Islamic fundamentalism

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Islamic law.... Conventions, declarations and resolutions or decisions of international organizations, which were contrary to Islam, had no validity in the Islamic Republic of Iran.... The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which represented secular understanding of the Judaeo-Christian tradition, could not be implemented by Muslims and did not accord with the system of values recognized by the Islamic Republic of Iran; this country would therefore not hesitate to violate its provisions." These departures, both theoretical and practical, have resulted in a multitude of practices and cases criticized by international human rights groups. See

2451:. In this, they oppose the liberal and modernist theologians, who tend to have a more critical, historical view of Scripture. Among Muslim theologians, there is as yet no such liberal or modernist approach to the Qur'an, and all Muslims, in their attitude to the text of the Qur'an, are in principle at least fundamentalists. Where the so-called Muslim fundamentalists differ from other Muslims and indeed from Christian fundamentalists is in their scholasticism and their legalism. They base themselves not only on the Qur'an, but also on the Traditions of the Prophet, and on the corpus of transmitted theological and legal learning. 1499: 3398: 1932: 955: 3254: 3616: 1943: 1374: 944: 2843:

prevent the growth of nationalistic movements that were not necessarily favorable toward the interests of the Western nations. By the 1970s, the Islamists had become important allies in supporting governments, such as Egypt, which were friendly to U.S. interests. By the late 1970s, however, some fundamentalist groups had become militaristic leading to threats and changes to existing regimes. The

3318:(pronounced , "Western education is sinful"), is a jihadist militant organization based in the northeast of Nigeria. It is an Islamist movement which strongly opposes man-made laws and westernization. Founded by Mohammed Yusuf in 2001, the organization seeks to establish sharia law in the country. The group is also known for attacking Christians and bombing Mosques and churches. 2521:, have defended the use of the phrase. Surveying the doctrines of the new Islamic movements, Al-Azm found them to consist of "an immediate return to Islamic 'basics' and 'fundamentals'. ... It seems to me quite reasonable that calling these Islamic movements 'Fundamentalist' (and in the strong sense of the term) is adequate, accurate, and correct." 2569:. It defined fundamentalism as "approach, or set of strategies, by which beleaguered believers attempt to preserve their distinctive identity as a people or group ... by a selective retrieval of doctrines, beliefs, and practices from a sacred past." A 2013 study by Wissenschaftszentrums Berlin für Sozialforschung finds that Islamic fundamentalism is 3511:, which cause conflict with international law on human rights. According to Mayer, features found in conflict include severe deficiencies in criminal procedure, harsh criminal penalties causing great suffering, discrimination against women and non-Muslims, and prohibition against abandoning the Islamic religion. In 1990, under Saudi leadership, the 3523:(UDHR). The Cairo declaration lacks provisions for democratic principles, protection for religious freedom, freedom of association and freedom of the press, as well as equality in rights and equal protection under the law. Further it stipulates that "all the rights and freedoms stipulated in this Declaration are subject to the Islamic 3602:

stated that it does not trust the poll carried out by the New York Times and that the figures would be higher than 33%. They further claimed that New York residents are tolerant and if the figures were 33% in New York then "non-New Yorker fellow citizens are far more deeply biased and warped than the

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noted that this is equivalent to the number of Australians who perceived American Foreign Policy as a threat, he further noted that not just Muslim countries have an unfavourable opinion of the United States but a large number of western countries such as: France, Germany, Great Britain and Spain and

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governments, particularly those of the United States and the United Kingdom, launched covert and overt campaigns to encourage and strengthen fundamentalist groups in the Middle East and southern Asia. These groups were seen as a hedge against potential expansion by the Soviet Union, and as a means to

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In contrast, American author Anthony J. Dennis accepts the widespread usage and relevance of the term and calls Islamic fundamentalism "more than a religion today, it is a worldwide movement." He notes the intertwining of social, religious and political goals found within the movement and states that

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sees Islamic fundamentalism as "an umbrella designation for a very wide variety of movements, some intolerant and exclusivist, some pluralistic; some favourable to science, some anti-scientific; some primarily devotional and some primarily political; some democratic, some authoritarian; some pacific,

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The movement is divided into three factions. In 2011, Boko Haram was responsible for at least 450 killings in Nigeria. It was also reported that they had been responsible for over 620 deaths over the first 6 months of 2012. Since its founding in 2001, the jihadists have been responsible for between

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Politics and economics. Islamists often talk of "revolution" and they believe "that the society will only be Islamized through social and political action: it is necessary to leave the mosque ..." Fundamentalists are primarily interested in Islamic practice, less interested in "modernity or Western

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The group became known internationally following sectarian violence in Nigeria in July 2009, which left over 1000 people dead. They do not have a clear structure or evident chain of command. Moreover, it is still a matter of debate whether Boko Haram has links to terror outfits outside Nigeria and

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The Cairo declaration followed years of limited acceptance of the Universal declaration by predominantly Muslim states. As an example, in 1984, Iran's UN representative, Said Raja'i Khorasani, said the following amid allegations of human rights violations, " recognized no authority ... apart from

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which have been issued by fundamentalists such as the fatwa which states that "every Muslim who pleads for the suspension of the shari'a is an apostate and can be killed. The killing of those apostates cannot be prosecuted under Islamic law because this killing is justified" as going beyond, and

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any liberal, progressive, or moderate Muslims would describe themselves as usulis, or fundamentalist, without thinking that this carries a negative connotation. In the Islamic context, it makes much more sense to describe the fanatical reductionism and narrow-minded literalism of some groups as

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with the majority saying religious rules are more important than civil laws and three quarters rejecting religious pluralism within Islam. A recent study shows that some European Muslims perceive Western governments as inherently hostile towards Islam as a source of identity. This perception,

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takes a similar line, describing "neo-fundamentalists", (i.e. contemporary fundamentalists) as being more passionate than earlier Islamists in their opposition to the perceived "corrupting influence of Western culture", avoiding Western dress, "neckties, laughter, the use of Western forms of

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its fighters have frequently clashed with Nigeria's central government. A US commander stated that Boko Haram is likely linked to Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), although professor Paul Lubeck points out that no evidence is presented for any claims of material international support.

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have remained Iranian citizens, are required to perform military service and pay the same taxes as Muslims, and have the right to vote (with separate electoral colleges). Similarly, the Afghan Jamaat, in its statutes, has declared it legal to employ non-Muslims as experts in the eyes of

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salutation, handshakes, applause", discouraging but not forbidding other activities such as sports, ideally limiting the Muslim public space to "the family and the mosque". In this fundamentalists have "drifted" away from the stand of the Islamists of the 1970s and 1980s, such as who:

1996:, criticized the usage of the term "Islamic Fundamentalism" due to its ambiguous nature; asserting that the linguistic deployment of the term has been heavily influenced through Western-centric lens of Christian presuppositions. According to him, the more appropriate terms would be " 3209:). Many of their fighters are also present in jihadist battlegrounds such as Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq, and throughout Central Asia. Many plots involving Chechen and other indigenous ethnic groups of the North Caucasus have also been thwarted in Europe over the recent years. 2230:"In western usage, these words have a rather specific connotation; they suggest a certain type of religiosity- emotional indeed sentimental; not intellectual, perhaps even anti-intellectual; and in general apolitical and even anti-political. Fundamentalists are against 2202:, leader of the Iranian Revolution, was not a fundamentalist but a populist, and calls the term "Islamic fundamentalism" in general "not only confusing but also misleading and even downright wrong"), notes that in the Islamic Republic of Iran, supporters of Ayatollah 2766:

message into a comprehensive political programme, while the Jamaʿat envisioned an all-out battle against Western influence and culture. The combination of religion and politics offered by these movements established contemporary Islamic fundamentalism.

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are still central dogmas of the faith ... Unlike their Christian namesakes, the Islamic fundamentalists do not set aside but on the contrary embrace much of the post-scriptural scholastic tradition of their faith, in both its theological and its legal

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The trajectory of Islamic fundamentalism was marked by four phases. The first phase of proto-fundamentalism emerged during the late 19th century in wake of backlash against the Western colonial onslaught. Its main representatives were the

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sect. From their essentially political position, the Kharijites developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream Sunni and Shia Muslims. The Kharijites were particularly noted for adopting a radical approach to

2123:, Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern Affairs, believes it the other way around, Islamism being the subset of Muslims "with political goals ... within" the "broader fundamentalist revival". American historian 2524:

Hassan Hanafi reached the same conclusion: "It is difficult to find a more appropriate term than the one recently used in the West, 'fundamentalism,' to cover the meaning of what we name Islamic awakening or revival."

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believes that Islamic fundamentalism is a subset of Islamism rather than a distinctive form of it, and to him, Islamic fundamentalists are "the most conservative element among Islamists". Its "strictest form" includes

2993:. Anthony J. Dennis notes that "Western and Islamic visions of the state, the individual and society are not only divergent, they are often totally at odds." Among human rights fundamentalist Muslims oppose are: 4341:

Hekmatpour, Peyman; Burns, Thomas J. (2019). "Perception of Western governments' hostility to Islam among European Muslims before and after ISIS: the important roles of residential segregation and education".

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Issue of women. "Islamists generally tend to favour the education of women and their participation in social and political life: the Islamist woman militates, studies, and has the right to work, but in a

4931: 2187:. Islamist groups include women's associations." While the fundamentalist preaches that women should return to their homes, Islamism believes that it is sufficient if "the sexes are separated in public". 2135:, sees little difference between the two terms (at least in usage in one country): "To all intents and purposes, Islamic fundamentalism and Islamism have become synonyms in contemporary American usage." 4672: 2927:, the cult of saints), deviations, and superstitions. They aim to return to the founding texts." Examples of individuals who adhere to this tendency are the 18th-century Shah Waliullah in India and 3201:(ChRI) in October 2007, it adheres to an ideology of Salafist-takfiri jihad that seeks to establish an Islamic caliphate within the North Caucasus and Volga region (primarily the republics of 2238:. For the so call fundamentalists of Islam these are not and never have been the issues. Liberal theology have not hitherto made much headway in Islam, and the divinity and inerrancy of the 5117: 2142:, the contemporary use of the term Islamic fundamentalism applies to Muslims who seek not just "to return to the primary sources", but who use "a literal interpretation of those sources". 1988:

and are therefore "fundamentalists", and others who believe it is a term that is used by outsiders in order to describe perceived trends within Islam. A professor of religious studies at

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and the Wahhabi movement; and began to ardently campaign against Western influence and modernist ideas. The ideas of Rashid Rida, who is widely regarded as the spiritual father of the

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groups or militias, in at least eight countries. While they share names and ideology, they lack a unified command structure. The eight countries in which the groups have operated are

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Congregation of the People of Tradition for Proselytism and Jihad (Arabic: جماعة اهل السنة للدعوة والجهاد Jamā'a Ahl al-sunnah li-da'wa wa al-jihād), better known by its Hausa name

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It remains unfortunate and can be misleading. "Fundamentalist" is a Christian term. It seems to have come into use in the early years of the last century, and it denotes certain

1438:, Islamic activism, but also criticized as pejorative, a term used by outsiders who instead ought to be using more positive terms such as Islamic activism or Islamic revivalism. 4291: 4140: 3374: 1810: 411: 124: 2590:

experienced an influx of European ideas, values and thoughts during the late nineteenth century. The thinkers in the Muslim world reacted to modernity in three major ways.

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in the Arabian Peninsula. This reformism is often "developed in response to an external threat" such as "the influence of Hinduism on Islam". In the late 19th century, the

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advocated reforms to reconcile with modernity; while emphasizing adherence to basic Islamic ideals. A third current; widely known as Islamic fundamentalism, pioneered by

2795:(pre-Islamic barbarity). Influenced by Qutb, a number of vanguard groups sprang up which turned to violence and terror in their struggle against "apostate" regimes. In 5367:"Security Council Committee pursuant to resolutions 1267 (1999) and 1989 (2011) concerning Al-Qaida and associated individuals and entities QE.A.135.13. ANSAR EDDINE" 2778:, during which Islamic fundamentalists were persecuted by authoritarian regimes and became radicalized. The radical new teachings were epitomized in the treatises of 4304:

Quoted by Bassam Tibi, "The Worldview of Sunni Arab Fundamentalists: Attitudes toward Modern Science and Technology," in Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds.,

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Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, "Introduction," in Martin and Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms and the State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), p. 3.

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The term fundamentalism has been deemed misleading by those who suggest that all mainstream Muslims believe in the literal divine origin and perfection of the

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writes that states with a predominantly Muslim population, even when they adopt laws along European lines, are influenced by Islamic rules and precepts of

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Variety and diversity within Islamic social movements has been highlighted by Husnul Amin in his work by referring to plurality within these movements.

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called the findings "appalling" and also analysed the data as showing a very high level of distrust of Muslim Americans and robust disapproval of the

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movement, an Arabian fundamentalist movement that began in the 18th century, had also gained traction and spread during the 19th and 20th centuries.

1719: 1681: 5458: 3892: 6917: 6735: 2436:, among others. Many have proposed replacing it with another term, such as "puritanical", "Islamic revivalism" or "activism", and "radical Islam". 528: 495: 2642:. For them, the economic, political and military problems of the Islamic World are due to Muslim negligence in strictly adhering to the tenets of 2179:. While both Islamists and fundamentalists are committed to implementing Sharia law, Islamists "tend to consider it more a project than a corpus." 6933: 5114: 540: 3635: 3367: 830: 5442: 7093: 6679: 5566:

The New York Times Laments "A Sadly Wary Misunderstanding of Muslim-Americans." But Really Is It "Sadly Wary" Or A "Misunderstanding" At All?

5125: 3700: 1321: 480: 2016:(reform) are rooted within the Islamic religious history, from the early Islamic centuries to the contemporary times. During the 1990s, the 6723: 1234: 565: 490: 4634: 2965:

unsupported by, the Qur'an. Tibi asserts, "The command to slay reasoning Muslims is un-Islamic, an invention of Islamic fundamentalists".

2697:(1865–1935 CE) marks the transition from proto-fundamentalism to the second phase of Islamic fundamentalism. Rida became the first major 516: 3061:

came to power by advocating the formation of a system of Islamic government where the highest level of authority is in the hands of the

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non-Islamic influences should be eliminated from every part of Muslims' lives; and that the societies, economies, and governance of

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movement, marks the rise of Islamic fundamentalist movements. He advocated fundamentalist causes through the early Islamic journal

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Muslim critics of Islamic fundamentalism often draw a parallel between the modern fundamentalist movement and the 7th century

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Islamic fundamentalism "deserves to be seriously studied and debated from a secular perspective as a revolutionary ideology."

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concluded that Australia was not an outlier on this regard. The Lowy Institute claimed that the result "raised eyebrows".

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disagrees, arguing that it is more akin to a traditional Muslim state, where a power separation exists between "princes" (

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Lewis, a leading historian of Islam, believes that although "the use of this term is established and must be accepted":

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According to Roy distinctions between Fundamentalism and Islamism (or at least pre-1990 Islamism) are in the fields of:

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poll found that 33% of Americans think that Muslim Americans were more "sympathetic to terrorists than other Citizens"

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Some states and movements that are perceived or claimed to be Islamic fundamentalists have been criticized for their

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The modern Islamic fundamentalist movements have their origins in the late 19th century. According to the Arab poet

2329:"Reformist" fundamentalism, in contrast, "criticizes the tradition, the commentaries, popular religious practices" ( 6965: 6873: 5788: 3010: 2574:

however, declined significantly after the emergence of ISIS, especially among young and educated European Muslims.

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Käsehage, Nina (2021). "Towards a Covid-Jihad – Millennialism in the field of Jihadism". In Käsehage, Nina (ed.).

4772: 7182: 7067: 6769: 6145: 5228: 3382: 3352: 3092: 2716:, Rashid Rida would be highly influenced by the Hanbali puritanical and revivalist doctrines of the 13th century 1264: 1259: 17: 5273: 4787: 2746:. Influenced by Rida's ideals that campaigned for the establishment of an Islamic state in the aftermath of the 7108: 6130: 6033: 5883: 4742: 3279: 3096: 2231: 1395: 1328: 1164: 976: 4502:"Islamic History & Al-Qaeda: A Primer to Understanding the Rise of Islamist Movements in the Modern World" 4288:

Sadik J. al-Azm, "Islamic Fundamentalism Reconsidered: A Critical Outline of Problems, Ideas and Approaches",

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Islamic fundamentalists, or at least "reformist" fundamentalists, believe that Islam is based on the Qur'an,

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in its modern iteration, and these doctrines would be readily adopted by later Islamic fundamentalists. The

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of UCLA, a critic of those who are called Islamic fundamentalists, also finds fault with the term because:

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that operated for about thirty-five years and popularised his political theory of Islamic state after the

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Ridgeon, Lloyd; Weismann, Itzchak (2015). "1: Modernity from Within: Islamic Fundamentalism and Sufism".

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Ridgeon, Lloyd; Weismann, Itzchak (2015). "1: Modernity from Within: Islamic Fundamentalism and Sufism".

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who campaigned to adopt Western ideals and institutions. The religious endeavours of the Syrian-Egyptian

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S. A. Rahman in "Punishment of Apostasy in Islam", Institute of Islamic Culture, Lahore, 1972, pp. 10–13

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on human rights has been somewhat limited even in Muslim countries that are not seen as fundamentalist.

2501:", thus, they do not qualify as movements which are returning to the practice of historic fundamentals. 2234:

and biblical criticism and in favor of a return to fundamentals-i.e. to the divine inerrant text of the

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Modern Islamic Political Thought: The Response of the Shi'i and Sunni Muslims to the Twentieth Century

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Some of the beliefs attributed to Islamic fundamentalists are that the primary sources of Islam (the

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analysed this as indicating a high level of distrust directed at the American Muslim community. The

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is often described as being responsible for the popularity of contemporary Islamic fundamentalism.

1667: 1561: 2599: 2206:"finding no equivalent in Persian or Arabic" for fundamentalist, "have proudly coined a new word, 6243: 6155: 6150: 6110: 6040: 3810: 3359: 3268: 2447:

churches and organizations, more particularly, those that maintain the literal divine origin and

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is an Islamist militant group in the country of Mali that wants Shariah law in Mali. It opposes

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Origins and Development of the Tablighi-Jama'at (1920–2000): A Cross-Country Comparative Study

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The Challenge of Fundamentalism: Political Islam and the New World Disorder. Updated Edition.

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Poll 57% of Australians indicated they are worried about the rise of Islamic fundamentalism.

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argues that "radical Islam" is a better term for many post-1920s movements starting with the

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Hamas, Taliban and the Jewish Underground: An Economist's View of Radical Religious Militias

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was one of the most significant signs of this shift. Subsequently, fundamentalist forces in

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is seen by some scholars as a success of Islamic fundamentalism. Some scholars argue that

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movements, Islamic fundamentalists hold the view that the problems of the world stem from

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Dennis, Anthony J. "Strange Bedfellows: Fundamentalist Islam and Democracy" pp. 31–33 in

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Some 20th century preachers and writers sometimes dubbed Islamic fundamentalist include

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is essentially legalistic and used to determine what is religiously right or wrong for

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Muslims) traditionally tends to fall into "traditionalist" and "reformist" tendencies:

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In the contemporary era, the term "fundamentalism" is usually applied to denote these

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Definitions vary as to what Islamic fundamentalism exactly is and how it differs from

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Lewis, Bernard(1993) Islam in history:ideas, people and events in the Middle East:398

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The Search for Fundamentals: The Process of Modernisation and the Quest for Meaning

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Traditionalists accept "the continuity" between the founding Islamic "texts"—the

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models of politics or economics", and less willing to associate with non-Muslims.

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puritanical (a term that in the West invokes a particular historical experience)

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Fundamentalisms and Society: Reclaiming the Sciences, the Family, and Education

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Equality issues between men and women (And thus fundamentalist muslims are not

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and "criticize the tradition, the commentaries, popular religious practices (

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trends. The anti-colonial religious activists consisted of two factions: the

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should return to the fundamentals of Islam, the system of Islam, and become

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Jihadi Terrorism and the Radicalisation Challenge: European and American ...

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is relevant for all times and must reign supreme. They idealised the era of

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reward for them being faithful followers and blamed contemporary decline of

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argue that it is more accurate to describe them as its radical offshoots.

2475:", saying "I prefer to speak of Islamic revivalism and Islamic activism." 2333:, the cult of saints), "deviations, and superstitions"; it aims to purify 7041: 7036: 6817: 6605: 6579: 6353: 6338: 6328: 6206: 4905:

Grand Ayatollah Hossein-Ali Montazeri: "Not Every Conversion is Apostasy"

4734: 2955: 2890:" on an international scale; since the turn of the twenty-first century. 2786: 2743: 2735: 2694: 2611: 2368: 2159:("independent reasoning" used in reaching a legal decision in Sunni law). 2124: 2040: 2028: 1646: 1631: 1611: 1576: 872: 767: 752: 629: 558: 4815:

Dennis, Anthony J. "Fundamentalist Islam and Human Rights" pp. 36–56 in

3397: 2455:

John Esposito has attacked the term for its association "with political

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Devil's Game: How the United States Helped Unleash Fundamentalist Islam

4431:. 50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK: Bloomsbury. pp. 12–13. 4263: 3474: 3340: 3335: 3315: 3243: 3104: 3088: 2948: 2800: 2791: 2739: 2665: 2623: 2615: 2591: 2545:, devoted to researching fundamentalism in the worlds major religions, 2490: 2464: 2429: 2360: 2289: 2235: 2194:

Curiously, historian Ervand Abrahamian (who essentially devoted a book—

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Dennis, Anthony J. "The Attack on Freedom of Expression" pp. 47–56 in

4266:, UC San Diego National Bureau of Economic Research. August 2003, p. 4 3743:. In van Vucht Tijssen, Lieteke; Berting, Jan; Lechner, Frank (eds.). 3189:

is a fundamentalist Islamic terrorist group residing primarily in the

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The Islamic Fundamentalist Ideology: Context and the Textual Sources

4512:(10). PACE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF LAW: 345 – via DigitalCommons. 4330:. Wissenschaftszentrums Berlin für Sozialforschung. 9 December 2013. 4226:(10). PACE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF LAW: 344 – via DigitalCommons. 4172:, by Ervand Abrahamian, University of California Press, 1993, p. 13. 3253: 2280: 1430:. The term has been used interchangeably with similar terms such as 6754: 6637: 6633: 6165: 6018: 5854: 5834: 4571:. 50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK: Bloomsbury. p. 13. 3715: 3655: 3450: 3231: 3080: 2932: 2924: 2894: 2879: 2859:, caused a near-civil war in Egypt, and caused the downfall of the 2831: 2782: 2562: 2558: 2456: 2364: 2330: 2323: 2055: 2032: 1842: 1795: 1745: 1431: 1154: 1096: 1004: 381: 257: 104: 46: 5248:"Tuareg-jihadists alliance: Qaeda conquers more than half of Mali" 2314:. Traditionalists are sometimes connected to the popular forms of 6711: 6655: 6539: 6211: 6095: 5899: 5859: 3462: 3084: 2982: 2852: 2717: 2706: 2554: 2389: 2319: 2301: 2285: 2155: 2036: 1765: 1641: 1435: 1423: 1142: 1101: 366: 143: 4879:

Dennis, Anthony J. "The Attack on Other Religions" pp. 44–47 in

4240:(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), pp. 117–118, n. 3. 4006:, 26 May 1994, "Symposium: Resurgent Islam in the Middle East," 3515:, a group representing all Muslim majority nations, adopted the 2931:

in the Arabian Peninsula. This view is commonly associated with

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Salafist-Takfiri Jihadism: the Ideology of the Caucasus Emirate

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Dennis, Anthony J. "The Attack on Women's Rights" pp. 40–44 in

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The emergence of the next phase occurred in the context of the

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to comprehensively elucidate the foundational principles of an

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Lectures for Religion 166: Religious Life in the United States

4651: 2378:, believed that the triumphs of early generations of Muslims ( 2210:, by translating literally the English term fundamental-ist." 6863: 6694: 6100: 5995: 5979: 4919:, by Magdi Abdelhadi, 27 March 2006. Retrieved 25 April 2006. 4759: 4292:

Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East

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belong to a fourth phase of Islamic fundamentalism, known as

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Coming to Terms, Fundamentalists or Islamists? Martin Kramer

2278:), accepting what was said before and refusing to innovate ( 2213: 5803: 5394:, chapter 14 in Carrie Gustafson, Peter H. Juviler (eds.), 5139:"Al-Shabaab joining al Qaeda, monitor group says – CNN.com" 3466: 3039:

is also largely governed by fundamentalist principles (see

2887: 2839: 2796: 2272:—and their commentaries. Traditionalists take "imitation" ( 2109:(protected communities) as provided for in the sharia: the 27:

Ideology which seeks to return to the fundamentals of Islam

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Islamic Law and Human Rights: Conundrums and Equivocations

5294: 4028:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 823. 5398:, Columbia University seminar series, M.E. Sharpe, 1999, 4881: