms control agreements. The first of these groups was the more powerful in political terms, and Oppenheimer became its target. 1855:

Oppenheimer directed these studies, theoretical and experimental, in the real sense of the words. Here his uncanny speed in grasping the main points of any subject was a decisive factor; he could acquaint himself with the essential details of every part of the work.

704:, and as a teenager made his way to the United States in 1888, without money, higher education, or even English. He was hired by a textile company and within a decade was an executive there, eventually becoming wealthy. In 1912, the family moved to an apartment on 2722:

I would like to see the vital interests of this country in hands which I understand better, and therefore trust more. In this very limited sense I would like to express a feeling that I would feel personally more secure if public matters would rest in other hands.

3050:, made a point of attending the ceremony so she could tell Oppenheimer how much her husband had wanted him to have the medal. Also present were Teller, who had recommended Oppenheimer receive the award in hopes that it would heal the rift between them, and 2914:

In his speeches and public writings, Oppenheimer continually stressed the difficulty of managing the power of knowledge in a world in which the freedom of science to exchange ideas was more and more hobbled by political concerns. Oppenheimer delivered the

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but, after Richard's death in August 1948, they reconnected and saw each other occasionally until Ruth's death in 1957. Few of their letters survive, but those that do reflect a close and affectionate relationship, with Oppenheimer calling her "My Love".

833:, though Bridgman's letter of recommendation said that Oppenheimer's clumsiness in the laboratory suggested that theoretical, rather than experimental, physics would be his forte. Rutherford was unimpressed, but Oppenheimer went to Cambridge nonetheless; 1631:

Oppenheimer never became a Hindu in the traditional sense; he did not join any temple nor pray to any god. He "was really taken by the charm and the general wisdom of the Bhagavad-Gita," his brother said. It is speculated that Oppenheimer's interest in

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in August 1949 came earlier than Americans expected, and over the next several months, there was an intense debate within the U.S. government, military, and scientific communities over whether to proceed with the development of the far more powerful,

965:(Caltech) in September 1927. Bridgman also wanted him at Harvard, so a compromise was reached whereby he split his fellowship for the 1927–28 academic year between Harvard in 1927 and Caltech in 1928. At Caltech, he struck up a close friendship with 739:

movement, whose motto was "Deed before Creed". Oppenheimer's father had been a member of the Society for many years, serving on its board of trustees. Oppenheimer was a versatile student, interested in English and French literature, and particularly

1786:, was appointed director of what became known as the Manhattan Project. By October 12, 1942, Groves and Oppenheimer had decided that for security and cohesion, they needed to establish a centralized, secret research laboratory in a remote location. 687:

Oppenheimer was born Julius Robert Oppenheimer into a non-observant Jewish family in New York City on April 22, 1904, to Ella (née Friedman), a painter, and Julius Seligmann Oppenheimer, a successful textile importer. Robert had a younger brother,

1356:. From 1934 on, he became increasingly concerned about politics and international affairs. In 1934, he earmarked three percent of his annual salary—about $ 100 (equivalent to $ 2,300 in 2023)—for two years to support German physicists fleeing 2604:

members referred to him or appeared to refer to him as a communist, as well as reports from informers within the party. He had been under close surveillance since the early 1940s, his home and office bugged, his phone tapped and his mail opened.

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presented Born with a petition signed by herself and others threatening a boycott of the class unless he made Oppenheimer quiet down. Born left it out on his desk where Oppenheimer could read it, and it was effective without a word being said.

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for a hydrogen bomb. This new design seemed technically feasible and Oppenheimer officially acceded to the weapon's development, while still looking for ways in which its testing or deployment or use could be questioned. As he later recalled:

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was built on the site of the school, taking over some of its buildings, while many new buildings were erected in great haste. At the laboratory, Oppenheimer assembled a group of the top physicists of the time, whom he called the "luminaries".

2191:, the wife of his friend Richard Tolman, with whom he had begun an affair after leaving Los Alamos. The job came with a salary of $ 20,000 per annum, plus rent-free accommodation in the director's house, a 17th-century manor with a cook and 1398:(CPUSA), but Haynes, Klehr, and Vassiliev state that he "was, in fact, a concealed member of the CPUSA in the late 1930s". From 1937 to 1942, Oppenheimer was a member at Berkeley of what he called a "discussion group", which fellow members 3254:

The whole damn thing was a farce, and these people are trying to make a tragedy out of it. ... I had never said that I had regretted participating in a responsible way in the making of the bomb. I said that perhaps he had forgotten

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Oppenheimer continued to visit academic institutions throughout his final years. He remained a controversial figure to students, faculty, and communities. In November 1955, Oppenheimer became the inaugural week-long visiting fellow at the

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Oppenheimer brought together intellectuals at the height of their powers and from a variety of disciplines to answer the most pertinent questions of the age. He directed and encouraged the research of many well-known scientists, including

3093:. The service was attended by 600 of his scientific, political, and military associates, including Bethe, Groves, Kennan, Lilienthal, Rabi, Smyth, and Wigner. His brother Frank and the rest of his family were there, as was the historian 2623:

Congress some years earlier. Strauss had expressed opposition to exporting radioactive isotopes to other nations, and Oppenheimer had called them "less important than electronic devices but more important than, let us say, vitamins."

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to change planes on a trip to Oregon and was joined for coffee during his layover by several University of Washington faculty, but Oppenheimer never lectured there. Oppenheimer gave two lectures on the "Constitution of Matter" at

1692:, concerning neutron stars and black holes. In retrospect, some physicists and historians consider this his most important contribution, though it was not taken up by other scientists in his lifetime. The physicist and historian 2521:

looked at improving U.S. tactical warfare capabilities. Oppenheimer was a late addition to the project in 1951 but wrote a key chapter of the report that challenged the doctrine of strategic bombardment and advocated smaller

2650:

had been communists at the time they had worked with him at Berkeley. Frank Oppenheimer and his wife Jackie testified before HUAC that they had been members of the Communist Party USA. Frank was subsequently fired from his

1126:

Initially, his major interest was the theory of the continuous spectrum. His first published paper, in 1926, concerned the quantum theory of molecular band spectra. He developed a method to carry out calculations of its

2709:

One of the key elements in this hearing was Oppenheimer's earliest testimony about George Eltenton's approach to various Los Alamos scientists, a story that Oppenheimer confessed he had fabricated to protect his friend

1522:, on December 7, 1944. During his marriage, Oppenheimer rekindled his affair with Tatlock. Later, their continued contact became an issue in his security clearance hearings because of Tatlock's communist associations. 2863:, abruptly canceled an invitation to Oppenheimer to deliver a series of lectures there. Schmitz's decision caused an uproar among the students; 1,200 of them signed a petition protesting the decision, and Schmitz was 2875:, the chairman of the physics department and a colleague of Oppenheimer's from Berkeley, appealed to the university senate, and Schmitz's decision was overturned by a vote of 56 to 40. Oppenheimer stopped briefly in 1790:

Nobel Prize, he might not have had the prestige to direct fellow scientists, but Groves was impressed by Oppenheimer's singular grasp of the practical aspects of the project and by the breadth of his knowledge. As a

1166:. In 1931, he co-wrote a paper, "Relativistic Theory of the Photoelectric Effect," with his student Harvey Hall, in which, based on empirical evidence, he correctly disputed Paul Dirac's assertion that two of the 1151:. His calculations accorded with observations of the X-ray absorption of the Sun, but not helium. Years later, it was realized that the Sun was largely composed of hydrogen and that his calculations were correct. 973:, a field in which Pauling was a pioneer, with Oppenheimer supplying the mathematics and Pauling interpreting the results. The collaboration, and their friendship, ended after Oppenheimer invited Pauling's wife, 8046: 1432:." Years later, he claimed that he did not remember writing this, that it was not true, and that if he had written anything along those lines, it was "a half-jocular overstatement". He was a subscriber to the 3421:

A centennial conference about Oppenheimer's legacy was held in 2004 at the University of California, Berkeley, alongside a digital exhibition on his life, with the conference proceedings published in 2005 as

1316:, "sitting flesh," when you sit on a chair. As far as I know, he never wrote a long paper or did a long calculation, anything of that kind. He didn't have patience for that; his own work consisted of little 1026:

and spent some weeks with his brother Frank at a New Mexico ranch, which he leased and eventually purchased. When he heard the ranch was available for lease, he exclaimed, "Hot dog!", and he later called it

607:, tasked with developing the first nuclear weapons. His leadership and scientific expertise were instrumental in the project's success. On July 16, 1945, he was present at the first test of the atomic bomb, 6562: 11960: 3064:

The rehabilitation represented by the award was symbolic, as Oppenheimer still lacked a security clearance and could have no effect on official policy, but the award came with a $ 50,000 tax-free stipend.

2798:

bias and unfairness of the process that Dr. Oppenheimer was subjected to while the evidence of his loyalty and love of country have only been further affirmed." Granholm's decision has drawn criticism.

2093:, Oppenheimer took to the stage and clasped his hands together "like a prize-winning boxer" while the crowd cheered. He expressed regret that the weapon was ready too late for use against Nazi Germany. 1409:(FBI) opened a file on Oppenheimer in March 1941. It recorded that he attended a meeting in December 1940 at Chevalier's home that was also attended by the Communist Party's California state secretary, 3237:

company. Oppenheimer's objections resulted in an exchange of correspondence with Kipphardt, in which Kipphardt offered to make corrections but defended the play. It premiered in New York in 1968, with

780:

and was granted graduate standing in physics on the basis of independent study, allowing him to bypass basic courses in favor of advanced ones. He was attracted to experimental physics by a course on

6621: 10000: 1283:. After the Born–Oppenheimer approximation paper, these papers remain his most cited, and were key factors in the rejuvenation of astrophysical research in the United States in the 1950s, mainly by 920:, which separates nuclear motion from electronic motion in the mathematical treatment of molecules, allowing nuclear motion to be neglected to simplify calculations. It remains his most cited work. 8429: 3820:, and the translation is his own. In the literature, "shatterer" is usually given rather than "destroyer," because "shatterer" appears in the first printed rendition of Oppenheimer's anecdote (in 3024:, effectively ending Strauss's political career. In 1962, Kennedy―now President of the United States―invited Oppenheimer to a ceremony honoring 49 Nobel Prize winners. At the event, AEC chairman 1456:: "He was, in a very practical and real sense, a supporter of the Communist Party. Moreover, in terms of the time, effort and money spent on party activities, he was a very committed supporter." 3705:

Oppenheimer already had three PhD students who had commenced under another supervisor: Harvey Hall and J. Franklin Carlson under William Howell Williams; and Leo Nedelsky, who had started under

9622: 1656:, Oppenheimer remarked, "I have read the Greeks; I find the Hindus deeper." During the 1930s, while teaching at Berkeley, Oppenheimer became part of a group in the Bay Area that psychologist 9172: 1671:, who had seen Oppenheimer throughout his Berkeley, Los Alamos, and Princeton years, wondering "why men of Oppenheimer's gifts do not discover everything worth discovering", reflected that: 1394:, his landlady Mary Ellen Washburn, and several of his graduate students at Berkeley. Whether Oppenheimer was a party member has been debated. Cassidy states that he never openly joined the 12860: 1209:, but when higher energies and heavier nuclei were involved, the results did not conform to the predictions. In 1935, Oppenheimer and Phillips worked out a theory—subsequently known as the 916:." Oppenheimer published more than a dozen papers while in Europe, including many important contributions to the new field of quantum mechanics. He and Born published a famous paper on the 12701: 8660: 8196: 11958: 3109:. Bethe, Kennan and Smyth gave brief eulogies. Oppenheimer's body was cremated and his ashes placed in an urn, which Kitty dropped into the sea within sight of the St. John beach house. 1428:

When he joined the Manhattan Project in 1942, Oppenheimer wrote on his personal security questionnaire that he had been "a member of just about every Communist Front organization on the

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posed to Western civilization, they volunteered in great numbers for technological, and organizational, assistance to the Allied effort, resulting in powerful tools such as radar, the

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Oppenheimer played a role on a number of government panels and study projects during the late 1940s and early 1950s, some of which thrust him into controversies and power struggles.

1949:

was created to advise and report on wartime and postwar policies regarding the use of nuclear energy. The Interim Committee established a scientific panel consisting of Oppenheimer,

2318:

Oppenheimer served as director of the institute until 1966, when he gave up the position due to his failing health. As of 2023, he is the longest-serving director of the institute.

9917: 8913: 2467:. It looked at the military utility of nuclear weapons, including how they might be delivered. After a year's worth of study, in spring 1952, Oppenheimer wrote the draft report of 1379:

cause. In 1939, he joined the American Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom, which campaigned against the persecution of Jewish scientists in Nazi Germany. Like most

8462: 6495: 1452:, which he defined as someone who agrees with many of communism's goals but is not willing to blindly follow orders from any Communist Party apparatus. According to biographer 10661: 9824: 1251:, resulting in a series of papers. In the first of these, "On the Stability of Stellar Neutron Cores" (1938), co-written with Serber, Oppenheimer explored the properties of 7750: 1561:

stellar models. He spoke little of these problems and seemed to be much more interested in literature, especially the Hindu classics and the more esoteric Western writers.

1220:. This was after a paper by Dirac proposed that electrons could have both a positive charge and negative energy. Dirac's paper introduced an equation, later known as the 14066: 12763: 11959: 8035: 14101: 8360: 8119: 5197: 3061:

formally protested Oppenheimer's selection just eight days after Kennedy was killed, and several Republican members of the House AEC Committee boycotted the ceremony.

2347:

Oppenheimer that an arms race was unavoidable, due to the mutual suspicion of the United States and the Soviet Union, which even Oppenheimer was starting to distrust.

1843:. It soon turned out that Oppenheimer had hugely underestimated the magnitude of the project: Los Alamos grew from a few hundred people in 1943 to over 6,000 in 1945. 3692:

was symbolic, a gesture in the direction of naming the eldest son after the father but at the same time a signal that his parents did not want Robert to be a 'junior.

13833: 12853: 6993: 6839: 1724:. Ernest Lawrence brought Oppenheimer into the Manhattan Project on October 21. Oppenheimer was assigned to take over the project's specific bomb-design research by 8398: 13609: 11352: 6552: 1189:, the first graduate student to begin her PhD under Oppenheimer's supervision, Oppenheimer worked on calculations of artificial radioactivity under bombardment by 8706: 8602: 6019: 4991: 1236:. He argued that they would have to have the same mass as an electron, whereas experiments showed that protons were much heavier than electrons. Two years later, 748:. During his final year of school, Oppenheimer became interested in chemistry. He graduated in 1921, but his further education was delayed a year by an attack of 9117: 2675: 2175:

In November 1945, Oppenheimer left Los Alamos to return to Caltech, but soon found that his heart was no longer in teaching. In 1947, he accepted an offer from

2067:

We knew the world would not be the same. A few people laughed, a few people cried. Most people were silent. I remembered the line from the Hindu scripture, the

14196: 14106: 2934:, a collection of eight lectures that he had given since 1946 on the subject of nuclear weapons and popular culture. Oppenheimer rejected the idea of nuclear 1688:

have suggested that if Oppenheimer had lived long enough to see his predictions substantiated by experiment, he might have won a Nobel Prize for his work on

6613: 1839:

balked at the idea. Conant, Groves, and Oppenheimer devised a compromise whereby the University of California operated the laboratory under contract to the

1390:

Many of Oppenheimer's closest associates were active in the Communist Party in the 1930s or 1940s, including his brother Frank, Frank's wife Jackie, Kitty,

1348:

During the 1920s, Oppenheimer remained uninformed on world affairs. He claimed that he did not read newspapers or popular magazines and only learned of the

992:

in the Netherlands, where he impressed by giving lectures in Dutch, despite having little experience with the language. There, he was given the nickname of

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Oppenheimer's first public appearance following the stripping of his security clearance was a lecture titled "Prospects in the Arts and Sciences" for the

1056:

pioneers, helping them understand the data that their machines were producing at Berkeley's Radiation Laboratory, which eventually developed into today's

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Oppenheimer and Groves at the remains of the Trinity test tower. Oppenheimer is wearing his trademark broad-brimmed hat; white overshoes protect against

933: 953:) on the magnet yoke for the 60-inch (152 cm) cyclotron, 1938. Oppenheimer is the tall figure holding a pipe in the top row, just right of center. 8174: 3355: 14041: 9614: 2551:. Oppenheimer subsequently presented his view on the lack of utility of ever-larger nuclear arsenals to the American public in a June 1953 article in 14201: 14061: 14036: 10124: 14116: 9688: 9161: 8568: 5989: 3684:

Oppenheimer's birth certificate reads "Julius Robert Oppenheimer," and his college transcript "J Robert Oppenheimer." Oppenheimer himself said the

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stances in subsequent projects and study groups. A transcript of the hearings was published in June 1954, with some redactions. In 2014, the U.S.

603:

In 1942, Oppenheimer was recruited to work on the Manhattan Project, and in 1943 was appointed director of the project's Los Alamos Laboratory in

11369: 9721: 9403: 8761: 7066: 4298: 10087: 8649: 8200: 9943: 9194: 9078: 6517: 5332: 3223:, after appearing on West German television, had its theatrical release in Berlin and Munich in October 1964. The 1967 Finnish television film 9798: 9338: 5367: 3085:

late in 1966. On February 18, 1967, he died in his sleep at his home in Princeton, aged 62 years. A memorial service was held a week later at

14136: 14121: 12716: 10783: 10623:. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. Vol. II. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. 10260: 9743: 7537: 5416: 5219: 5152: 4407: 3331: 1776: 872:; Göttingen was one of the world's leading centers for theoretical physics. Oppenheimer made friends who went on to great success, including 10597:. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. Vol. I. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. 9241: 6485: 1476:, a Communist Party newspaper. In 1939, after a tempestuous relationship, Tatlock broke up with Oppenheimer. In August of that year, he met 744:. He completed third and fourth grades in one year and skipped half of eighth grade. He took private music lessons by famous French flutist 13602: 9049: 8496: 5306: 2903:. Significantly, after his public humiliation, he did not sign the major open protests against nuclear weapons of the 1950s, including the 2747:, an eclectic liberal unjustly attacked by warmongering enemies, symbolic of the shift of scientific work from academia into the military. 9907: 3250:

decrying "improvisations which were contrary to history and to the nature of the people involved." Later Oppenheimer told an interviewer:

2387:, felt disheartened and considered resigning from the committee. They stayed on, though their views on the hydrogen bomb were well known. 12281: 12143: 8909: 8532: 2938:. "The purposes of this country in the field of foreign policy", he wrote, "cannot in any real or enduring way be achieved by coercion." 2005: 1885:

secret. Oppenheimer continued, "I think we should not attempt a plan unless we can poison food sufficient to kill a half a million men."

162: 9654: 2867:. While they marched in protest, the state of Washington outlawed the Communist Party, and required all government employees to swear a 1934:

in February 1945. After a mammoth research effort, the more complex design of the implosion device, known as the "Christy gadget" after

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light followed shortly thereafter by the deep growling roar of the explosion, his face relaxed into an expression of tremendous relief.

1545:, a psychologist and the wife of his friend Richard Tolman. The affair ended after Oppenheimer returned east to become director of the 14226: 8452: 6897: 5280: 4128: 1903:, which was extremely pure but could be created only in tiny amounts. When Los Alamos received the first sample of plutonium from the 1352:

while he was on a walk with Ernest Lawrence six months after the crash occurred. He once remarked that he never cast a vote until the

14206: 14096: 14026: 12608: 10182: 9993:"Cillian Murphy Confirmed to Star As J. Robert Oppenheimer In Christopher Nolan's Next Film At Universal, Film Will Bow in July 2023" 4595: 3121:

close to the coast and was destroyed by a hurricane. As of 2007, the Virgin Islands Government maintained a Community Center nearby.

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quantum mechanics also attracted his attention, although he doubted its validity. His work predicted many later finds, including the

732: 12002: 9834: 4154: 1340:

Oppenheimer immediately wrote out a will that left his estate to the University of California to be used for graduate scholarships.

10642: 1353: 1260: 1232:. Drawing on the body of experimental evidence, Oppenheimer rejected the idea that the predicted positively charged electrons were 167: 8422:"Secretary Granholm Statement on DOE Order Vacating 1954 Atomic Energy Commission Decision In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer" 13595: 9249: 7722: 2615:. When pressed on the issue in later interviews, Oppenheimer admitted that the only person who had approached him was his friend 2375:

that would be incurred if nuclear reactors were diverted from materials needed for atom bomb production to the materials such as

1753:, Hans Bethe, and Edward Teller—kept themselves busy by calculating what needed to be done, and in what order, to make the bomb. 958: 5734: 14216: 14111: 14071: 13843: 11236: 8882: 2627: 2588: 2570: 2512: 1794:, Groves knew that this would be vital in an interdisciplinary project that would involve not just physics but also chemistry, 1530:. Oppenheimer spent the night in her apartment. Tatlock killed herself on January 4, 1944, leaving Oppenheimer deeply grieved. 1469: 1008:. Oppenheimer respected and liked Pauli and may have emulated his personal style as well as his critical approach to problems. 655: 623: 6591: 5452:"The Congress for Cultural Freedom, the End of Ideology and the 1955 Milan Conference: 'Defining the Parameters of Discourse'" 2404:

issues became purely the military, the political and the humane problem of what you were going to do about it once you had it.

1448:

At his 1954 security clearance hearings, Oppenheimer denied being a member of the Communist Party but identified himself as a

13793: 11919: 11887: 11855: 11826: 11304: 11265: 11226: 11191: 11155: 11132: 11106: 11080: 11053: 11027: 11001: 10979: 10957: 10882: 10856: 10830: 10807: 10764: 10741: 10722: 10700: 10655: 10628: 10602: 10576: 10550: 10520: 10498: 10472: 10448: 10424: 10401: 10377: 10355: 10333: 10303: 9276: 6617: 6462: 3653: 3621: 3591: 3086: 2429: 2162: 1508: 1057: 10264: 9437: 8356: 8131: 5186: 14076: 14056: 2059:: "If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky, that would be like the splendor of the mighty one 9677: 8960: 6989: 6829: 3453:". During World War II, scientists became involved in military research to an unprecedented degree. Because of the threat 2887:

Oppenheimer was increasingly concerned about the danger that scientific inventions could pose to humanity. He joined with

2527:

as well. The Air Force reaction to this was immediately hostile, and it succeeded in getting the Vista report suppressed.

2499:(USAF), and debate ensued about whether Oppenheimer and allied scientists, or the Air Force, was embracing an inflexible " 14191: 14181: 14146: 14031: 13940: 8387: 3021: 3005: 1822:. The engineers were concerned about the poor access road and the water supply but otherwise felt that it was ideal. The 1733: 12057: 11322: 9712: 2839:, where he built a spartan home on the beach. He spent considerable time sailing with his daughter Toni and wife Kitty. 2619:, a Berkeley professor of French literature, who had mentioned the matter privately at a dinner at Oppenheimer's house. 12015: 12006: 10908: 8695: 8591: 8425: 6011: 5223: 4958: 4411: 3268: 3264: 2968: 2691: 2595:

hydrogen bomb tests in the Pacific, March 30, 1954. Strauss pressed for Oppenheimer's security clearance to be revoked.

1012: 962: 917: 612: 557: 545: 285: 280: 177: 10732:

Hufbauer, Karl (2005). "J. Robert Oppenheimer's Path to Black Holes". In Carson, Cathryn; Hollinger, David A. (eds.).

9106: 8073: 7098: 5331:. Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller. 5305:. Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller. 5279:. Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller. 2630:

that he had associations with the Communist Party USA in the 1930s. He testified that some of his students, including

14186: 13752: 12161: 10931: 3411: 2791: 2515:. Oppenheimer had defended the history of work done at Los Alamos and opposed the creation of the second laboratory. 2334:

As a member of the Board of Consultants to a committee appointed by Truman, Oppenheimer strongly influenced the 1946

1780: 1361: 548:, where he was made a full professor in 1936. Oppenheimer made significant contributions to physics in the fields of 497: 9466:

Thorpe, Charles (2002). "Disciplining Experts: Scientific Authority and Liberal Democracy in the Oppenheimer Case".

2783:, Oppenheimer must have been only a "facilitator", not a spy in the strict sense (although he would fall under that 2463:

In 1948, Oppenheimer chaired the Department of Defense's Long-Range Objectives Panel, a body created by AEC liaison

10295: 9969: 8798: 2900: 2843: 1210: 728: 577: 172: 17: 13899: 10567:

Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller

5495: 977:, to join him on a tryst in Mexico. Oppenheimer later invited Pauling to be head of the Chemistry Division of the 14231: 14131: 14126: 14091: 14051: 13798: 12136: 12042: 11608: 11589: 10650:. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. 5193: 3415: 3283:; but I had not, and that if he found it so difficult to understand, he should write a play about something else. 2828: 1840: 1429: 1406: 1331: 13742: 6750: 3054:, who in 1954 had been the lone dissenter from the AEC's 4–1 decision to define Oppenheimer as a security risk. 1441:

In 1953, Oppenheimer was on the sponsoring committee for a conference on "Science and Freedom" organized by the

1291:

mistakes, presumably out of haste. "His physics was good", said his student Snyder, "but his arithmetic awful."

14011: 13767: 13618: 12033: 11545: 10372:. Berkeley, California: Office for History of Science and Technology, University of California. pp. 1–10. 10023: 2904: 2476: 2425: 1881: 1565:

once remarked to me that Oppenheimer seemed to treat physics as an avocation and psychoanalysis as a vocation.

1534: 1503:. In 1938 she married Richard Harrison, a physician and medical researcher, and in June 1939 moved with him to 1418: 822: 126: 13762: 13722: 11429: 6692: 6651: 6335: 2730:

Many top scientists, as well as government and military figures, testified on Oppenheimer's behalf. Physicist

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and says, "Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds." I suppose we all thought that, one way or another.

1745:

atomic bomb theory in Berkeley. The mix of European physicists and his own students—a group including Serber,

14176: 14171: 14166: 14151: 10996:. Berkeley, California: Office for History of Science and Technology, Univ. of California. pp. 267–272. 10717:. Berkeley, California: Office for History of Science and Technology, Univ. of California. pp. 385–390. 3374: 2982: 2973: 2759: 2335: 1442: 912:, the professor administering it, reportedly said, "I'm glad that's over. He was on the point of questioning 11752:

Walker, J. Samuel (2005). "Recent Literature on Truman's Atomic Bomb Decision: A Search for Middle Ground".

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According to a 1949 magazine profile, while witnessing the explosion Oppenheimer thought of verses from the

1915: 13737: 12768: 11754: 11424: 11277: 10736:. Berkeley, California: Office for History of Science and Technology, Univ. of California. pp. 31–47. 8802: 7093: 6331: 5412: 2832: 2180: 2041: 2001:; he had been introduced to Donne's work in the 1930s by Jean Tatlock, who killed herself in January 1944. 1831:

128 pounds (58 kg), diagnosed his chronic cough as tuberculosis, and were concerned about his chronic

1775:

to handle its part in the atom bomb project, beginning the process of transferring responsibility from the

1546: 1421:, which it considered a communist front organization. Shortly thereafter, the FBI added Oppenheimer to its 1303: 1276: 619: 295: 157: 38: 13772: 13732: 13727: 10113: 2383:

anyway, made the formal decision to do so. Oppenheimer and other GAC opponents of the project, especially

1402:

and Gordon Griffiths later said was a "closed" (secret) unit of the Communist Party for Berkeley faculty.

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Sanders, Jane A. (1979). "The University of Washington and the Controversy over J. Robert Oppenheimer".

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voted to deny Lewis Strauss, Oppenheimer's greatest detractor in his security hearings, confirmation as

14161: 14156: 13958: 13866: 13838: 12996: 12829: 12129: 12024: 10840: 10821:

Oppenheimer and the Manhattan Project: Insights into J. Robert Oppenheimer, "Father of the Atomic Bomb"

10065: 8940: 8489:"Christopher Nolan's Forthcoming 'Oppenheimer' Movie: A Historian's Questions, Worries, and Challenges" 4119:"J. Robert Oppenheimer's Grandson on What the Movie Gets Right and the One Scene He Would Have Changed" 3047: 3036: 2504: 2096:

On August 17, however, Oppenheimer traveled to Washington to hand-deliver a letter to Secretary of War

1507:, where he became chief of radiology at a local hospital and she enrolled as a graduate student at the 1500: 1322:, but quite brilliant ones. But he inspired other people to do things, and his influence was fantastic. 11879:

The General and the Genius: Groves and Oppenheimer — the Unlikely Partnership That Built the Atom Bomb

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expressing his revulsion and his wish to see nuclear weapons banned. In October he met with President

865: 537: 131: 14141: 13916: 13892: 13777: 12907: 12869: 12711: 12706: 11994: 10178: 10091: 9468: 3272: 3094: 2899:, and other eminent scientists and academics to establish what would eventually, in 1960, become the 2544: 2247:

non-conservation. He also instituted temporary memberships for scholars from the humanities, such as

1527: 1422: 1349: 1298:, Oppenheimer published only five scientific papers, one of them in biophysics, and none after 1950. 659: 9939: 9205: 9071: 6528: 5328: 5302: 3081:

for much of his life. After inconclusive surgery, he underwent unsuccessful radiation treatment and

1480:, a former Communist Party member. Kitty's first marriage had lasted only a few months. Her second, 13818: 13647: 13539: 13300: 13133: 12961: 12793: 12326: 12185: 9794: 5378: 2856: 2809:

the practical arts that were its matrix and origin, as indeed they were of what we today call art.

2611:, whom he did not know, had solicited three men at Los Alamos for nuclear secrets on behalf of the 2276: 1729: 1128: 858: 697: 667: 12020: 10090:. Office for History of Science and Technology, University of California, Berkeley. Archived from 9754: 7527: 5227: 5163: 4415: 2949:

protested the decision. 1,200 people attended Oppenheimer's six lectures, "The Hope of Order", in

2195:, surrounded by 265 acres (107 ha) of woodlands. He collected European furniture, and French 1518:

Their first child, Peter, was born in May 1941, and their second, Katherine ("Toni"), was born in

1438:, a Communist Party organ, and testified in 1954, "I was associated with the communist movement." 14081: 13318: 13074: 13062: 12937: 12788: 12685: 12240: 4118: 3345: 3336: 2990: 2941:

In 1957, the philosophy and psychology departments at Harvard invited Oppenheimer to deliver the

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in 1952, a large effort on which Oppenheimer was one of the senior scientists. Undertaken at the

2272: 1927: 1896: 1892: 1819: 1740:, who had been one of Oppenheimer's lecturers at Harvard, asked Oppenheimer to take over work on 1159: 1104: 1100: 785: 569: 9037: 8488: 3468:

Two days before the Trinity test, Oppenheimer expressed his hopes and fears in a quotation from

3192: 2444:

and J. M. B. Kellogg. Behind Manley is Oppenheimer (wearing jacket and tie), and to his left is

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Oppenheimer, J.R. (January 1, 1928). "Three Notes on the Quantum Theory of Aperiodic Effects".

3058: 2942: 2872: 2503:" philosophy. In any case, the Summer Study Group's work eventually led to the building of the 2492: 2395: 2342:

was appointed to translate this report into a proposal to the United Nations, resulting in the

1988: 1980: 1972: 1962: 1911:(five times that of "cyclotron" plutonium), making it unsuitable for use in a gun-type weapon. 1689: 1519: 1268: 1144: 1045: 810: 608: 12838: 10322: 8522: 6585: 3300: 2063:... Now I am become Death, the shatterer of worlds." In 1965 he recalled the moment this way: 2033: 1907:

in April 1944, a problem was discovered: reactor-bred plutonium had a higher concentration of

1607:

as one of the books that most shaped his philosophy of life. He wrote to his brother that the

1583:

through their English translations. He also had an interest in learning languages and learned

712:, an area known for luxurious mansions and townhouses. Their art collection included works by 13697: 13563: 13420: 13288: 12919: 12895: 12808: 12633: 12376: 12103: 12038: 9644: 3350: 3276: 3202: 3134: 3031:

In March 1963, the General Advisory committee of the AEC selected Oppenheimer to receive its

2994: 2972:

In April 1958, Oppenheimer spoke at the inauguration of the Nuclear Physics Institute in the

2784: 2671: 2283:. Freeman Dyson was able to prove that their procedures gave similar results. The problem of 2184: 1904: 1717: 1477: 1080: 631: 514: 290: 192: 101: 13975: 11794: 11603: 11042: 10796: 10691:

Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945

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As early as 1930, Oppenheimer wrote a paper that essentially predicted the existence of the

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On returning to the United States, Oppenheimer accepted an associate professorship from the

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Oppenheimer, J.R.; Hall, Harvey (1931). "Relativistic Theory of the Photoelectric Effect".

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divi sūryasahasrasya bhavedyugapadutthitā / yadi bhāḥ sadṛṥī sā syādbhāsastasya mahātmanaḥ

1224:, that unified quantum mechanics, special relativity and the then-new concept of electron 1022:

Before he began his Berkeley professorship, Oppenheimer was diagnosed with a mild case of

8: 13757: 13557: 13449: 13336: 13259: 13235: 13199: 13026: 12984: 12889: 12477: 12432: 12392: 12215: 11666: 11506:

Scott, Terry; Besmann, Theodore M.; Goldberg, Stanley; Hawkins, David (1994). "Letters".

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Niels Bohr Library Dedication Ceremony, American Institute of Physics, September 26, 1962

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Oppenheimer was initially educated at Alcuin Preparatory School. In 1911, he entered the

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Racing for the Bomb: General Leslie R. Groves, the Manhattan Project's Indispensable Man

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Recipients of Harvard honorary degrees, June 5, 1947. Front row from left: Oppenheimer;

2717:

Teller testified that he considered Oppenheimer loyal to the U.S. government, but that:

1716:

On October 9, 1941, two months before the United States entered World War II, President

1495:

Kitty returned from Europe to the U.S., where she obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree in

717: 13823: 13485: 13360: 13306: 13193: 13163: 13092: 13032: 13020: 12542: 12366: 12336: 12276: 12067: 11877: 11740: 11713:(1989). "In Any Light: Scientists and the Decision to Build the Superbomb, 1952-1954". 11694: 11654: 11570: 11494: 11474: 11462: 11344: 11180: 11167: 11090: 10946: 10871: 10819: 10753: 10689: 10684: 10638: 10617: 10612: 10586: 10391: 9996: 9829: 9777:

Seagrave, Sterling (November 9, 1964). "Play about him draws protests of Oppenheimer".

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Rabi described seeing Oppenheimer somewhat later: "I'll never forget his walk ... like

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Oppenheimer's brother Frank recalled Oppenheimer's first words as "I guess it worked."

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At this point in the war, there was considerable anxiety among the scientists that the

1768: 1657: 1617: 1376: 1108: 1084: 1049: 749: 701: 663: 529: 246: 116: 31: 13692: 11340: 9615:"Suomessa tehtiin Oppenheimerista kertova tv-elokuva jo vuonna 1967: Löytyy Areenasta" 3445:

As a military and public policy advisor, Oppenheimer was a leader in the shift toward

1899:". Initial research on the properties of plutonium was done using cyclotron-generated 1259:, "On Massive Neutron Cores," which demonstrated that there was a limit, known as the 745: 13828: 13515: 13396: 13354: 13324: 13223: 13110: 13056: 12955: 12943: 12757: 12746: 12653: 12512: 12507: 12457: 12306: 12301: 12291: 12152: 12081: 12061: 11925: 11915: 11909: 11893: 11883: 11861: 11851: 11845: 11832: 11822: 11816: 11800: 11771: 11767: 11732: 11698: 11686: 11646: 11562: 11531: 11498: 11454: 11388: 11300: 11261: 11254: 11222: 11187: 11151: 11144: 11128: 11121: 11102: 11095: 11076: 11049: 11023: 11016: 10997: 10989: 10975: 10967: 10953: 10927: 10920: 10904: 10878: 10852: 10826: 10803: 10776: 10760: 10737: 10718: 10696: 10651: 10624: 10598: 10572: 10546: 10516: 10494: 10468: 10462: 10444: 10438: 10420: 10397: 10373: 10351: 10329: 10317: 10299: 10288: 10031: 9893: 9497: 9485: 9441: 9022: 6454: 5491: 5471: 4874: 4749: 4706: 4688: 4253: 3706: 3659: 3649: 3642: 3627: 3617: 3597: 3587: 3581: 3567: 3546: 3527: 3508: 3435: 3399: 3327: 3159: 3102: 2935: 2827:

Starting in 1954, Oppenheimer lived for several months of each year on the island of

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ultimately accepted him on the condition that he complete a basic laboratory course.

826: 768:, where he developed a love for horseback riding and the southwestern United States. 689: 635: 549: 510: 226: 12557: 11574: 11348: 10897: 10845: 10487: 10413: 7807:

J Robert Oppenheimer FBI security file : Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1978

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asked Oppenheimer whether he wanted another security hearing. Oppenheimer declined.

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told a Congressional committee: "In England, Oppenheimer would have been knighted."

1640:. Both Bohr and Oppenheimer had been very analytical and critical about the ancient 622:

in Princeton, New Jersey, and chairman of the General Advisory Committee of the new

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The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made

10680: 10530: 10508: 10387: 9477: 9012: 8527: 8518: 8484: 7734: 5463: 5043: 4983: 4935: 4864: 4786: 4741: 4696: 4678: 4639: 4587: 3719: 3383: 3363: 3280: 3216: 2954: 2892: 2864: 2763: 2711: 2616: 2592: 2584: 2548: 2264: 2252: 2244: 2097: 1848: 1799: 1685: 1633: 1538: 1399: 1299: 1016: 996:, later anglicized by his students as "Oppie". From Leiden, he continued on to the 938: 842: 789: 721: 671: 647: 465: 393: 323: 120: 6442: 1312: 13687: 13642: 13587: 13569: 13521: 13467: 13455: 13443: 13426: 13312: 13271: 13253: 13187: 13080: 12783: 12623: 12587: 12517: 12452: 12442: 12417: 12316: 12296: 12271: 12113: 10892: 10710: 10251: 9908:"Oppenheimer five-star review – father of atomic bomb becomes tragic hero at RSC" 9748: 9199: 8554: 6902: 6557: 6522: 5729: 5467: 5157: 5026: 5017: 4966: 4918: 4769: 4622: 4570: 4293: 4123: 3821: 3751: 3747: 3735: 3731: 3187: 3146: 3142: 3017: 3001: 2950: 2888: 2670:

The triggering event for the security hearing happened on November 7, 1953, when

2647: 2639: 2600: 2553: 2488: 2483: 2472: 2468: 2445: 2433: 2280: 2268: 2158: 2133: 2127: 2113: 2101: 2046: 1746: 1737: 1641: 1588: 1449: 1284: 1272: 1194: 1088: 942: 896:. He was enthusiastic in discussions to the point of sometimes taking them over. 817:, Netherlands, July 1927. Oppenheimer is in the middle row, second from the left. 794: 772: 736: 662:. He continued to lecture, write, and work in physics, and in 1963 was given the 553: 446: 418: 408: 388: 373: 240: 12532: 10415:

An American Genius: The Life of Ernest Orlando Lawrence, Father of the Cyclotron

9481: 6094: 6058: 3709:. In 1931, Hall became the first of Oppenheimer's students to complete his PhD. 3560: 1240:

discovered the positron, for which he received the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics.

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Hart, Curtis W. (2008). "J. Robert Oppenheimer: A Faith Development Portrait".

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Atoms for Peace and War, 1953–1961: Eisenhower and the Atomic Energy Commission

10458: 10365: 10343: 8952: 8120:"Race for the Superbomb: Edward Teller's Testimony in the Oppenheimer Hearings" 8036:"Transcripts Kept Secret for 60 Years Bolster Defense of Oppenheimer's Loyalty" 4954: 3845: 3743: 3739: 3727: 3610:

Oppenheimer, J. Robert; Metropolis, N.; Rota, Gian-Carlo; Sharp, D. H. (1984).

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in the interactions between science and the military, and in the emergence of "

3407: 3379: 3260: 3238: 3197: 3182: 3175: 3117: 3098: 3051: 3040: 2916: 2896: 2663:. He later taught high school physics and was the founder of the San Francisco 2656: 2643: 2449: 2437: 2391: 2360: 2339: 2296: 2236: 2138: 1984: 1950: 1935: 1923: 1725: 1721: 1661: 1653: 1562: 1364:, he and some of his students, including Melba Phillips and Serber, attended a 1256: 1248: 1225: 1221: 1202: 1198: 1186: 1019:

wanted him so badly that he expressed a willingness to share him with Caltech.

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Merzbacher, Eugen (August 1, 2002). "The Early History of Quantum Tunneling".

3474: 3354:, a 1980 documentary about Oppenheimer and the atomic bomb, was nominated for 806: 14005: 13848: 13662: 13657: 13575: 13545: 13497: 13473: 13265: 13247: 13205: 13157: 13086: 13002: 12967: 12741: 12603: 12572: 12552: 12497: 12487: 12397: 12286: 12261: 12205: 12048:

The Reith Lectures: Robert Oppenheimer – Science and the Common Understanding

11897: 11873: 11812: 11775: 11736: 11706: 11690: 11650: 11535: 11458: 11392: 10992:(2005). "The Fortunate Fox". In Carson, Cathryn; Hollinger, David A. (eds.). 10482: 10434: 10035: 9820: 9489: 9026: 6854: 6458: 5475: 5409:"Oppenheimer's Letter of Response on Letter Regarding the Oppenheimer Affair" 4913: 4878: 4753: 4692: 3742:, Eugene Cooper, Shichi Kusaka, Richard Dempster, Roy Thomas, Eldred Nelson, 3359: 3341: 3212: 3207: 3078: 3025: 2860: 2702: 2664: 2518: 2453: 2364: 2288: 2240: 2232: 2192: 2176: 2055: 1908: 1900: 1873: 1836: 1593: 1414: 1318: 1264: 1229: 1205:

with deuterons they found the results agreed closely with the predictions of

1171: 1064: 970: 966: 893: 854: 850: 834: 713: 643: 627: 561: 544:. After research at other institutions, he joined the physics faculty at the 533: 12047: 11929: 11865: 11836: 11297:

Super Bomb: Organizational Conflict and the Development of the Hydrogen Bomb

6830:"The atomic bombings left Oppenheimer shattered: 'I have blood on my hands'" 4257: 3663: 3631: 3512: 13747: 13672: 13652: 13503: 13479: 13348: 13229: 13139: 12798: 12680: 12537: 12482: 12462: 12447: 12351: 12175: 11905: 11804: 11566: 10941: 10791: 10560: 10534: 9912: 9017: 8998: 8457: 8069: 7088: 5048: 5021: 4987: 4939: 4869: 4844: 4710: 4591: 3828: 3763: 3759: 3601: 3246: 3082: 2868: 2836: 2767: 2612: 2500: 2441: 2409: 2105: 1997: 1967: 1914:

In July 1944, Oppenheimer abandoned the Thin Man gun design in favor of an

1741: 1693: 1512: 1465: 1391: 1365: 1357: 1295: 1244: 1206: 1167: 1120: 1092: 1068: 1023: 909: 889: 639: 593: 585: 525:" for his role in overseeing the development of the first nuclear weapons. 518: 383: 368: 13707: 11669:(2008). "Site-specific: The Fractured Humanity of J. Robert Oppenheimer". 11182:

An Atomic Love Story: The Extraordinary Women in Robert Oppenheimer's Life

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Brighter than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists

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Brighter than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists

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In October 1972, Kitty died from an intestinal infection complicated by a

2326: 2315:'s breakthrough and subsequent Nobel Prize for the discovery of the pion. 13813: 13667: 13551: 13527: 13461: 13294: 13211: 13169: 13044: 12628: 12582: 12547: 12522: 12467: 12371: 12361: 12245: 12051: 11978:

was created from a revision of this article dated 18 April 2005

10368:(2005). "§Introduction". In Carson, Cathryn; Hollinger, David A. (eds.). 3723: 3450: 3446: 3174:

Oppenheimer's story as a tragedy. National security advisor and academic

3150: 2945:. An influential group of Harvard alumni led by Edwin Ginn that included 2744: 2575: 2475:. Oppenheimer was also a member of the Science Advisory Committee of the 2343: 2248: 1869: 1803: 1750: 1645: 1580: 1252: 1175: 908:

degree in March 1927 at age 23, supervised by Born. After the oral exam,

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Lecture by Dr. Robert Oppenheimer: Freedom and Necessity in the Sciences

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Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials that Shaped American Politics

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requested a hearing instead. The charges were outlined in a letter from

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In August 1943, Oppenheimer told Manhattan Project security agents that

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For his services as director of Los Alamos, Oppenheimer was awarded the

1302:, a later Nobelist who, as a visiting scientist, worked with him at the 757: 57: 13533: 13145: 12913: 12901: 12731: 12675: 12412: 12402: 12331: 12077: 11327: 11206:

Conscience, Science and Security: The Case of Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer

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The Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer and the Birth of the Modern Arms Race

10283: 9033: 8994: 5483: 5451: 4840: 3755: 3234: 2674:, who until earlier in the year had been the executive director of the 2631: 2300: 2153: 2076: 1992: 1931: 1919: 1795: 1637: 1603:

in the original Sanskrit, and deeply pondered them. He later cited the

1485: 1417:. The FBI noted that Oppenheimer was on the executive committee of the 1380: 1280: 1179: 1155: 1032: 885: 765: 741: 604: 597: 589: 528:

Born in New York City, Oppenheimer obtained a degree in chemistry from

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In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer: The Security Clearance Hearing

10713:(2005). "§Afterward". In Carson, Cathryn; Hollinger, David A. (eds.). 10024:"Oppenheimer wins best picture Oscar as Emma Stone pulls surprise win" 9242:"Remarks Upon Presenting the Fermi Award to Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer" 8282: 7960: 6486:"How Oppenheimer weighed the odds of an atomic bomb test ending Earth" 5394: 4745: 3580:

Oppenheimer, J. Robert; Smith, Alice Kimball; Weiner, Charles (1980).

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109 East Palace: Robert Oppenheimer and the Secret City of Los Alamos

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109 East Palace: Robert Oppenheimer and the Secret City of Los Alamos

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American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer

8453:"US voids 1954 revoking of J Robert Oppenheimer's security clearance" 7738: 6410: 4886: 4153:. Cambridge University Library Special Collections. August 15, 2023. 3438:, was named in his honor on January 4, 2000, as was the lunar crater 3039:

before he could present the award to Oppenheimer, but his successor,

2655:

position. Unable to find work in physics for many years, he became a

2220: 2085: 1983:, the work at Los Alamos culminated in the test of the world's first 1889: 1823: 1761: 1711: 1599: 1384: 1190: 1178:, determined that this was a consequence of what became known as the 1053: 709: 12121: 11627:(1988). "Four Physicists and the Bomb: The Early Years, 1945–1950". 11477:(2006). "Einstein and Oppenheimer: Interactions and Intersections". 10348:

Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years

9107:"Johnson Awards AEC's Fermi Award to Oppenheimer, Once Branded Risk" 3181:

The question of scientists' responsibility toward humanity inspired

2034:

Oppenheimer recalling his thoughts after witnessing the Trinity test

2008:, who was present in the control bunker with Oppenheimer, recalled: 1263:, to the mass of stars beyond which they would not remain stable as 1255:. This was followed by a paper co-written with one of his students, 13808: 12813: 12646: 12180: 10866: 10313: 6684: 6643: 3817: 3323: 3163: 2660: 2535: 1847:

inevitable cultural conflicts between scientists and the military.

1835:

pain. The plan to commission scientists fell through when Rabi and

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at Berkeley in 1933. He eventually read literary works such as the

1584: 1468:, the daughter of a Berkeley literature professor and a student at 1453: 1217: 1136: 869: 565: 541: 328: 5257: 2104:, who dismissed Oppenheimer's concern about an arms race with the 1876:, military head of the Manhattan Project, with Oppenheimer in 1942 1756: 1174:

have the same energy. Subsequently, one of his doctoral students,

12803: 12670: 9825:"The Day After Trinity: Oppenheimer & the Atomic Bomb (1980)" 9339:"Mrs. J. Robert Oppenheimer, 62, Nuclear Physicist's Widow, Dies" 8781: 8779: 6034: 3454: 2876: 2835:. In 1957, he purchased a 2-acre (0.81 ha) tract of land on 2705:, testified against Oppenheimer at his security hearing in 1954. 2487:

atomic attack against American cities. Those two projects led to

2376: 2212: 2200: 1939: 1182:, for which Lamb was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1955. 1112: 3211:, which was commissioned to portray Oppenheimer as a modern-day 1488:, an active member of the Communist Party killed in 1937 in the 1067:

a position at Berkeley but was blocked by Birge, who felt that "

615:, to date the only use of nuclear weapons in an armed conflict. 12868: 12189: 10464:

The Nobel Prize: A History of Genius, Controversy, and Prestige

10088:"Reappraising Oppenheimer – Centennial Studies and Reflections" 9649: 6809: 6157: 3849: 3827:, November 8, 1948). The "shatterer" version later appeared in 3308: 2295:

were also tackled. Probing questions from Oppenheimer prompted

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University of California Radiation Laboratory staff (including

814: 305: 11420:"'I Am Become Death ... ': The Agony of J. Robert Oppenheimer" 11065:

Rethinking Curriculum in Times of Shifting Educational Context

10679: 9795:"The 2006 Pulitzer Prize Winners – Biography or Autobiography" 8776: 8388:"J. Robert Oppenheimer Cleared of 'Black Mark' After 68 Years" 6356: 6314: 6302: 6278: 6198: 6196: 6100: 6064: 5681: 650:, these stances, together with his past associations with the 489: 477: 13934: 11247:. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office. 8592:"Text of Oppenheimer Lecture Ending the Columbia Bicentenary" 3057:

But congressional hostility to Oppenheimer lingered. Senator

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In September 1957, France made Oppenheimer an Officer of the

2355: 2284: 1279:", which predicted the existence of what later became termed 1162:. This work contributed to the development of the concept of 1116: 845:, a future Nobel laureate. According to Oppenheimer's friend 693: 611:. In August 1945, the weapons were used against Japan in the 11256:

A Life in Twilight: The Final Years of J. Robert Oppenheimer

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