Termite - Knowledge

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year in wood structure damage, but the true cost of damage worldwide cannot be determined. Drywood termites are responsible for a large proportion of the damage caused by termites. The goal of termite control is to keep structures and susceptible ornamental plants free from termites.; Structures may be homes or business, or elements such as wooden fence posts and telephone poles. Regular and thorough inspections by a trained professional may be necessary to detect termite activity in the absence of more obvious signs like termite swarmers or alates inside or adjacent to a structure. Termite monitors made of wood or cellulose adjacent to a structure may also provide indication of termite foraging activity where it will be in conflict with humans. Termites can be controlled by application of

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structural wood components, cellulose derived structural materials and ornamental vegetation provide termites with a reliable source of food and moisture. Their habit of remaining concealed often results in their presence being undetected until the timbers are severely damaged, with only a thin exterior layer of wood remaining, which protects them from the environment. Of the 3,106 species known, only 183 species cause damage; 83 species cause significant damage to wooden structures. In North America, 18 subterranean species are pests; in Australia, 16 species have an economic impact; in the Indian subcontinent 26 species are considered pests, and in tropical Africa, 24. In Central America and the West Indies, there are 17 pest species. Among the termite genera,

3374: 3878:. The alarm pheromone and other defensive chemicals are secreted from the frontal gland. Trail pheromones are secreted from the sternal gland, and sex pheromones derive from two glandular sources: the sternal and tergal glands. When termites go out to look for food, they forage in columns along the ground through vegetation. A trail can be identified by the faecal deposits or runways that are covered by objects. Workers leave pheromones on these trails, which are detected by other nestmates through olfactory receptors. Termites can also communicate through mechanical cues, vibrations, and physical contact. These signals are frequently used for alarm communication or for evaluating a food source. 676: 3194: 4383: 3102:

pair may never surface again, spending the rest of their lives in the nest. Nuptial flight time varies in each species. For example, alates in certain species emerge during the day in summer while others emerge during the winter. The nuptial flight may also begin at dusk, when the alates swarm around areas with many lights. The time when nuptial flight begins depends on the environmental conditions, the time of day, moisture, wind speed and precipitation. The number of termites in a colony also varies, with the larger species typically having 100–1,000 individuals. However, some termite colonies, including those with many individuals, can number in the millions.

3236: 2975: 3114: 4415: 3551: 3854: 4475: 2512: 3090: 131: 4399: 4108: 2963: 4862: 2740: 4213: 3042:. Workers are believed to have evolved from larvae, sharing many similarities to the extent that workers can be regarded as "larval", in that both lack wings, eyes, and functional reproductive organs while maintaining varying levels of developmental flexibility, although usually to a much lesser extent in workers. The main distinction being that while larvae are wholly dependent on other nestmates to survive, workers are independent and are able to feed themselves and contribute to the colony. Workers remain wingless and across many 4434: 4516: 4605:. Anecdotal evidence suggests the infestation could date back 70 years before the official identification. There are reports that gardeners had seen white ants and that a greenhouse had had to be replaced in the past. The Saunton infestation was the first and only colony ever recorded in the UK. In 1998, Termite Eradication Programme was set-up, with the intention of containing and eradicating the colony. The TEP was managed by the Ministry of Housing, Communities & Local Government (now the 160: 3938: 4232:). Epigeal nests (mounds) protrude from the earth with ground contact and are made out of earth and mud. A nest has many functions such as providing a protected living space and providing shelter against predators. Most termites construct underground colonies rather than multifunctional nests and mounds. Primitive termites of today nest in wooden structures such as logs, stumps and the dead parts of trees, as did termites millions of years ago. 4624: 4461:

predators, especially ants. Shelter tubes also provide high humidity and darkness and allow workers to collect food sources that cannot be accessed in any other way. These passageways are made from soil and faeces and are normally brown in colour. The size of these shelter tubes depends on the number of food sources that are available. They range from less than 1 cm to several cm in width, but may be dozens of metres in length.

15578: 16034: 4491: 2366: 16844: 3799:, there are three phases in a foraging expedition: first, soldiers scout an area. When they find a food source, they communicate to other soldiers and a small force of workers starts to emerge. In the second phase, workers appear in large numbers at the site. The third phase is marked by a decrease in the number of soldiers present and an increase in the number of workers. Isolated termite workers may engage in 3115: 3793:

predators. Subterranean termites construct tunnels and galleries to look for food, and workers who manage to find food sources recruit additional nestmates by depositing a phagostimulant pheromone that attracts workers. Foraging workers use semiochemicals to communicate with each other, and workers who begin to forage outside of their nest release trail pheromones from their sternal glands. In one species,

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objects such as pellets of soil or pillars cause termites to start building. The termite adds these objects onto existing structures, and such behaviour encourages building behaviour in other workers. The result is a self-organised process whereby the information that directs termite activity results from changes in the environment rather than from direct contact among individuals.

3118: 4189: 2759:. Trophallaxis is an effective nutritional tactic to convert and recycle nitrogenous components. It frees the parents from feeding all but the first generation of offspring, allowing for the group to grow much larger and ensuring that the necessary gut symbionts are transferred from one generation to another. Workers are believed to have evolved from older wingless immatures ( 4632: 2929:) female and male individuals, colloquially known as the queen and king. The queen of the colony is responsible for egg production of the colony. Unlike in ants, the male and female reproductives form lifelong pairs where the king will continue to mate with the queen throughout their lives. In some species, the abdomen of the queen swells up dramatically to increase 4712: 4548:, such as Termidor SC or Taurus SC, by a licensed professional, is a common remedy approved by the Environmental Protection Agency for economically significant subterranean termites. A growing demand for alternative, green, and "more natural" extermination methods has increased demand for mechanical and biological control methods such as 2848:) and closely resemble true workers in which they also perform most of the work and are similarly altruistic, however differ in developing from the linear developmental pathway where they exist in a stationary molt; i.e they have halted development before the growth of wing buds, and are regarded as pluripotent immatures. 4132:

inside termite colonies (they are unable to survive independently). As a result, certain beetles and flies have evolved with their hosts. They have developed a gland that secrete a substance that attracts the workers by licking them. Mounds may also provide shelter and warmth to birds, lizards, snakes and scorpions.

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A termite nest can be considered as being composed of two parts, the inanimate and the animate. The animate is all of the termites living inside the colony, and the inanimate part is the structure itself, which is constructed by the termites. Nests can be broadly separated into three main categories:

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Many plants have developed effective defences against termites. However, seedlings are vulnerable to termite attacks and need additional protection, as their defence mechanisms only develop when they have passed the seedling stage. Defence is typically achieved by secreting antifeedant chemicals into

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also inhabits termite mounds although no evidence for any kind of relationship (other than a predatory one) is known. In rare cases, certain species of termites live inside active ant colonies. Some invertebrate organisms such as beetles, caterpillars, flies and millipedes are termitophiles and dwell

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When termites construct their nests, they use predominantly indirect communication. No single termite would be in charge of any particular construction project. Individual termites react rather than think, but at a group level, they exhibit a sort of collective cognition. Specific structures or other

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Foraging behaviour depends on the type of termite. For example, certain species feed on the wood structures they inhabit, and others harvest food that is near the nest. Most workers are rarely found out in the open, and do not forage unprotected; they rely on sheeting and runways to protect them from

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ancestors. Despite primarily consuming decaying plant material as a group, many termite species have been observed to opportunistically feed on dead animals to supplement their dietary needs. Termites are also known to harbor bacteriophages in their gut. Some of these bacteriophages likely infect the

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Hymenoptera (ants and various species of bees and wasps), but their differing evolutionary origins result in major differences in life cycle. In the eusocial Hymenoptera, the workers are exclusively female. Males (drones) are haploid and develop from unfertilised eggs, while females (both workers and

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capable of constructing intricate structures without human assistance has been inspired by the complex mounds that termites build. These robots work independently and can move by themselves on a tracked grid, capable of climbing and lifting up bricks. Such robots may be useful for future projects on

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per year, termites cause more damage to houses than fire, floods and storms combined. In Malaysia, it is estimated that termites caused about RM400 million of damages to properties and buildings. The damage caused by termites costs the southwestern United States approximately $ 1.5 billion each

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Drywood termites thrive in warm climates, and human activities can enable them to invade homes since they can be transported through contaminated goods, containers and ships. Colonies of termites have been seen thriving in warm buildings located in cold regions. Some termites are considered invasive

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Nests are considered mounds if they protrude from the earth's surface. A mound provides termites the same protection as a nest but is stronger. Mounds located in areas with torrential and continuous rainfall are at risk of mound erosion due to their clay-rich construction. Those made from carton can

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To termites, any breach of their tunnels or nests is a cause for alarm. When termites detect a potential breach, the soldiers usually bang their heads, apparently to attract other soldiers for defence and to recruit additional workers to repair any breach. Additionally, an alarmed termite bumps into

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developed agriculture about 31 million years ago. It is assumed that more than 90 per cent of dry wood in the semiarid savannah ecosystems of Africa and Asia are reprocessed by these termites. Originally living in the rainforest, fungus farming allowed them to colonise the African savannah and other

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living in termite guts capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen to a form usable by the insect. Scientists' understanding of the relationship between the termite digestive tract and the microbial endosymbionts is still rudimentary; what is true in all termite species, however, is that the workers feed

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and are present in all extant taxa such as Rhinotermitidae. The majority of termite species have mandibulate soldiers which are easily identified by the disproportionately large sclerotized head and mandibles. Among certain termites, the soldier caste has evolved globular (phragmotic) heads to block

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and enriching the soil. Termites and ants can re-colonise untilled land that contains crop stubble, which colonies use for nourishment when they establish their nests. The presence of nests in fields enables larger amounts of rainwater to soak into the ground and increases the amount of nitrogen in

4748:, soybeans and vegetables. Mounds can disrupt farming activities, making it difficult for farmers to operate farming machinery; however, despite farmers' dislike of the mounds, it is often the case that no net loss of production occurs. Termites can be beneficial to agriculture, such as by boosting 3136:

Termites going through incomplete metamorphosis on the path to becoming alates form a subcaste in certain species of termite, functioning as potential supplementary reproductives. These supplementary reproductives only mature into primary reproductives upon the death of a king or queen, or when the

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The king grows only slightly larger after initial mating and continues to mate with the queen for life (a termite queen can live between 30 and 50 years); this is very different from ant colonies, in which a queen mates once with the males and stores the gametes for life, as the male ants

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The queen only lays 10–20 eggs in the very early stages of the colony, but lays as many as 1,000 a day when the colony is several years old. At maturity, a primary queen has a great capacity to lay eggs. In some species, the mature queen has a greatly distended abdomen and may produce 40,000 eggs a

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plays an important role in Nasute nutrition. Soldiers are normally a committed sterile caste and so do not molt into anything else, but in certain basal taxa like the Archotermopsidae they are known to rarely molt into neotenic forms that develop functional sexual organs. In species with the linear

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due to the collective behaviors of the individuals which form a self-governing entity: the colony itself. Their colonies range in size from a few hundred individuals to enormous societies with several million individuals. Most species are rarely seen, having a cryptic life-history where they remain

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are an important factor in the diets of native populations. Groups have different ways of collecting or cultivating insects; sometimes collecting soldiers from several species. Though harder to acquire, queens are regarded as a delicacy. Termite alates are high in nutrition with adequate levels of

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Most termites are blind, so communication primarily occurs through chemical, mechanical and pheromonal cues. These methods of communication are used in a variety of activities, including foraging, locating reproductives, construction of nests, recognition of nestmates, nuptial flight, locating and

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The development of larvae into adults can take months; the time period depends on food availability and nutrition, temperature, and the size of the colony. Since larvae and nymphs are unable to feed themselves, workers must feed them, but workers also take part in the social life of the colony and

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have a fontanelle, which appears as a circular pore or series of pores in a depressed region within the middle of the head. The fontanelle connects to the frontal gland, a novel organ unique to Neoisopteran termites which evolved to excrete an array of defensive chemicals and secretions, and so is

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has the highest number of pest species of any genus, with 28 species known to cause damage. Less than 10% of drywood termites are pests, but they infect wooden structures and furniture in tropical, subtropical and other regions. Dampwood termites only attack lumber material exposed to rainfall or

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were sampled using 65 x 2 m transects. A total of 26 species of termites were present in the three sites, and 196 encounters were recorded in the transects. The termite assemblages were considerably different among sites, with a conspicuous reduction in both diversity and abundance with increased

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takes place. Alate males and females pair up together and then land in search of a suitable place for a colony. A termite king and queen do not mate until they find such a spot. When they do, they excavate a chamber big enough for both, close up the entrance and proceed to mate. After mating, the

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Developmental biology of ants versus termites. As opposed to ants which have a linear and irreversible development from larval instars to adult (imago), termites exhibit a more complex and often bifurcated development which allows for more flexible caste pathways. Although in most termites, caste

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Unlike in ants, the hind-wings and fore-wings are of equal length. Most of the time, the alates are poor flyers; their technique is to launch themselves in the air and fly in a random direction. Studies show that in comparison to larger termites, smaller termites cannot fly long distances. When a

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Termites can be major agricultural pests, particularly in East Africa and North Asia, where crop losses can be severe (3–100% in crop loss in Africa). Counterbalancing this is the greatly improved water infiltration where termite tunnels in the soil allow rainwater to soak in deeply, which helps

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begins. These swarms attract a wide variety of predators. The queens can be particularly long-lived for insects, with some reportedly living as long as 30 or 50 years. In both the linear and bifurcated developmental pathways, the primary reproductives only develop from winged immatures (nymphs).

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To build their nests, termites use a variety of resources such as faeces which have many desirable properties as a construction material. Other building materials include partly digested plant material, used in carton nests (arboreal nests built from faecal elements and wood), and soil, used in

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Depending on their feeding habits, termites are placed into two groups: the lower termites and higher termites. The lower termites predominately feed on wood. As wood is difficult to digest, termites prefer to consume fungus-infected wood because it is easier to digest and the fungi are high in

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Due to their soft cuticles, termites do not inhabit cool or cold habitats. There are three ecological groups of termites: dampwood, drywood and subterranean. Dampwood termites are found only in coniferous forests, and drywood termites are found in hardwood forests; subterranean termites live in

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Owing to their wood-eating habits, many termite species can do significant damage to unprotected buildings and other wooden structures. Termites play an important role as decomposers of wood and vegetative material, and the conflict with humans occurs where structures and landscapes containing

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Termites construct shelter tubes, also known as earthen tubes or mud tubes, that start from the ground. These shelter tubes can be found on walls and other structures. Constructed by termites during the night, a time of higher humidity, these tubes provide protection to termites from potential

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Studies show that when termites encounter each other in foraging areas, some of the termites deliberately block passages to prevent other termites from entering. Dead termites from other colonies found in exploratory tunnels leads to the isolation of the area and thus the need to construct new

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are good examples of subterranean nest builders, as they only dwell inside tunnels. Other termites live in wood, and tunnels are constructed as they feed on the wood. Nests and mounds protect the termites' soft bodies against desiccation, light, pathogens and parasites, as well as providing a

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are individuals which arise from the linear developmental pathway that have regressively molted and lost their wing buds, and are regarded as totipotent immatures. They are capable of performing work but are overall less involved in labor and considered more cooperative than truly altruistic.

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is used for spiritual protection and to treat wounds and sick pregnant women. In Southeast Asia, termites are used in ritual practices. In Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand, termite mounds are commonly worshiped among the populace. Abandoned mounds are viewed as structures created by spirits,

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workers either sex may be restricted to a certain developmental path. Workers may also be fertile or sterile, however the term "worker" is normally reserved for the latter, having evolved in taxa that exhibit a bifurcated developmental pathway. As a result, sterile workers like in the family

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The non-reproductive castes of termites are wingless and rely exclusively on their six legs for locomotion. The alates fly only for a brief amount of time, so they also rely on their legs. The appearance of the legs is similar in each caste, but the soldiers have larger and heavier legs. The

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Termites can distinguish nestmates and non-nestmates through chemical communication and gut symbionts: chemicals consisting of hydrocarbons released from the cuticle allow the recognition of alien termite species. Each colony has its own distinct odour. This odour is a result of genetic and

486:, most termites have an analogous "worker" and "soldier" caste system consisting of mostly sterile individuals which are physically and behaviorally distinct. Unlike ants, most colonies begin from sexually mature individuals known as the "king" and "queen" that together form a lifelong 4913:

populations – resulting in an event very rare in captivity: the mass migrations of young flying termites. This happened in September 2008, when thousands of male termites left their mound each night, died, and covered the floors and water pits of the house holding their exhibit.

4853:. It is only relatively recently, however, that climate responsive construction techniques have become incorporated into modern architecture. Especially in Africa, the stack effect has become a popular means to achieve natural ventilation and passive cooling in modern buildings. 13642:

Vasconcellos, Alexandre; Bandeira, Adelmar G.; Moura, Flávia Maria S.; Araújo, Virgínia Farias P.; Gusmão, Maria Avany B.; Reginaldo, Constantino (February 2010). "Termite assemblages in three habitats under different disturbance regimes in the semi-arid Caatinga of NE Brazil".

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Alates are collected when the rainy season begins. During a nuptial flight, they are typically seen around lights to which they are attracted, and so nets are set up on lamps and captured alates are later collected. The wings are removed through a technique that is similar to

2724:(wingless) lines. The bifurcation occurs early, either at the egg or the first two instars, and represents an irreversible and committed development to either the reproductive or non-reproductive lifestyles. As such, the apterous lineage consists mostly of wingless and truly 4033:

is known to mimic termite eggs, successfully avoiding its natural predators. These small brown balls, known as "termite balls", rarely kill the eggs, and in some cases the workers tend to them. This fungus mimics these eggs by producing cellulose-digesting enzymes known as

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Among the reproductive caste, neotenic queens may compete with each other to become the dominant queen when there are no primary reproductives. This struggle among the queens leads to the elimination of all but a single queen, which, with the king, takes over the colony.

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In addition to causing damage to buildings, termites can also damage food crops. Termites may attack trees whose resistance to damage is low but generally ignore fast-growing plants. Most attacks occur at harvest time; crops and trees are attacked during the dry season.

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caste is the most anatomically and behaviorally specialized, and their sole purpose is to defend the colony. Many soldiers have large heads with highly modified powerful jaws so enlarged that they cannot feed themselves. Instead, like juveniles, they are fed by workers.

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In some species, some soldiers block tunnels to prevent their enemies from entering the nest, and they may deliberately rupture themselves as an act of defence. In cases where the intrusion is coming from a breach that is larger than the soldier's head, soldiers form a

769:, but given the diversity of Cretaceous termites and early fossil records showing mutualism between microorganisms and these insects, they possibly originated earlier in the Jurassic or Triassic. Possible evidence of a Jurassic origin is the assumption that the extinct 4332:

arguably build the most complex structures in the insect world, constructing enormous mounds. These mounds are among the largest in the world, reaching a height of 8 to 9 metres (26 to 29 feet), and consist of chimneys, pinnacles and ridges. Another termite species,

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primary reproductives are separated from the colony. Supplementaries have the ability to replace a dead primary reproductive, and there may also be more than a single supplementary within a colony. Some queens have the ability to switch from sexual reproduction to

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become developmentally arrested, appearing to not change into any other caste until death. In some basal taxa, there is no distinction, with the "workers" (pseudergates) essentially being late instar larvae that retain the ability to change into all other castes.

828:, though, consider that all of the Paleozoic and Triassic insects tentatively classified as termites are in fact unrelated to termites and should be excluded from the Isoptera. Other studies suggest that the origin of termites is more recent, having diverged from 3996:

have a defence strategy which involves front gland autothysis, with the body rupturing between the head and abdomen. When soldiers guarding nest entrances are attacked by intruders, they engage in autothysis, creating a block that denies entry to any attacker.

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of various diseases and ailments, such as influenza, asthma, bronchitis, etc. Termites are most famous for being structural pests; however, the vast majority of termite species are innocuous, with the regional numbers of economically significant species being:

3342:, which are nourished by the excrement of the insects. When the fungi are eaten, their spores pass undamaged through the intestines of the termites to complete the cycle by germinating in the fresh faecal pellets. Molecular evidence suggests that the family 3117: 4841:) creates an updraft of air within the mound. Wind blowing across the tops of the towers enhances the circulation of air through the mounds, which also include side vents in their construction. The solar chimney effect has been in use for centuries in the 3988:, also engages in suicidal defence. Workers physically unable to use their mandibles while in a fight form a pouch full of chemicals, then deliberately rupture themselves, releasing toxic chemicals that paralyse and kill their enemies. The soldiers of the 1480:

recognised, classified in 12 families; reproductive and/or soldier castes are usually required for identification. The infraorder Isoptera is divided into the following clade and family groups, showing the subfamilies in their respective classification:

4163:, has been shown to repel termites; tests have shown that termites are strongly repelled by the toxic material to the extent that they will starve rather than consume the food. When kept close to the extract, they become disoriented and eventually die. 4563:. More recently developed, less expensive alternatives include tracking the termites using egg white, cow milk, or soy milk proteins, which can be sprayed on termites in the field. Termites bearing these proteins can be traced using a protein-specific 4667:

is not required as their bodies usually contain sufficient amounts of oil. Termites are typically eaten when livestock is lean and tribal crops have not yet developed or produced any food, or if food stocks from a previous growing season are limited.

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have certain other tasks to accomplish such as foraging, building or maintaining the nest or tending to the queen. Pheromones regulate the caste system in termite colonies, preventing all but a very few of the termites from becoming fertile queens.

2460:; the clypeus is divided into a postclypeus and anteclypeus. Termite antennae have a number of functions such as the sensing of touch, taste, odours (including pheromones), heat and vibration. The three basic segments of a termite antenna include a 13752:

Eggleton, P.; Bignell, D.E.; Sands, W.A.; Mawdsley, N. A.; Lawton, J. H.; Wood, T.G.; Bignell, N.C. (1996). "The Diversity, Abundance and Biomass of Termites under Differing Levels of Disturbance in the Mbalmayo Forest Reserve, Southern Cameroon".

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and depleted in cellulose and xylans. This change is caused by bacterial decay in the gut of the termites: they use their faeces as a carton building material. Arboreal termites nests can account for as much as 2% of above ground carbon storage in

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fighting enemies, and defending the nests. The most common way of communicating is through antennation. A number of pheromones are known, including contact pheromones (which are transmitted when workers are engaged in trophallaxis or grooming) and

4609:.) The TEP used "insect growth regulators" to prevent the termites from reaching maturity and reproducing. In 2021, the UK's Termite Eradication Programme announced the eradication of the colony, the first time a country has eradicated termites. 4787:

from a single sheet of paper. Approximately 200 species of microbes live inside the termite hindgut, releasing the hydrogen that was trapped inside wood and plants that they digest. Through the action of unidentified enzymes in the termite gut,

4354:. The north–south orientation causes the internal temperature of a mound to increase rapidly during the morning while avoiding overheating from the midday sun. The temperature then remains at a plateau for the rest of the day until the evening. 4324:

colonies build narrow tunnels used as strong points, as the diameter of the tunnels is small enough for soldiers to block. A highly protected chamber, known as the "queen's cell", houses the queen and king and is used as a last line of defence.

3982: – rupturing a large gland just beneath the surface of their cuticles. The thick, yellow fluid in the gland becomes very sticky on contact with the air, entangling ants or other insects that are trying to invade the nest. Another termite, 3243:

The microbial ecosystem present in the termite gut contains many species found nowhere else on Earth. Termites hatch without these symbionts present in their guts, and develop them after fed a culture from other termites. Gut protozoa, such as

855:) exhibits numerous cockroach-like characteristics that are not shared with other termites, such as laying its eggs in rafts and having anal lobes on the wings. It has been proposed that the Isoptera and Cryptocercidae be grouped in the clade " 782:

consumed termites, judging from its morphological similarity to modern termite-eating mammals. Morrison Formation also yields social insect nest fossils close to that of termites. The oldest termite nest discovered is believed to be from the

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that primarily feeds on termites; it locates its food by sound and also by detecting the scent secreted by the soldiers; a single aardwolf is capable of consuming thousands of termites in a single night by using its long, sticky tongue.

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Termites are less likely to be attacked by parasites than bees, wasps and ants, as they are usually well protected in their mounds. Nevertheless, termites are infected by a variety of parasites. Some of these include dipteran flies,

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sterile individuals (true workers, soldiers), whereas the nymphal lineage consists mainly of fertile individuals destined to become winged reproductives. The bifurcated developmental pathway is found mainly in the derived taxa (i.e.

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symbiotic bacteria which play a key role in termite biology. The exact role and function of bacteriophages in the termite gut microbiome is not clearly understood. Termite gut bacteriophages also show similarity to bacteriophages (

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with termites being the first social insects to evolve a caste system more than 100 million years ago. Termite genomes are generally relatively large compared to those of other insects; the first fully sequenced termite genome, of

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Wang, Menglin; Hellemans, Simon; Šobotník, Jan; Arora, Jigyasa; Buček, Aleš; Sillam-Dussès, David; Clitheroe, Crystal; Lu, Tomer; Lo, Nathan; Engel, Michael S.; Roisin, Yves; Evans, Theodore A.; Bourguignon, Thomas (2022-04-29).

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uses a different strategy of termite hunting by pressing themselves into tight spaces, as they hunt through rotting wood housing termite colonies. Once inside, the ants seize their prey by using their short but sharp mandibles.

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inspired by that used by the local termites. It was the first major building exploiting termite-inspired cooling techniques to attract international attention. Other such buildings include the Learning Resource Center at the

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Termites rely on alarm communication to defend a colony. Alarm pheromones can be released when the nest has been breached or is being attacked by enemies or potential pathogens. Termites always avoid nestmates infected with

2508:. On alates, the wings are located at the mesothorax and metathorax, which is consistent with all four-winged insects. The mesothorax and metathorax have well-developed exoskeletal plates; the prothorax has smaller plates. 4921:, and for this reason tribe members are forbidden to eat the reproductive alates. Termites are widely used in traditional popular medicine; they are used as treatments for diseases and other conditions such as asthma, 3133:

die shortly after mating. If a queen is absent, a termite king produces pheromones which encourage the development of replacement termite queens. As the queen and king are monogamous, sperm competition does not occur.

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Evangelista, Dominic A.; Wipfler, Benjamin; Béthoux, Olivier; Donath, Alexander; Fujita, Mari; Kohli, Manpreet K.; Legendre, Frédéric; Liu, Shanlin; Machida, Ryuichiro; Misof, Bernhard; Peters, Ralph S. (2019-01-30).

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towards each other, resulting in fights. These fights can cause mortality on both sides and, in some cases, the gain or loss of territory. "Cemetery pits" may be present, where the bodies of dead termites are buried.

3003: 4339:, can build nests 3 to 4 metres (9 to 13 feet) high and 2.5 metres (8 feet) wide. The tallest mound ever recorded was 12.8 metres (42 ft) long found in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 14869:

Nchito, M.; Wenzel Geissler, P.; Mubila, L.; Friis, H.; Olsen, A. (2004). "Effects of iron and multimicronutrient supplementation on geophagy: a two-by-two factorial study among Zambian schoolchildren in Lusaka".

2733:), and is believed to have evolved in tandem with the sterile worker caste as species moved to foraging for food beyond their nests, as opposed to the nest also being the food (such as in obligate wood-dwellers). 4382: 3915:

spores, through vibrational signals released by infected nestmates. Other methods of defence include headbanging and secretion of fluids from the frontal gland and defecating faeces containing alarm pheromones.

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only occurs when a colony is under great stress. Over 34 fungal species are known to live as parasites on the exoskeleton of termites, with many being host-specific and only causing indirect harm to their host.

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have completely forgo development into a winged adult. They display altruistic behaviors and either have terminal molts or exhibit a low level of phenotypical potency. True workers across different termite taxa

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Some species build complex nests called polycalic nests; this habitat is called polycalism. Polycalic species of termites form multiple nests, or calies, connected by subterranean chambers. The termite genera

15582: 3316:

Various woods differ in their susceptibility to termite attack; the differences are attributed to such factors as moisture content, hardness, and resin and lignin content. In one study, the drywood termite

2595:

molts before becoming an adult, the advent of eusociality has significantly altered the developmental patterns of this group of insects of which, although similar, is not homologous to that of the eusocial

12728:

Sobotnik, J.; Bourguignon, T.; Hanus, R.; Demianova, Z.; Pytelkova, J.; Mares, M.; Foltynova, P.; Preisler, J.; Cvacka, J.; Krasulova, J.; Roisin, Y. (2012). "Explosive backpacks in old termite workers".

4008:, in which a nestmate carries away a corpse from the colony to dispose of it elsewhere. Which strategy is used depends on the nature of the corpse a worker is dealing with (i.e. the age of the carcass). 2480:

of most castes is soft and flexible due to a resulting lack of sclerotization, particularly of the abdomen which often appears translucent. Pigmentation and sclerotization of the cuticle correlates with

14599:

Mogilicherla, Kanakachari; Chakraborty, Amrita; Taning, Clauvis Nji Tizi; Smagghe, Guy; Roy, Amit (2023). "RNAi in termites (Isoptera): current status and prospects for pest management". Review paper.

3789:

Because the worker and soldier castes lack wings and thus never fly, and the reproductives use their wings for just a brief amount of time, termites predominantly rely upon their legs to move about.

514:

Termites' success as a group has led to them colonizing almost every global landmass, with the highest diversity occurring in the tropics where they are estimated to constitute 10% of the animal

4171:

Termite populations can be substantially impacted by environmental changes including those caused by human intervention. A Brazilian study investigated the termite assemblages of three sites of

4180:

disturbance, related to the reduction of tree density and soil cover, and with the intensity of trampling by cattle and goats. The wood-feeders were the most severely affected feeding group.

4350:), which builds tall, wedge-shaped mounds with the long axis oriented approximately north–south, which gives them their common name. This orientation has been experimentally shown to assist 2698:

There is significant variation of the developmental patterns in termites even across closely related taxa, but can typically be generalized into the following two patterns: The first is the

14905:

Saathoff, E.; Olsen, A.; Kvalsvig, J.D.; Geissler, P.W. (2002). "Geophagy and its association with geohelminth infection in rural schoolchildren from northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa".

12092:

Messenger, M.T.; Su, N.Y. (2005). "Agonistic behavior between colonies of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) from Louis Armstrong Park, New Orleans, Louisiana".

3595:

is a specialised predator species that feeds on small termites. A scout recruits 10–30 workers to an area where termites are present, killing them by immobilising them with their stinger.

663:). The word was first used in English in 1781. Earlier attested designations were "wood ants" or "white ants", though these may never have been in wide use as termites do not exist in the 14645: 6916:

Terrapon, Nicolas; Li, Cai; Robertson, Hugh M.; Ji, Lu; Meng, Xuehong; Booth, Warren; Chen, Zhensheng; Childers, Christopher P.; Glastad, Karl M.; Gokhale, Kaustubh; et al. (2014).

4192: 2767:

the late instar larvae are known to undertake the role of workers without differentiating as a true separate caste. Workers can either be male or female, although in some species with

3205:, consuming dead plants at any level of decomposition. They also play a vital role in the ecosystem by recycling waste material such as dead wood, faeces and plants. Many species eat 2813:

can widely vary in the level of developmental plasticity even between closely related taxa, with many species having true workers that can molt into the other apterous castes such as

5806:

Ware, J.L.; Litman, J.; Klass, K.-D.; Spearman, L.A. (2008). "Relationships among the major lineages of Dictyoptera: the effect of outgroup selection on dictyopteran tree topology".

11848:

Jost, C.; Haifig, I.; de Camargo-Dietrich, C.R.R.; Costa-Leonardo, A.M. (2012). "A comparative tunnelling network approach to assess interspecific competition effects in termites".

4675:

are aware that termites are edible but do not consume them even in times of scarcity; there are few explanations as to why. Termite mounds are the main sources of soil consumption (

13879:) and their role in the mangrove C cycle (Puerto Rico): Chemical characterization and organic matter provenance using bulk δ13C, C/N, alkaline CuO oxidation-GC/MS, and solid-state" 7228:Šobotník, Jan; Bourguignon, Thomas; Hanus, Robert; Sillam-Dussès, David; Pflegerová, Jitka; Weyda, František; Kutalová, Kateřina; Vytisková, Blahoslava; Roisin, Yves (2010-12-30). 3761:

are, however, major threats to a termite colony as they are not host-specific and may infect large portions of the colony; transmission usually occurs via direct physical contact.

4299:

are known to have polycalic species. Polycalic nests appear to be less frequent in mound-building species although polycalic arboreal nests have been observed in a few species of

12006:

Toledo Lima, J.; Costa-Leonardo, A.M. (2012). "Subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae): Exploitation of equivalent food resources with different forms of placement".

9482: 750:

within the cockroach order, which preserves the classification of termites at family level and below. Termites have long been accepted to be closely related to cockroaches and

4643:

from termites can help improve the human diet. Termites are consumed in many regions globally, but this practice has only become popular in developed nations in recent years.

4639:

43 termite species are used as food by humans or are fed to livestock. These insects are particularly important in impoverished countries where malnutrition is common, as the

6975:

Poulsen, Michael; Hu, Haofu; Li, Cai; Chen, Zhensheng; Xu, Luohao; Otani, Saria; Nygaard, Sanne; Nobre, Tania; Klaubauf, Sylvia; Schindler, Philipp M .; et al. (2014).

4555:

To better control the population of termites, various methods have been developed to track termite movements. One early method involved distributing termite bait laced with

2535:. There are ten tergites, of which nine are wide and one is elongated. The reproductive organs are similar to those in cockroaches but are more simplified. For example, the 4228:

hypogeal, i.e subterranean (completely below ground), epigeal (protruding above the soil surface), and arboreal (built above ground, but always connected to the ground via

3838:

colonies may get into physical conflict, some termites squeeze tightly into foraging tunnels and die, successfully blocking the tunnel and ending all agonistic activities.

2751:

termites undertake the most labor within the colony, being responsible for foraging, food storage, and brood and nest maintenance. Workers are tasked with the digestion of

12339:

Dronnet, S.; Lohou, C.; Christides, J.P.; Bagnères, A.G. (2006). "Cuticular hydrocarbon composition reflects genetic relationship among colonies of the introduced termite

3287: 3110:

each. The abdomen increases the queen's body length to several times more than before mating and reduces her ability to move freely; attendant workers provide assistance.

4948:

and Datok Kong. In urban areas, local residents construct red-painted shrines over mounds that have been abandoned, where they pray for good health, protection and luck.

791:, where the oldest known faecal pellets were also discovered. Claims that termites emerged earlier have faced controversy. For example, F. M. Weesner indicated that the 4063: 3845:

Ants and termites may compete with each other for nesting space. In particular, ants that prey on termites usually have a negative impact on arboreal nesting species.

2620:

or juvenile individuals that undertake the most labor in the colony, which is in contrast to the eusocial Hymenoptera where work is strictly undertaken by the adults.

4939: 4135:

Termites are known to carry pollen and regularly visit flowers, so are regarded as potential pollinators for a number of flowering plants. One flower in particular,

2905:). In the more derived termite taxa, the soldier caste can be polymorphic and include minor and major forms. Other morphologically specialized soldiers includes the 699:

In the 1960s additional evidence supporting that hypothesis emerged when F. A. McKittrick noted similar morphological characteristics between some termites and

4318:

provide protection from the rain, and in fact can withstand high precipitation. Certain areas in mounds are used as strong points in case of a breach. For example,

13404:"Ant fauna (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) associated to arboreal nests of Nasutitermes spp: (Isoptera, Termitidae) in a cacao plantation in southeastern Bahia, Brazil" 5334:

Paoletti, M. G.; Buscardo, E.; Vanderjagt, D. J.; Pastuszyn, A.; Pizzoferrato, L.; Huang, Y.-S.; Chuang, L.-T.; Glew, R. H.; Millson, M.; Cerda, H. (March 2003).

4901:

Few zoos hold termites, due to the difficulty in keeping them captive and to the reluctance of authorities to permit potential pests. One of the few that do, the

4241:

fortification against predators. Nests made out of carton are particularly weak, and so the inhabitants use counter-attack strategies against invading predators.

2616:, which has uniquely allowed for the evolution of distinct yet flexible castes amongst the immatures. As a result the caste system of termites consists mostly of 2273:

to the country, with over 360 classified species. Because termites are highly social and abundant, they represent a disproportionate amount of the world's insect

12868:

Su, N.Y. (2005). "Response of the Formosan subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) to baits or nonrepellent termiticides in extended foraging arenas".

6140:

Lo, N.; Engel, M.S.; Cameron, S.; Nalepa, C.A.; Tokuda, G.; Grimaldi, D.; Kitade, O..; Krishna, K.; Klass, K.-D.; Maekawa, K.; Miura, T.; Thompson, G.J. (2007).

3984: 3795: 884: 9248:

Matsuura, K.; Vargo, E.L.; Kawatsu, K.; Labadie, P. E.; Nakano, H.; Yashiro, T.; Tsuji, K. (2009). "Queen Succession Through Asexual Reproduction in Termites".

9163: 3739: 14378: 4833:, the shape and orientation of the mounds of the Australian compass termite stabilises their internal temperatures during the day. As the towers heat up, the 15293: 13136:

Howard, R.W.; McDaniel, C.A.; Blomquist, G.J. (1980). "Chemical mimicry as an integrating mechanism: cuticular hydrocarbons of a termitophile and its host".

9955:"Whole-Genome Sequence of the Novel Enterobacter Bacteriophage Arya with an Integrase Pseudogene, Isolated from the Gut of the Formosan Subterranean Termite" 2180: 2135: 2108: 2090: 689:

Termites were formerly placed in the order Isoptera. As early as 1934 suggestions were made that they were closely related to wood-eating cockroaches (genus

4606: 3293: 2153: 2144: 2072: 1985: 1678: 1570: 275: 10493:

Culliney, T.W.; Grace, J.K. (2000). "Prospects for the biological control of subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), with special reference to

5012: 3329:

woods to other woods that were generally rejected by the termite colony. These preferences may in part have represented conditioned or learned behaviour.

2539:

is not present in male alates, and the sperm is either immotile or aflagellate. However, Mastotermitidae termites have multiflagellate sperm with limited

4559:(IgG) marker proteins from rabbits or chickens. Termites collected from the field could be tested for the rabbit-IgG markers using a rabbit-IgG-specific 4236:

subterranean nest and mound construction. Not all nests are visible, as many nests in tropical forests are located underground. Species in the subfamily

4057:

as the termites and even biosynthesize them. This chemical mimicry allows the beetles to integrate themselves within the termite colonies. The developed

3611:, and so the termites are preyed on by these ants. No evidence for any kind of relationship (other than a predatory one) is known. Other ants, including 2171: 2126: 2054: 1594: 1582: 287: 281: 6758: 2991:

individuals of both sexes and develop from fertilised eggs. Depending on species, male and female workers may have different roles in a termite colony.

11235:

Mill, A.E. (1983). "Observations on Brazilian termite alate swarms and some structures used in the dispersal of reproductives (Isoptera: Termitidae)".

2883: 2627:, where each molt offers a varying level of phenotypic potency. Early instars typically exhibit the highest phenotypic potency and can be described as 2117: 1976: 1967: 1621: 396:. They are distinguished by their moniliform antennae and the soft-bodied and often unpigmented worker caste for which they have been commonly termed " 15172: 14406: 8630: 7297:"High-resolution analysis of gut environment and bacterial microbiota reveals functional compartmentation of the gut in wood-feeding higher termites ( 2937:. Depending on the species, the queen starts producing reproductive alates at a certain time of the year, and huge swarms emerge from the colony when 4237: 2081: 1745: 1725: 1713: 1701: 1687: 299: 15357: 10309:"Oligocene termite nests with in situ fungus gardens from the Rukwa Rift Basin, Tanzania, support a paleogene African origin for insect agriculture" 9051: 8109: 6291:"Description of an early Cretaceous termite (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae) and its associated intestinal protozoa, with comments on their co-evolution" 4360: 1789: 1754: 1071: 949: 330: 14279: 4728:

can be severely damaged by termite infestations, with attacks on leaves, roots and woody tissue. Termites can also attack other plants, including

3934:

other termites which causes them to be alarmed and to leave pheromone trails to the disturbed area, which is also a way to recruit extra workers.

3582:

before returning home, all the while recruiting additional nestmates to the raiding site through chemical trails. The Malaysian basicerotine ants

14826:

Knudsen, J.W. (2002). "Akula udongo (earth eating habit): a social and cultural practice among Chagga women on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro".

12193:

Evans, T.A.; Inta, R.; Lai, J.C.S.; Lenz, M. (2007). "Foraging vibration signals attract foragers and identify food size in the drywood termite,

4072: 4040: 1175: 813: 10061:"Complete Genome Sequence of Citrobacter Phage CVT22 Isolated from the Gut of the Formosan Subterranean Termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki" 10012:"Discovery and Complete Genome Sequence of a Bacteriophage from an Obligate Intracellular Symbiont of a Cellulolytic Protist in the Termite Gut" 8232:

Machida, M.; Kitade, O.; Miura, T.; Matsumoto, T. (2001). "Nitrogen recycling through proctodeal trophallaxis in the Japanese damp-wood termite

4512:, the most widely introduced invasive termite species in the world, has been introduced to all the islands in the West Indies and to Australia. 2671:, which are able to retain high developmental plasticity even up to the late instars. In these basal taxa, the immatures are able to go through 14637: 13973:

Perna, A.; Jost, C.; Couturier, E.; Valverde, S.; Douady, S.; Theraulaz, G. (2008). "The structure of gallery networks in the nests of termite

4991:

It is unknown whether the termite was female or male. If it was a female, the body length would be far greater than 25 millimetres when mature.

2744:

development is restricted to closely related pathways dependent on a variety of factors such as pheromonal cues, sex and size of an individual.

1024: 856: 11382:

Chouvenc, T.; Efstathion, C.A.; Elliott, M.L.; Su, N.Y. (2012). "Resource competition between two fungal parasites in subterranean termites".

8421:

Prestwich, G. D.; Bentley, B.L.; Carpenter, E.J. (1980). "Nitrogen sources for neotropical nasute termites: Fixation and selective foraging".

8126:

Higashi, Masahiko; Yamamura, Norio; Abe, Takuya; Burns, Thomas P. (1991-10-22). "Why don't all termite species have a sterile worker caste?".

6342:"Phylogeny of Dictyoptera: Dating the Origin of Cockroaches, Praying Mantises and Termites with Molecular Data and Controlled Fossil Evidence" 2377:. Mandible descriptive terminology on the bottom right. The fontanelle is absent in basal termites, being found only in Neoisopteran termites. 16988: 4289: 4000:

Workers use several different strategies to deal with their dead, including burying, cannibalism, and avoiding a corpse altogether. To avoid

1286: 937: 9898:"Whole-Genome Sequence of the Novel Temperate Enterobacter Bacteriophage Tyrion, Isolated from the Gut of the Formosan Subterranean Termite" 2755:

in food and are thus the most likely caste to be found in infested wood. The process of worker termites feeding other nestmates is known as

2245:, where mounds are extremely abundant in certain regions. Approximately 1.1 million active termite mounds can be found in the northern 16288: 6628: 4320: 3953:

that they use for defence. Nasutes have lost their mandibles through the course of evolution and must be fed by workers. A wide variety of

3026:, which are defined as early nymph instars with absent wing buds, exhibit the highest developmental potentiality and are able to molt into 2901: 2877: 1165: 999: 962: 15105: 11959:"Effect of soil type and moisture availability on the foraging behavior of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae)" 3820:

tunnels. Conflict between two competitors does not always occur. For example, though they might block each other's passages, colonies of

2978:

A termite alate with shed wings from other alates on an interior window sill. Shedding of wings is associated with reproductive swarming.

2464:, a pedicel (typically shorter than the scape), and the flagellum (all segments beyond the scape and pedicel). The mouth parts contain a 12168: 10307:

Roberts, E.M.; Todd, C.N.; Aanen, D.K.; Nobre, T.; Hilbert-Wolf, H.L.; O'Connor, P.M.; Tapanila, L.; Mtelela, C.; Stevens, N.J. (2016).

4076:

captures termites, and those that try to escape are immediately seized and driven underground. Certain species of ants in the subfamily

7230:"Not Only Soldiers Have Weapons: Evolution of the Frontal Gland in Imagoes of the Termite Families Rhinotermitidae and Serritermitidae" 7034:

Evangelista, Dominic A.; Wipfler, Benjamin; Béthoux, Olivier; Donath, Alexander; Fujita, Mari; Kohli, Manpreet K.; et al. (2019).

13612: 9488: 4153:. A commercial product, "Blockaid", has been developed in Australia that uses a range of plant extracts to create a paint-on nontoxic 3232:. This community provides the enzymes that digests the cellulose, allowing the insects to absorb the end products for their own use. 2987:

the queen) are diploid and develop from fertilised eggs. In contrast, worker termites, which constitute the majority in a colony, are

522:

which has the richest diversity with more than 1000 described species. They are important decomposers of decaying plant matter in the

14732:

Global Delicacies: Discover Missing Links from Ancient Hawaiian Teachings to Clean the Plaque of your Soul and Reach Your Higher Self

7924:

Crosland, M.W.J.; Su, N.Y.; Scheffrahn, R.H. (2005). "Arolia in termites (Isoptera): functional significance and evolutionary loss".

4414: 14941: 14455: 8556: 6811:

Harrison, Mark C.; Jongepier, Evelien; Robertson, Hugh M.; Arning, Nicolas; Bitard-Feildel, Tristan; Chao, Hsu; et al. (2018).

3260:

enzymes, but they rely primarily upon the bacteria. The flagellates have been lost in Termitidae. Researchers have found species of

12284: 7406: 12620:

Chen, J.; Henderson, G.; Grimm, C. C.; Lloyd, S. W.; Laine, R. A. (1998-04-09). "Termites fumigate their nests with naphthalene".

8696: 7438:"Distribution and density of termite mounds in the northern Kruger National Park, with specific reference to those constructed by 16975: 15014: 9782:"The Cockroach origin of the termite gut microbiota: patterns in bacterial community structure reflect major evolutionary events" 4070:

Some species of ant are known to capture termites to use as a fresh food source later on, rather than killing them. For example,

3566:

Among all predators, ants are the greatest enemy to termites. Some ant genera are specialist predators of termites. For example,

3217:, produced from the breakdown of cellulose. Termites rely primarily upon a symbiotic microbial community that includes bacteria, 2579:

termite is in flight, its wings remain at a right angle, and when the termite is at rest, its wings remain parallel to the body.

10532:

Dean, W.R.J.; Milton, S.J. (1995). "Plant and invertebrate assemblages on old fields in the arid southern Karoo, South Africa".

8485:"Evolution of eusociality and the soldier caste in termites: Influence of intraspecific competition and accelerated inheritance" 3141:. Studies show that while termite queens mate with the king to produce colony workers, the queens reproduce their replacements ( 16572: 12111:

Korb, J.; Weil, T.; Hoffmann, K.; Foster, K.R.; Rehli, M. (2009). "A gene necessary for reproductive suppression in termites".

5497:

Govorushko, Sergey (March 2019). "Economic and ecological importance of termites: A global review: Termites: a global review".

1859:, literally meaning "newer termites" (in an evolutionary sense), are a recently coined clade that include families such as the 15387: 10148: 4127:

mounds is due to the termites' frequent occurrence in their geographical range; another is to protect themselves from floods.

3156:

and several other related species produce colonies that contain a primary king accompanied by a primary queen or by up to 200

3014:

are more strictly defined in termites as immature young with visible wing buds, which often invariably go through a series of

859:". Termites are sometimes called "white ants", but the only resemblance to the ants is due to their sociality which is due to 722:

shares the strongest phylogenetical similarity with termites and is considered to be a sister-group to termites. Termites and

530:

regions of the world, and their recycling of wood and plant matter is of considerable ecological importance. Many species are

15925: 15555: 15536: 14940:

Katayama, N.; Ishikawa, Y.; Takaoki, M.; Yamashita, M.; Nakayama, S.; Kiguchi, K.; Kok, R.; Wada, H.; Mitsuhashi, J. (2008).

14775: 14739: 14505: 14246: 14195: 14167: 14043: 13721: 13592: 13564: 13513: 13274:

Darlington, J. (1985). "Attacks by doryline ants and termite nest defences (Hymenoptera; Formicidae; Isoptera; Termitidae)".

12674: 12500: 12469: 11669: 11575: 11303: 11084: 10842: 10817: 10782: 10718: 10680: 10635: 10607: 10576: 10474: 9082: 9022: 8346: 8063: 7808: 7580: 6686: 6608: 6240: 6202: 6073: 5948:"Inheritance and diversification of symbiotic trichonymphid flagellates from a common ancestor of termites and the cockroach 5646: 4887: 4795:

are broken down into sugars and are transformed into hydrogen. The bacteria within the gut turns the sugar and hydrogen into

2485:, with species that spend more time in the surface in the open tending to have a more sclerotized and pigmented exoskeleton. 16980: 15202:

Werfel, J.; Petersen, K.; Nagpal, R. (2014). "Designing Collective Behavior in a Termite-Inspired Robot Construction Team".

12169:"Predation and interference competition between ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and arboreal termites (Isoptera: Termitidae)" 9763: 9012: 3749:. Under imminent threat of an attack by parasites, a colony may migrate to a new location. Certain fungal pathogens such as 17113: 4635:

These flying alates were collected as they came out of their nests in the ground during the early days of the rainy season.

2708:), exhibit high phenotypic potency, and where there exists no true sterile caste other than the soldier. The second is the 1871:

have a bifurcated caste development with true workers, and so notably lack pseudergates (except in some basal taxa such as

12689:

Bordereau, C.; Robert, A.; Van Tuyen, V.; Peppuy, A. (1997). "Suicidal defensive behaviour by frontal gland dehiscence in

7836:

Riparbelli, M.G; Dallai, R; Mercati, D; Bu, Y; Callaini, G (2009). "Centriole symmetry: a big tale from small organisms".

7086:

Hellemans, Simon; Wang, Menglin; Hasegawa, Nonno; Šobotník, Jan; Scheffrahn, Rudolf H.; Bourguignon, Thomas (2022-03-02).

6089:

Klass, K.D.; Nalepa, C.; Lo, N. (2008). "Wood-feeding cockroaches as models for termite evolution (Insecta: Dictyoptera):

2922:

developmental pathway, soldiers develop from apterous immatures and constitute the only true sterile caste in these taxa.

726:

share similar morphological and social features: for example, most cockroaches do not exhibit social characteristics, but

15627: 6499:

Rohr, D.M.; Boucot, A. J.; Miller, J.; Abbott, M. (1986). "Oldest termite nest from the Upper Cretaceous of west Texas".

5634: 4671:

In addition to Africa, termites are consumed in local or tribal areas in Asia and North and South America. In Australia,

4088:

ants attack underground. Despite this, some termites and ants can coexist peacefully. Some species of termite, including

2667:

In most termites, phenotypic potency decreases with every successive molt. Notable exceptions are basal taxa such as the

2571:. The number of tibial spurs on an individual's leg varies. Some species of termite have an arolium, located between the 2422:

Most worker and soldier termites are completely blind as they do not have a pair of eyes. However, some species, such as

8942: 4265:

nests are mainly composed of partially biodegraded wood material from the stems and branches of mangrove trees, namely,

4094:, form associations with certain ant species to keep away predatory ant species. The earliest known association between 2869:. Amongst mandibulate soldiers, the mandibles have been adapted for a variety of defensive strategies: Biting/crushing ( 14791:

Geissler, P.W. (2011). "The significance of earth-eating: social and cultural aspects of geophagy among Luo children".

2369:

General anatomy of a worker termite with Imago (reproductive) and soldier visualized; note the reduction and fusion of

3886:

environmental factors such as the termites' diet and the composition of the bacteria within the termites' intestines.

9167: 7717: 5336:"Nutrient content of termites (syntermes soldiers) consumed bymakiritare amerindians of the altoorinoco of Venezuela" 7496:

Sanderson, M.G. (1996). "Biomass of termites and their emissions of methane and carbon dioxide: A global database".

3269:

or anus. Judging from closely related bacterial species, it is strongly presumed that the termites' and cockroach's

16954: 16281: 14767: 11172: 7036:"An integrative phylogenomic approach illuminates the evolutionary history of cockroaches and termites (Blattodea)" 5114:"An integrative phylogenomic approach illuminates the evolutionary history of cockroaches and termites (Blattodea)" 15301: 13873:

Vane, C.H.; Kim, A.W.; Moss-Hayes, V.; Snape, C.E.; Diaz, M.C.; Khan, N.S.; Engelhart, S.E.; Horton, B.P. (2013).

11926:

Darlington, J.P.E.C. (1982). "The underground passages and storage pits used in foraging by a nest of the termite

11724:

Traniello, J.F.; Busher, C. (1985). "Chemical regulation of polyethism during foraging in the neotropical termite

2860:, simple holes in the forehead that lead to a gland which exudes defensive secretions, are a feature of the clade 17103: 16993: 16967: 16297: 16235: 14381: 13435:

Jaffe, K.; Ramos, C.; Issa, S. (1995). "Trophic Interactions Between Ants and Termites that Share Common Nests".

11298:. Vol. 76 (5th ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 398. 9502:

Ikeda-Ohtsubo, W.; Brune, A. (2009). "Cospeciation of termite gut flagellates and their bacterial endosymbionts:

8084:

Jürgen, Korb, Judith Thomas-Poulsen, Michael Hu, Haofu Li, Cai Boomsma, Jacobus Jan Zhang, Guojie Liebig (2015).

5854:"Death of an order: a comprehensive molecular phylogenetic study confirms that termites are eusocial cockroaches" 3572:

is a strictly termite-eating (termitophagous) genus that perform raiding activities, some lasting several hours.

3373: 2241:, where over 400 species are known. Of the 2,972 extant termite species currently classified, 1,000 are found in 15414: 11591:

Reinhard, J.; Kaib, M. (2001). "Trail communication during foraging and recruitment in the subterranean termite

11173:"Driver Ants Invading a Termite Nest: why do the most catholic predators of all seldom take this abundant prey?" 10010:

Pramono, Ajeng K.; Kuwahara, Hirokazu; Itoh, Takehiko; Toyoda, Atsushi; Yamada, Akinori; Hongoh, Yuichi (2017).

6258:"Termites (Isoptera) from the Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary: Evidence for the longevity of their earliest genera" 4715:

Scientists have developed a more affordable method of tracing the movement of termites using traceable proteins.

4398: 3949:

has a specialised caste of soldiers, known as nasutes, that have the ability to exude noxious liquids through a

3209:, having a specialised midgut that breaks down the fibre. Termites are considered to be a major source (11%) of 2954:'s can be found in both the derived and basal termite taxa, and generally serve as supplementary reproductives. 16687: 5016: 746:. Some researchers have suggested a more conservative measure of retaining the termites as the Termitoidae, an 9141: 4433: 3265:

the other members of the colony with substances derived from the digestion of plant material, either from the

16770: 16363: 15131: 14568: 14547: 14090:

Jacklyn, P.M.; Munro, U. (2002). "Evidence for the use of magnetic cues in mound construction by the termite

12394:

Rosengaus, R.B.; Traniello, J.F.A.; Chen, T.; Brown, J.J.; Karp, R.D. (1999). "Immunity in a social insect".

6791: 6520: 5090: 3962: 2465: 1521: 138: 9362:"The importance of termites (Isoptera) for the recycling of herbivore dung in tropical ecosystems: a review" 5685: 4342:

The sculptured mounds sometimes have elaborate and distinctive forms, such as those of the compass termite (

714:

sequences supported the position of termites being nested within the evolutionary tree containing the order

557:

Termites have several impacts on humans. They are a delicacy in the diet of some human cultures such as the

15254: 15180: 10368:"Flagellates, bacteria, and fungi associated with termites: diversity and function in nutrition – a review" 10181:

Aanen, D.K.; Eggleton, P.; Rouland-Lefevre, C.; Guldberg-Froslev, T.; Rosendahl, S.; Boomsma, J.J. (2002).

8622: 4703:, as they are high in protein and can be used to convert inedible waste to consumable products for humans. 2453: 13811:"Trophic interactions among invertebrates in termitaria in the African savanna: a stable isotope approach" 10392:

Breznak, J.A.; Brune, A. (1993). "Role of microorganisms in the digestion of lignocellulose by termites".

8972:

Kaib, M.; Hacker, M.; Brandl, R. (2001). "Egg-laying in monogynous and polygynous colonies of the termite

8771: 7650:

Heidecker, J.L.; Leuthold, R.H. (1984). "The organisation of collective foraging in the harvester termite

4646:

Termites are consumed by people in many different cultures around the world. In many parts of Africa, the

2974: 17108: 17042: 16820: 16274: 16001: 15365: 9770:" and the reproductive castes obtain their nutrients from the workers through oral or anal trophallaxis." 9393:

de Souza, O.F.; Brown, V.K. (2009). "Effects of habitat fragmentation on Amazonian termite communities".

5713: 5170: 4221: 2543:. The genitals in females are also simplified. Unlike in other termites, Mastotermitidae females have an 2528: 2516: 2469: 2457: 2437: 445:

studies indicate that they evolved from cockroaches, as they are deeply nested within the group, and the

10901:(F.) sur les populations récoltantes de Macrotermitinae dans un ecosystème semi-aride (Kajiado-Kenya)". 10367: 9839:"Metavirome Sequencing of the Termite Gut Reveals the Presence of an Unexplored Bacteriophage Community" 16800: 16780: 16153: 15981: 14287: 13530: 12518:"Soldier morphogenesis in a nasute termite: discovery of a disc-like structure forming a soldier nasus" 9717:"Character of Cellulase Activity in the Guts of Flagellate-Free Termites with Different Feeding Habits" 5999:

Lo, N.; Tokuda, G.; Watanabe, H.; Rose, H.; Slaytor, M.; Maekawa, K.; Bandi, C.; Noda, H. (June 2000).

3778: 627:(winged), which refers to the nearly equal size of the fore and hind wings. "Termite" derives from the 608:. Increased urbanization and connectivity is also predicted to expand the range of some pest termites. 12817:

Ulyshen, M.D.; Shelton, T.G. (2011). "Evidence of cue synergism in termite corpse response behavior".

10011: 7599:

Engel, M.S.; Gross, M. (2008). "A giant termite from the Late Miocene of Styria, Austria (Isoptera)".

6340:

Legendre, F.; Nel, A.; Svenson, G.J.; Robillard, T.; Pellens, R.; Grandcolas, P.; Escriva, H. (2015).

5288: 4655:

and protein. They are regarded as pleasant in taste, having a nut-like flavour after they are cooked.

3578:

is another termite-raiding species, with each individual stacking as many termites as possible in its

3550: 3355:, grass, leaves and roots. The gut of the lower termites contains many species of bacteria along with 17098: 15918: 15112:. United States Department of Energy. 14 August 2006. Archived from the original on 22 September 2006 14984:"Termites as pests of crops, forestry, rangeland and structures in Southern Africa and their control" 13930:

Roisin, Y.; Pasteels, J. M. (1986). "Reproductive mechanisms in termites: Polycalism and polygyny in

9561:

Slaytor, M. (1992). "Cellulose digestion in termites and cockroaches: What role do symbionts play?".

8716:"Developmental stages and caste composition of a mature and incipient colony of the drywood termite, 6399:

Luo, Z.X.; Wible, J.R. (2005). "A Late Jurassic digging mammal and early mammalian diversification".

6001:"Evidence from multiple gene sequences indicates that termites evolved from wood-feeding cockroaches" 5287:

Jouquet, Pascal; Traoré, Saran; Choosai, Chutinan; Hartmann, Christian; Bignell, David (2011-07-01).

4541: 4080:

conduct these raids although other ant species go in alone to steal the eggs or nymphs. Ants such as

562: 159: 14035: 14029: 6451: 5666:(1st ed.). University of California: McGraw Hill Book Company, Incorporated. pp. 431–432. 2998:, but is different from that of a bee or ant in that it goes through a developmental process called 1494: 604:. The distribution of most known pest species is expected to increase over time as a consequence of 246: 16765: 16760: 15948: 15818: 10059:

Tikhe, Chinmay Vijay; Martin, Thomas M.; Gissendanner, Chris R.; Husseneder, Claudia (2015-08-27).

6065: 4770: 4580: 4456:

Nasutiterminae shelter tubes on a tree trunk provide cover for the trail from nest to forest floor.

2999: 2780:

and are the most derived, while those that are undifferentiated and fertile as in the wood-nesting

681: 598:, 17. Of known pest species, 28 of the most invasive and structurally damaging belong to the genus 495: 31: 17: 4810:

of the microbes in the termite hindgut has been employed to provide a better understanding of the

3535: 2419:

and had a wingspan of 76 millimetres (3 in) and a body length of 25 millimetres (1 in).

17123: 16667: 16644: 16557: 16211: 16006: 15620: 15587: 14122: 4957: 4870: 4766: 4572: 4312: 3677:, also prey on termites. Specialized subterranean species of army ants such as ones in the genus 2641:

able to molt into reproductives and non-reproductives but cannot molt into at least one phenotype

2489: 866: 17006: 15499: 15146: 10809: 10800: 10626:

Bardgett, R.D.; Herrick, J.E.; Six, J.; Jones, T.H.; Strong, D.R.; van der Putten, W.H. (2013).

10599: 10593: 9074: 7540:(Walker) (Isoptera : Kalotermitidae) and endemic Australian drywood termites in Queensland" 6232: 2511: 2407:, measuring up to over 10 centimetres (4 in) in length. Another giant termite, the extinct 16863: 16732: 12664: 11053: 9299:

Fougeyrollas R, Dolejšová K, Sillam-Dussès D, Roy V, Poteaux C, Hanus R, Roisin Y (June 2015).

7800: 6678: 4672: 4335: 3974: 3911: 3830: 3757: 3351:

protein. Meanwhile, the higher termites consume a wide variety of materials, including faeces,

2768: 2461: 2403: 1816: 878: 848: 491: 130: 14621: 14162:(2nd ed.). Kensington, NSW, Australia: New South Wales University Press. pp. 28–30. 11781:"Lévy flights and self-similar exploratory behaviour of termite workers: beyond model fitting" 10672: 9044: 8339:

Insects and Hygiene The biology and control of insect pests of medical and domestic importance

7216: 4807: 3073:, than workers, soldiers and nymphs. The lower levels of damage appear to be due to increased 17001: 16901: 16825: 16717: 16507: 16502: 16353: 13081:"Cuckoo fungus mimics termite eggs by producing the cellulose-digesting enzyme β-glucosidase" 6564:

Tilyard, R.J. (1937). "Kansas Permian insects. Part XX the cockroaches, or order Blattaria".

4814:. Genetic engineering may enable hydrogen to be generated in bioreactors from woody biomass. 4699:. Researchers have suggested that termites are suitable candidates for human consumption and 4618: 4474: 4421: 4279: 4137: 4107: 4090: 4021: 3543: 3177: 2913:) on the head. These unique soldiers are able to spray noxious, sticky secretions containing 1931: 872: 336: 15473: 14983: 12913:"Differential undertaking response of a lower termite to congeneric and conspecific corpses" 10766: 10664: 10116:

Allen, C.T.; Foster, D.E.; Ueckert, D.N. (1980). "Seasonal Food Habits of a Desert Termite,

9191:"Termite queens close the sperm gates of eggs to switch from sexual to asexual reproduction" 8207: 7792: 6670: 6224: 6057: 4175:

under different levels of anthropogenic disturbance in the semi-arid region of northeastern

4016: 3900: 3313:

consume less food in spring than they do during autumn when their feeding activity is high.

2575:, which is present in species that climb on smooth surfaces but is absent in most termites. 16923: 16910: 16672: 16466: 16453: 15911: 15594: 15211: 15052: 14956: 13986: 13893: 13822: 13762: 13652: 13620: 13353: 13306: 13237: 13145: 13092: 12984: 12924: 12826: 12738: 12629: 12578: 12403: 12352: 12120: 12015: 11802: 11737: 11391: 11244: 11187: 11125: 10871: 10541: 10320: 10261: 10194: 9793: 9624: 9519: 9257: 9202: 8866: 8806: 8496: 8430: 8045: 7608: 7505: 7312: 7241: 7167: 7107: 7099: 6988: 6929: 6880: 6824: 6711: 6573: 6508: 6408: 6353: 6106: 6012: 5815: 5591:"Connectivity and climate change drive the global distribution of highly invasive termites" 5545: 5347: 5300: 4663:. The best result comes when they are lightly roasted on a hot plate or fried until crisp. 4584: 3853: 3745: 3704: 3235: 3138: 2246: 1513: 860: 570: 264: 14326:

Grace, J.K.; Cutten, G.M.; Scheffrahn, R.H.; McEkevan, D.K. (1991). "First infestation by

11110:"Enemy deterrence in the recruitment strategy of a termite: Soldier-organized foraging in 10774: 9615:

Watanabe, H..; Noda, H.; Tokuda, G.; Lo, N. (1998). "A cellulase gene of termite origin".

7481: 7464: 4711: 3538:

to "fish" termites from their nest. Wear pattern analysis of bone tools used by the early

3069:. These long-lived queens have a significantly lower level of oxidative damage, including 2285:

widely diverse areas. One species in the drywood group is the West Indian drywood termite

8: 16830: 16775: 16657: 16542: 16527: 16411: 16251: 15961: 14470: 12973:"Do termites avoid carcasses? behavioral responses depend on the nature of the carcasses" 11779:

Miramontes, O.; DeSouza, O.; Paiva, L.R.; Marins, A.; Orozco, S.; Aegerter, C.M. (2014).

7212: 7209: 6977:"Complementary symbiont contributions to plant decomposition in a fungus-farming termite" 6058: 5450:"Usos de invertebrados na medicina popular no Brasil e suas implicações para conservação" 5289:"Influence of termites on ecosystem functioning. Ecosystem services provided by termites" 4273: 3812: 3299: 3210: 2482: 2288: 583: 487: 423: 17070: 15565: 15215: 15056: 14960: 13990: 13897: 13826: 13766: 13656: 13357: 13310: 13241: 13149: 13096: 12988: 12928: 12830: 12742: 12633: 12582: 12407: 12356: 12315: 12124: 12019: 11806: 11741: 11395: 11248: 11191: 11129: 10875: 10545: 10405: 10324: 10265: 10198: 9797: 9628: 9523: 9261: 9206: 9098:

Morrow, E.H. (2004). "How the sperm lost its tail: the evolution of aflagellate sperm".

9073:(Repr. with corrections 2004. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 8870: 8810: 8500: 8434: 7612: 7509: 7414: 7382: 7357: 7316: 7245: 7171: 7103: 6992: 6933: 6884: 6828: 6715: 6577: 6547: 6512: 6412: 6357: 6110: 6016: 5819: 5549: 5351: 5304: 5039:"Termites (Isoptera): their phylogeny, classification, and rise to ecological dominance" 2556: 799:, 251 million years ago, and fossil wings that have a close resemblance to the wings of 17118: 16348: 15613: 15437: 15270: 15235: 15073: 15040: 14808: 14700: 14673: 14393: 14010: 13955: 13909: 13838: 13483: 13376: 13341: 13322: 13253: 13209: 13188: 13169: 13118: 13056: 13031: 13007: 12972: 12945: 12912: 12893: 12850: 12762: 12710: 12645: 12602: 12542: 12517: 12419: 12376: 12307: 12214: 12144: 12074: 12031: 11988: 11943: 11908: 11865: 11825: 11792: 11780: 11761: 11612: 11540: 11501: 11415: 11368: 11203: 11034: 10992: 10957: 10918: 10724: 10553: 10343: 10308: 10212: 10093: 10060: 10036: 9987: 9954: 9930: 9897: 9873: 9838: 9814: 9781: 9741: 9716: 9692: 9667: 9648: 9543: 9463: 9410: 9325: 9300: 9281: 9225: 9190: 9123: 9067: 9032: 8993: 8889: 8854: 8832: 8749: 8672: 8645: 8603: 8462: 8261: 8159: 8103: 7941: 7901: 7872: 7696:

Costa-Leonardo, A.M.; Haifig, I. (2010). "Pheromones and exocrine glands in Isoptera".

7671: 7632: 7556: 7535: 7333: 7296: 7272: 7229: 7191: 7135: 7060: 7035: 7011: 6976: 6898: 6845: 6812: 6734: 6703: 6651: 6481: 6432: 6376: 6341: 6317: 6290: 6170: 6141: 6038: 5976: 5947: 5931: 5902: 5878: 5853: 5831: 5566: 5533: 5514: 5479: 5425: 5390: 5371: 5264: 5229: 5198: 5186: 5146: 5113: 5072: 4721: 4370: 4159: 3924:-like formation around the breach and bite at intruders. If an invasion carried out by 3895: 3751: 3305: 3291:

have seasonal food habits. For example, they may preferentially consume Red three-awn (

2739: 2725: 2695:) molts, which typically indicates the developmental trajectory an individual follows. 2536: 817:, arranged in a convex pattern between segments 1a and 2a, resemble those seen in 803:

of the Mastotermitidae, the most primitive living termite, have been discovered in the

779: 587: 531: 154: 16224: 14918: 14883: 14612: 13297:

Forel (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and Two Nasutitermes Species (Isoptera: Termitidae)".

12049:

Jmhasly, P.; Leuthold, R.H. (1999). "Intraspecific colony recognition in the termites

11148: 11109: 10284: 10249: 10225: 10182: 8527: 8484: 7709: 6786: 6025: 6000: 4544:. In the United states, application of a soil termiticide with the active ingredient 4212: 2401: in) in length. The largest of all extant termites are the queens of the species 17093: 16552: 16522: 16471: 16461: 16436: 16370: 16177: 15551: 15532: 15441: 15274: 15227: 15125: 15078: 14995: 14922: 14887: 14851: 14843: 14812: 14771: 14735: 14705: 14242: 14191: 14163: 14039: 14002: 13913: 13834: 13717: 13668: 13588: 13560: 13509: 13381: 13340:

Coty, D.; Aria, C.; Garrouste, R.; Wils, P.; Legendre, F.; Nel, A.; Korb, J. (2014).

13161: 13110: 13061: 13012: 12950: 12897: 12885: 12842: 12802: 12781: 12766: 12754: 12670: 12594: 12547: 12496: 12465: 12368: 12265: 12136: 12027: 11980: 11830: 11753: 11706: 11665: 11571: 11407: 11299: 11199: 11153: 11090: 11080: 10859: 10838: 10813: 10778: 10714: 10676: 10665: 10631: 10603: 10572: 10514: 10470: 10432: 10348: 10289: 10230: 10163: 10098: 10080: 10041: 9992: 9974: 9935: 9917: 9878: 9860: 9819: 9746: 9697: 9640: 9574: 9535: 9531: 9455: 9330: 9273: 9230: 9115: 9078: 9018: 8894: 8824: 8741: 8700: 8677: 8586:

Keller, L. (1998). "Queen lifespan and colony characteristics in ants and termites".

8565: 8532: 8514: 8454: 8446: 8407: 8377: 8342: 8253: 8151: 8143: 8091: 8059: 8017: 7906: 7853: 7804: 7793: 7723: 7713: 7624: 7576: 7437: 7338: 7277: 7259: 7195: 7183: 7139: 7127: 7065: 7016: 6957: 6850: 6739: 6682: 6671: 6604: 6485: 6473: 6424: 6381: 6322: 6236: 6225: 6198: 6175: 6122: 6069: 6030: 5981: 5883: 5827: 5788: 5667: 5642: 5612: 5571: 5471: 5430: 5412: 5363: 5316: 5269: 5251: 5190: 5151: 5133: 5064: 4811: 4796: 4366: 4267: 4149:

the woody cell walls. This reduces the ability of termites to efficiently digest the

3989: 3926: 3921: 3803:

behaviour as an optimised strategy for finding their nestmates or foraging for food.

3531: 3361: 3266: 2918: 2551:

structure of the legs is consistent with other insects: the parts of a leg include a

2477: 2274: 1758: 515: 15239: 14014: 13959: 13842: 13420: 13403: 13326: 13193:

a new termitophilous corotocine from Northern Australia (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae)"

13173: 13122: 12714: 12606: 12423: 12380: 12250: 12233: 12218: 12148: 12078: 12035: 11992: 11912: 11869: 11765: 11616: 11544: 11505: 11419: 11207: 10996: 10975:

Longhurst, C.; Baker, R.; Howse, P.E. (1979). "Chemical crypsis in predatory ants".

10922: 10728: 10466: 10419:

Kok, O.B.; Hewitt, P.H. (1990). "Bird and mammal predators of the harvester termite

9547: 9414: 9285: 9127: 8997: 8753: 8607: 8265: 8163: 7945: 7675: 7636: 6902: 6777: 6655: 6042: 5835: 5518: 5483: 5375: 5202: 5076: 4861: 3239:

Trichonymphid flagellate from Reticulitermes. Light microscope image of living cell.

2568: 2281:

comprise about 1% of insect species, but represent more than 50% of insect biomass.

17047: 16722: 16604: 16497: 16492: 16358: 15826: 15429: 15336: 15262: 15219: 15068: 15060: 14964: 14914: 14879: 14835: 14800: 14695: 14685: 14616: 14608: 14488: 14361: 14310: 14263: 14234: 14137: 14103: 14072: 13994: 13947: 13901: 13830: 13770: 13709: 13664: 13660: 13475: 13444: 13415: 13371: 13361: 13314: 13257: 13245: 13204: 13153: 13100: 13051: 13043: 13002: 12992: 12940: 12932: 12877: 12854: 12834: 12797: 12746: 12702: 12649: 12637: 12586: 12537: 12529: 12411: 12360: 12311: 12299: 12255: 12245: 12206: 12128: 12066: 12023: 11970: 11939: 11900: 11857: 11820: 11810: 11745: 11698: 11657: 11604: 11563: 11532: 11491: 11458: 11399: 11364: 11252: 11195: 11143: 11133: 11072: 11026: 10984: 10961: 10949: 10910: 10879: 10706: 10549: 10506: 10401: 10338: 10328: 10279: 10269: 10220: 10202: 10129: 10088: 10072: 10031: 10023: 9982: 9966: 9925: 9909: 9868: 9850: 9809: 9801: 9736: 9728: 9687: 9679: 9652: 9632: 9570: 9527: 9467: 9445: 9402: 9373: 9320: 9312: 9265: 9220: 9210: 9107: 8985: 8916: 8884: 8874: 8814: 8731: 8667: 8657: 8595: 8522: 8504: 8466: 8438: 8403: 8245: 8135: 8051: 8007: 7933: 7896: 7888: 7845: 7705: 7663: 7616: 7551: 7513: 7476: 7377: 7369: 7356:

Hellemans, Simon; Rocha, Mauricio M.; Wang, Menglin; Romero Arias, Johanna (2024).

7328: 7320: 7267: 7249: 7175: 7156:"Phylogeny, biogeography and classification of Teletisoptera (Blattaria: Isoptera)" 7117: 7055: 7047: 7006: 6996: 6947: 6937: 6888: 6840: 6832: 6781: 6773: 6729: 6719: 6643: 6581: 6543: 6516: 6463: 6436: 6416: 6371: 6361: 6312: 6302: 6269: 6165: 6157: 6114: 6020: 5971: 5963: 5926: 5918: 5873: 5865: 5823: 5778: 5745: 5602: 5561: 5553: 5506: 5461: 5420: 5402: 5355: 5308: 5259: 5241: 5182: 5141: 5125: 5054: 5046: 4818: 4762: 4556: 4533: 4351: 4154: 3946: 3774: 3419: 3256:. Most higher termites, especially in the family Termitidae, can produce their own 3253: 3078: 2906: 2781: 2668: 2564: 2560: 2449: 2162: 2019: 1994: 1648: 1517: 1247: 833: 784: 543: 468: 319: 16266: 14519: 12971:

Neoh, K.-B.; Yeap, B.-K.; Tsunoda, K.; Yoshimura, T.; Lee, C.Y.; Korb, J. (2012).

10742:

Wilson, D.S.; Clark, A.B. (1977). "Above ground defence in the harvester termite,

8836: 5335: 5038: 3930:

is successful, an entire colony may be destroyed, although this scenario is rare.

3365:, while the higher termites only have a few species of bacteria with no protozoa. 2552: 17033: 16915: 16198: 16021: 15986: 15971: 15966: 15862: 15857: 15852: 15847: 15759: 15015:"Landform development and bioturbation on the Khorat plateau, Northeast Thailand" 14839: 14428: 14238: 13366: 13157: 12997: 11815: 11702: 11661: 10333: 10183:"The evolution of fungus-growing termites and their mutualistic fungal symbionts" 9715:

Li, Z.-Q.; Liu, B.-R.; Zeng, W.-H.; Xiao, W.-L.; Li, Q.-J.; Zhong, J.-H. (2013).

8879: 7254: 6366: 5359: 5312: 4891: 4882: 4515: 3993: 3950: 3871: 3343: 3165: 3146: 2910: 2889: 2819:(worker reproductive; apterous neotenics), soldiers, or the other worker castes. 2612:

of termites remain developmentally flexible throughout all life stages up to the

2440:. Lateral ocelli, however, are not found in all termites, absent in the families 2063: 2028: 1958: 1949: 1940: 1884:

typically most developed in the soldier caste. Cellulose digestion in the family

1860: 1736: 1666: 1533: 1375: 1353: 1331: 1210: 1188: 1146: 1012: 807:

layers in Kansas. It is even possible that the first termites emerged during the

792: 739: 731: 703: 591: 499: 438: 351: 346: 341: 309: 304: 269: 15600: 13874: 13713: 13342:"The First Ant-Termite Syninclusion in Amber with CT-Scan Analysis of Taphonomy" 13293:

Quinet Y, Tekule N & de Biseau JC (2005). "Behavioural Interactions Between

12881: 11567: 10767: 10465:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp. 9953:

Tikhe, Chinmay Vijay; Gissendanner, Chris R.; Husseneder, Claudia (2018-01-04).

9896:

Tikhe, Chinmay Vijay; Gissendanner, Chris R.; Husseneder, Claudia (2018-01-04).

9591: 9434:(Shiraki): distribution of cellulases and properties of endo-beta-1,4-glucanase" 7122: 7087: 6118: 2942:

These winged immatures are capable of regressively molting into a form known as

2712:, where immatures diverge into two distinct developmental lineages known as the 511:

hidden within the galleries and tunnels of their nests for most of their lives.

16962: 16949: 16848: 16739: 16712: 16638: 16512: 16396: 16329: 16095: 15888: 15842: 15834: 14672:

Figueirêdo, R.E.C.R.; Vasconcellos, A.; Policarpo, I.S.; Alves, R.R.N. (2015).

7373: 5607: 5590: 5466: 5449: 4967: 4789: 4592: 4295: 4245: 4046: 3631: 3613: 3584: 3214: 3124: 3098: 3060: 3007: 2938: 2895: 2601: 2588: 2441: 2432:

which they use for orientation and to distinguish sunlight from moonlight. The

2198: 1812: 1657: 1299: 1232: 1037: 770: 617: 605: 324: 314: 15433: 15266: 14968: 14804: 14690: 14407:"A guide to termite infestations in Malaysia | Free Malaysia Today (FMT)" 14365: 13998: 13318: 13105: 13080: 12838: 12437:

Wilson, D.S. (1977). "Above ground predator defense in the harvester termite,

12364: 12303: 12210: 11861: 11608: 11536: 11403: 11256: 11076: 10883: 10710: 10510: 9406: 9111: 8819: 8794: 8055: 7937: 7620: 7112: 6836: 6585: 6468: 5246: 4829:

Termites use sophisticated means to control the temperatures of their mounds.

3800: 2966:

A young termite nymph featuring visible wing buds. Nymphs mainly develop into

891:

External phylogeny showing relationship of termites with other insect groups:

17087: 16886: 16795: 16340: 15991: 15976: 14999: 14855: 14847: 14123:"Some Consequences of the Shape and Orientation of 'magnetic' Termite Mounds" 13672: 12569:(Isoptera, Nasutitermitinae): Chemical variation in allopatric populations". 11094: 10436: 10250:"Fungus-farming insects: Multiple origins and diverse evolutionary histories" 10167: 10084: 10076: 9978: 9970: 9921: 9913: 9864: 9855: 8950: 8569: 8518: 8450: 8257: 8147: 8095: 8021: 8012: 7995: 7263: 7187: 6724: 6477: 5616: 5475: 5416: 5367: 5320: 5255: 5194: 5137: 5068: 4834: 4700: 4005: 3875: 3661: 3649: 3625: 3608: 3229: 3097:

Termite alates (winged virgin queens and kings) only leave the colony when a

3089: 3070: 2995: 2934: 2572: 2505: 2429: 2319: 2314: 2238: 2230: 2189: 2099: 1918:

in their hindguts. Extant families and subfamilies are organized as follows:

1610: 1537: 1525: 822: 808: 664: 575: 551: 507: 464: 88: 15605: 15223: 13810: 13448: 12750: 12132: 11883:

Polizzi, J.M.; Forschler, B.T. (1998). "Intra- and interspecific agonism in

11685:

Costa-Leonardo, A.M. (2006). "Morphology of the sternal gland in workers of

10180: 9269: 9215: 8699:. Entomology at Western Australian Department of Agriculture. Archived from 8509: 7208:

Constantino, Reginaldo; Termite taxonomist authority, University of Brazil:

7001: 6452:"New social insect nests from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation of Utah" 6420: 5750: 5729: 4204: 2592: 16727: 16692: 16616: 16386: 16229: 16121: 15953: 15789: 15696: 15231: 15082: 14926: 14891: 14709: 14527:

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Jacklyn, P. (1991). "Evidence for Adaptive Variation in the Orientation of

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are not always aggressive towards each other. Suicide cramming is known in

3693: 3655: 3643: 3597: 3574: 3338: 3333: 2871: 2866: 2756: 2624: 1898: 796: 774: 735: 707: 691: 675: 547: 451: 446: 442: 389: 211: 12706: 12415: 12070: 11904: 11480:"Virus-like symptoms in a termite (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae) field colony" 11355:

Weiser, J.; Hrdy, I. (2009). "Pyemotes – mites as parasites of termites".

10027: 9644: 9459: 9378: 9361: 8599: 8155: 7358:"Genomic data provide insights into the classification of extant termites" 6952: 6274: 6257: 5792: 5407: 4724:. In South America, cultivated plants such as eucalyptus, upland rice and 4141:, is regularly pollinated by foraging workers, and it is perhaps the only 3937: 2925:

The primary reproductive caste of a colony consists of the fertile adult (

2269:, all ecological groups of termites (dampwood, drywood, subterranean) are 17055: 16895: 16790: 16621: 16592: 16517: 16487: 16441: 16391: 16127: 16063: 16048: 16016: 15934: 15764: 15680: 14763: 14594: 14592: 13479: 11496: 11479: 10133: 9805: 9732: 7324: 6918:"Molecular traces of alternative social organization in a termite genome" 6450:

Smith, Elliott Armour; Loewen, Mark A.; Kirkland, James I. (2020-08-29).

4934: 4906: 4878: 4842: 4775:

The termite gut has inspired various research efforts aimed at replacing

4664: 4258: 4142: 4054: 3966: 3954: 3685: 3603: 3591: 3527: 3519: 3459: 3377: 3274: 3261: 3202: 3055: 2983: 2861: 2730: 2597: 2445: 2374: 2262: 1856: 1827: 1606: 1318: 755: 685:

is suggestive of the close relationship between termites and cockroaches.

600: 595: 483: 374: 371: 293: 221: 63: 14456:"Economically important termites in the United States and their control" 13487: 13079:

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11211: 11038: 9301:"Asexual queen succession in the higher termite Embiratermes neotenicus" 7155: 3193: 1896:

have evolved additional symbiotic relationships such as with the fungus

16567: 16562: 16419: 16334: 16182: 16147: 16113: 16107: 16068: 15996: 15867: 15728: 15720: 15701: 15064: 13951: 13905: 12590: 12260: 11749: 10988: 10953: 10914: 10216: 8989: 8442: 8249: 7877:

Froggatt (Isoptera: Mastotermitidae): homology with cockroach oothecae"

7667: 7179: 7088:"Using ultraconserved elements to reconstruct the termite tree of life" 6942: 6917: 5671: 4926: 4922: 4780: 4749: 4576: 4549: 4452: 4425: 4405: 4123:

mounds, both occupied and abandoned ones. One reason many ants live in

4058: 3979: 3728: 3637: 3619: 3568: 3390: 3279: 3218: 2857: 2773: 2623:

The developmental plasticity in termites can be described similarly to

2544: 2501: 2497: 2424: 2226: 2207: 2044: 1915: 1911: 1864: 1390: 987: 974: 876:, consists of roughly 500Mb, while two subsequently published genomes, 788: 766: 696: 632: 558: 523: 416: 409: 356: 108: 73: 17060: 15341: 15324: 14589: 14141: 14076: 13755:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

12936: 9768:(Mar 09, 2017) Why Indians worship the mound of the much-hated termite 9450: 9429: 7517: 6813:"Hemimetabolous genomes reveal molecular basis of termite eusociality" 5557: 5510: 3708:

are known to raid termite mounds during the termites' nuptial flight.

2604:

and as a result only exhibit developmental plasticity at the immobile

16936: 16785: 16401: 16140: 16135: 16073: 16011: 15754: 15668: 15656: 15637: 15445: 13292: 13249: 12666:

Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals

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Levieux, J. (1966). "Note préliminaire sur les colonnes de chasse de

9298: 8087:

A genomic comparison of two termites with different social complexity

8085: 7849: 7227: 5767:"A contribution to the understanding of cockroach-termite affinities" 5059: 4972: 4962: 4944:

believing a local guardian dwells within the mound; this is known as

4930: 4902: 4895: 4846: 4737: 4725: 4660: 4374: 4150: 4085: 4077: 4051: 4001: 3961:

have been identified in the liquids that nasutes secrete. Similarly,

3673: 3443: 3423: 3415: 3411: 3403: 3385: 3270: 3257: 3225: 3206: 3161: 3066: 2930: 2914: 2752: 2493: 2329: 2266: 2253:, there are 435 species of termites, which are mainly distributed in 2237:(10 species known in Europe and 50 in North America), but is high in 924: 747: 715: 579: 566: 539: 434: 430: 231: 191: 171: 113: 16857: 14671: 14598: 14107: 13402:

Santos, P.P.; Vasconcellos, A.; Jahyny, B.; Delabie, J.H.C. (2010).

13225: 11975: 11958: 8736: 8715: 6893: 6868: 4623: 2702:, where all immatures are capable of developing into winged adults ( 2649:

able to molt into either reproductive or non-reproductive phenotypes

2381:

Termites are usually small, measuring between 4 and 15 millimetres (

1126:

Internal phylogeny showing relationship of extant termite families:

463:. More recent estimates suggest that they have an origin during the 455:. Previous estimates suggested the divergence took place during the 17027: 16941: 16880: 16682: 16587: 16429: 16424: 16243: 16085: 16078: 15674: 15601:

Jared Leadbetter seminar: Termites and Their Symbiotic Gut Microbes

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An atlas of orchid pollination: America, Africa, Asia and Australia

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are currently described, 2,105 of which are members of the family

16677: 16633: 16599: 16577: 16532: 16100: 16090: 14638:"'A world first': Devon calls victory in 27-year war on termites" 13856: 13854: 13852: 13792: 13790: 13788: 13786: 13784: 12727: 12565:

Prestwich, G.D.; Chen, D. (1981). "Soldier defense secretions of

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Al Fazairy, A.A.; Hassan, F.A. (2011). "Infection of Termites by

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Chouvenc, T.; Mullins, A.J.; Efstathion, C.A.; Su, N.-Y. (2013).

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Pheromones and animal behaviour: communication by smell and taste

8947:

Cooperative Extension, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences

4945: 4800: 4792: 4729: 4640: 4598: 4490: 4483: 4440: 4217: 4038:. A unique mimicking behaviour exists between various species of 3958: 3698: 3679: 3539: 3435: 3322: 3221: 3157: 3142: 3002:, going through multiple gradual pre-adult molts that are highly 2988: 2617: 2416: 2412: 2365: 1477: 804: 762: 711: 569:, where they are commonly used as a spice. They are also used in 527: 405: 118: 93: 42: 14939: 14868: 14352:

Sands, W.A. (1973). "Termites as Pests of Tropical Food Crops".

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Cleveland, L.R.; Hall, S.K.; Sanders, E.P.; Collier, J. (1934).

3547:

suggests that they used these tools to dig into termite mounds.

695:, the woodroach) based on the similarity of their symbiotic gut 16611: 16312: 16301: 16058: 15662: 15650: 13641: 13401: 10837:. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. p. 71. 10671:(1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge university press. p. 10644: 9484:

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6064:(1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 5534:"Invasive termites in a changing climate: A global perspective" 5110: 4874: 4779:

with cleaner, renewable energy sources. Termites are efficient

4745: 4733: 4688: 4537: 4253: 4176: 4030: 3733: 3522: 3503: 3499: 3455: 3439: 3431: 3399: 3173: 2763:) that evolved cooperative behaviors; and indeed in some basal 2609: 2532: 2524: 2324: 2309: 2242: 2234: 751: 519: 404:, to which they are only distantly related. About 2,972 extant 377: 201: 181: 16843: 15903: 13849: 13781: 13730: 12688: 12338: 10630:(1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 178. 9668:"Hidden cellulases in termites: revision of an old hypothesis" 8483:

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Krishna, K.; Grimaldi, D.A.; Krishna, V.; Engel, M.S. (2013).

4627:

Mozambican boys from the Yawo tribe collecting flying termites

4157:

for buildings. An extract of a species of Australian figwort,

2547:, a feature strikingly similar to that in female cockroaches. 30:

This article is about the social insects. For other uses, see

16582: 14904: 14325: 13679: 13078: 12779: 12167:

Mathew, T.T.G.; Reis, R.; DeSouza, O.; Ribeiro, S.P. (2005).

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7964: 7817: 7765: 7294: 7085: 5734:, its protozoa, and the symbiosis between protozoa and roach" 4918: 4823: 4803: 4741: 4680: 4647: 4602: 4564: 4560: 3765:

is known to weaken the termite immune system. Infection with

3692:

Ants are not the only invertebrates that perform raids. Many

3507: 3352: 3326: 3043: 3019: 2967: 2764: 2704: 2613: 2605: 2433: 2254: 1893: 628: 503: 393: 16928: 13751: 11778: 11652:

Termite communication during different behavioral activities

11445:

Wilson, Megan; Barden, Phillip; Ware, Jessica (2021-04-30).

11336: 11312: 11275: 11263: 8852: 7952: 7734: 5286: 3462:

being specialist termite predators. Other predators include

3252:

embedded on their surfaces to produce some of the necessary

16626: 15325:"Parameterization Studies of Solar Chimneys in the Tropics" 12782:"Structure and function of defensive glands in soldiers of 12393: 11477: 11381: 9952: 9895: 9427: 9247: 8394:

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on a march for food, following and leaving trail pheromones

3487: 3479: 3451: 3447: 3407: 3395: 2665:

no longer able to change phenotype, functionally an adult.)

2523:

Termites have a ten-segmented abdomen with two plates, the

2304: 2250: 839: 639:("woodworm, white ant"), altered by the influence of Latin 535: 479: 385: 14190:. Bolinas, California: Shelter Publications. p. 198. 13972: 11447:"A Review of Ectoparasitic Fungi Associated With Termites" 9428:

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Buczkowski, Grzegorz; Bertelsmeier, Cleo (February 2017).

2452:. Like other insects, termites have a small tongue-shaped 742:. Termites are thought to be the descendants of the genus 16053: 12495:(First ed.). Simon & Schuster. pp. 85, 90. 12231: 12005: 10667:

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Geomorphology; an Introduction to the Study of Landscapes

5230:"Cultural significance of termites in sub-Saharan Africa" 4652: 4631: 3495: 3475: 3336:. They maintain a "garden" of specialised fungi of genus 2373:

on the thorax and more membranous body compared to other

2278: 475: 401: 15041:"Ants and termites increase crop yield in a dry climate" 14063:(Isoptera, Termitinae) Mounds From Northern Australia". 13808: 12970: 12232:

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12166: 11019:

Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences

9430:"Cellulose digestion in the wood-eating higher termite, 7996:"The Plasticity and Developmental Potential of Termites" 7435: 6521:

10.1130/0091-7613(1986)14<87:OTNFTU>2.0.CO;2

2488:

Consistent with all insects, the anatomy of the termite

2436:(winged males and females) have eyes along with lateral 15006: 13875:"Degradation of mangrove tissues by arboreal termites ( 13635: 13135: 13036: