Interwar France - Knowledge

247: 34: 1805:

writing French, earning a decent living and displaying good moral standards). For the 116 years from 1830 to 1946, only between 3000 and 6000 native Algerians were granted French citizenship. Well under 10 percent of the Algerian population was of European descent, and there were more Spanish and Italians than those who migrated from Metropolitan France. The Europeans controlled virtually the entire Algerian economy and political system, and few Muslims progressed out of poverty. In French West Africa, outside of the Four Communes, there were 2,500 "citoyens indigènes" out of a total population of 15 million.

1421:" ("work, family, fatherland"). Its base was in urban areas, especially Paris, the industrial North, and Algeria. Most members were young (born after 1890) and middle-class, and it had few blue collar or farm workers. The PSF grew rapidly in the late 1930s, with more members than the communists and socialists combined. It reached out to include more workers and rural elements. De La Rocque was a charismatic leader but a poor politician with vague ideas. His movement opposed the far-right Vichy regime and its leaders were arrested and the PSF vanished. 1639:, a massive financial fraud that involving many deputies and top government officials. The promise of democracy seemed a failure in France and many other countries as they turned toward authoritarian rule, a trend that began by Lenin in Russia in 1918 and Mussolini in Italy in 1922 and continued in Spain, Portugal, Poland, the Baltic countries, the Balkans, Japan, Latin America and, most horrifying of all, by Hitler in Nazi Germany in January 1933. It now threatened France after the scandal's exposure brought huge mobs into the streets of Paris. 1660: 1125:, they formed a lively colony that sought out new experiences and soon had a large impact on culture back home. A new factor was the arrival of hundreds of university students stretching their experiences through one of several junior year abroad programs that began about 1923. They lived with French families and took classes at French universities under the close supervision of their American professor for which they earned a full year's academic credit. Many musicians came to study with 1732:(1936–39). Blum rejected support for the Spanish Republicans because his opponents threatened to spread the civil war to the deeply-divided France. As the Republicans faltered in Spain, Blum secretly supplied the cause with arms, funds and sanctuaries. Financial support and military co-operation with Poland also occurred. The government nationalized arms suppliers and dramatically increased its program of rearming the French military in a last-minute catch up with the Germans. 1756: 781: 975:

workers was connected to the lack of a legal framework for the effective treatment of refugees. The middle classes resented Jews in France and showed anger at competition for jobs or business. That fed anti-Semitism, which was more than a symbolic protest against the republic or communism. By the end of 1933, France began to expel refugee Jews, and right-wing movements escalated their rhetorical anti-Semitism.

796: 858:

1924, when they stabilized thanks to large American bank loans. However, after 1929 the German economy was very badly hit by the Great Depression, and its political scene descended into chaos and violence. The Nazis under Hitler took control in early 1933 and aggressively rearmed. Paris was bitterly divided between pacifism and rearmament, so it supported London's efforts to appease Hitler.

209: 191: 943: 1533:); he meant capitalism, individualism, economic liberalism and materialism. They aimed at creating the conditions of a "spiritual revolution" that would simultaneously transform Man and things. They called for a "New Order", which would be beyond individualism and collectivism and oriented towards a "federalist", "communautary and personalist" organisation of social relations. 920:(CGTU). It enlisted the syndicalists who wanted direct union ownership and control of the factories by and for the benefit of the workers. It soon lost the spirit of revolutionary syndicalism and came under the close control of the Communist Party, which in turn was controlled by the Profintern, the Red Trade Union International, based in the Kremlin. 1379:. New York banks lent money to Germany for reparations to France, which then used the same dollars to repay the Americans. Throughout the early postwar period, Poincaré's political base was the conservative nationalist parliament elected in 1920. However, at the next election (1924), a coalition of Radical Socialists and Socialists called the " 1409:(Parti populaire français, PPF). The PSF was much larger, reaching as many as a million members, and grew increasingly conservative. The PPF was much smaller, with perhaps 50,000 members, and became more fascist. The chief impact for both movements was to bring together their enemies on the left and center into the Popular Front. 1329:(1884–1970). "Socialist" in its title was misleading, and the party had little support among workers or labor unions. Its middle position made it a frequent partner in coalition governments, and its leaders increasingly focused on holding office and providing patronage to their followers. Other major leaders included 1268:. It set up a staggered schedule for Germany's payment of war reparations, provided for a large loan to stabilize the German currency and ended the occupation of the Ruhr. With the help of loans from foreign banks, most of them American, Germany was then able to meet its reparations payments under the new schedule. 1209:

alliances against Germany. After resistance, Germany finally complied, aided by American money, and France took a more conciliatory policy by 1924 in response to pressure from Britain and the United States and the French realization that its potential allies in Eastern Europe were weak and unwilling to co-ordinate.

1687:, became the prime minister. A massive wave of strikes occurred in which 2 million workers shut down French industry and paralyzed the forces of business and conservatism. That inspired the coalition government to pass hurriedly multiple packages of new programs designed for the benefit of the working class. 1424:

It was never invited to join a governing coalition. Whether or not it was "fascist" is debated by scholars. Many resemblances existed but not the key fascist promise of the creation of a revolutionary "new fascist man". Instead, its goal was to return to the past and to rely upon the old traditional

1313:

in the 1870s. It attracted 20–25% of deputies elected in the interwar years and had a middle-class base. The "radicalism" meant opposition to royalism and support for anticlerical measures to weaken the role of Catholic Church in education and supported its disestablishment. Its program was otherwise

1212:

Establishing military alliances with the United States or Britain proved to be impossible and one with the Soviets in 1935 was politically suspect and was not implemented. The alliances with Poland and Czechoslovakia proved to be weak ties and collapsed in the face of German threats in 1938 in 1939.

853:

Parisian culture was world-famous in the 1920s, with expatriate artists, musicians and writers from across the globe contributing their cosmopolitanism, such as jazz music, and the French empire was in flourishing condition, especially in North Africa, and in sub-Saharan Africa. Although the official

1667:

The 6 February outrage shocked centrists and leftists, which had been feuding ceaselessly for decades. On February 12, a huge leftist counterdemonstration had communist workers spontaneously joined with the Radical Socialists and Socialists against what seemed to them to be a serious fascist threat.

1634:

As the Great Depression finally hit France hard in 1932, the popular mood became hostile. A series of cabinets were wholly ineffective, and anger at the mounting unemployment caused xenophobia, borders being closed and a startling growth in anti-Semitism. Distrust of the entire political system grew

1371:

Poincaré used German reparations to maintain the franc at a tenth of its prewar value and to pay for the reconstruction of the devastated areas. Since Germany refused to pay nearly as much as Paris demanded, Poincaré reluctantly sent the French army to occupy the Ruhr industrial area (1922) to force

902:

The gross domestic product was quite stable in the 1930s, as France successfully resisted the worldwide Great Depression. Industrial production recovered prewar levels by 1924 and declined only by 10 percent during the depression. Throughout the interwar period, steel and coal were strong, and motor

886:

estimated a loss of 55 billion francs (in 1913 value), or 15 months' worth of national income that could never be restored. The harsh German occupation had wreaked special havoc on 13,000 square miles in northeastern France. In addition to the smashed up battlefields, the region's railways, bridges,

1694:

The left had assumed such reforms would liberate the workers and also the entire economy, but the economy did not respond well. Prices rose, and inflation negated the wage increases and hurt the middle class by sharply cutting into their savings accounts. Industrial production did not increase, and

954:

affected France from 1931 to 1939 but was milder than in other industrial countries. While the 1920s economy grew very fast at 4.4% per year, the increase in the 1930s was only 0.6%. The depression was relatively mild at first since unemployment peaked under 5%, the fall in production was at most

898:

The interwar total population grew very slowly, from 38.8 million in 1921 to 41.2 million in 1936. Educationally, there was steady improvement, and secondary enrollment grew from 158,000 in 1921 to 248,000 in 1936. University enrollment grew from 51,000 to 72,000. In a typical year, there were from

849:

in terms of lives lost, disabled veterans and ruined agricultural and industrial areas occupied by Germany as well as heavy borrowing from the United States, Britain, and the French people. However, postwar reconstruction was rapid, and the long history of political warfare along religious lines of

1654:

At that time the Croix de Feu, the Royalists, the Solidarité and the Jeunesses Patriotes had no more than a few thousand active members between them, and that they would have been incapable of a real armed uprising. What they reckoned on was the support of the Paris public as a whole; and the most

923:

In the 1920s and the 1930s, the Paris Metal Union became the test bed for communist unionism at the plant level. The model spread to all communist unions as the party shifted from winning votes at general elections to control of factory cells. A small number of disciplined party members controlled

878:

France suffered severe human and economic damage during the war. The human losses included 1.3 million men killed, or 10.5 percent of the available Frenchmen, compared to 9.8 percent for Germany and 5.1 percent for Great Britain. In addition, 1.1 million veteran men were severely wounded and often

857:

Major concerns were forcing Germany to pay for the war damage by reparations payments and guaranteeing that Germany, with its much larger population, would never be a military threat in the future. Efforts to set up military alliances worked poorly. Relations remained very tense with Germany until

1721:

Appeasement was increasingly adopted as Germany grew stronger after 1933 since France suffered a stagnant economy, unrest in its colonies and bitter internal political fighting. Martin Thomas believed that appeasement was neither a coherent diplomatic strategy nor a copy of British policy. France

988:

Almost all of the population used church services primarily to mark important life events, such as baptism, marriage and funerals. Otherwise, religiosity was steadily declining and already varied enormously across France. The largest groupings were the devout Catholics, the passive Catholics, the

1808:

French conservatives had been denouncing the assimilationist policies as products of a dangerous liberal fantasy. In the Protectorate of Morocco, the French administration attempted to use urban planning and colonial education to prevent cultural mixing and to uphold the traditional society upon

1804:

French colonial law held that the granting of French citizenship to natives was a privilege, not a right. Two 1912 decrees dealing with French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa enumerated the conditions that a native had to meet to be granted French citizenship (they included speaking and

1769:

French census statistics from 1931 show an imperial population, outside of France itself, of 64.3 million people living on 11.9 million square kilometres. Of the total population, 39.1 million lived in Africa, 24.5 million lived in Asia and 700,000 lived in the Caribbeans or islands in the South

1366:

Germany's population was increasing, her industries were intact, she had no factories to reconstruct, she had no flooded mines. Her resources were intact, above and below ground.... in fifteen or twenty years Germany would be mistress of Europe. In front of her would be France with a population

927:

Union membership doubled during the war and peaked at 2,000,000 for 1919 out of some 8,000,000 industrial workers, or about 25 per cent. After the plunge in 1921, membership slowly grew to 1,500,000 in 1930, or 19% of the 8 million employed that year. The heaviest losses came in metal factories,

1698:

Blum had never been accustomed to working with coalition partners, and his coalition started coming apart until it completely collapsed in June 1937, after only 380 days in office. The working class praised and was always nostalgic about the Popular Front, the middle class was outraged and felt

1416:

took over in 1929 and made a political movement. The Croix-de-Feu was dissolved in June 1936 by the Popular Front government, and de La Rocque quickly formed the new Parti social français. Both organizations were authoritarian and conservative, hostile to democracy and devoted to the defence of

1208:

French foreign and security policy after 1919 used traditional alliance strategies to weaken the German potential to threaten France and to force the Germans devised by France in the strict Treaty of Versailles. The main diplomatic strategy came after the French army demanded the formations of

974:

The sour economic mood after 1932 heightened French exclusionism and xenophobia, which caused protectionism against importing foreign goods and allowing in foreign workers. Asylum-seekers were not welcome, including thousands of Jews trying to flee Nazi Germany after 1933. Hostility to foreign

861:

French domestic politics became increasingly chaotic and grim after 1932, moving back and forth between right and left, without clear goals in mind. The economy finally succumbed to the Great Depression by 1932 and did not recover. The popular mood turned very sour and focused its wrath on the

1690:

The key provisions included immediate wage increases of 12 percent, general collective bargaining with unions, a 40-hour week, paid vacations, compulsory arbitration of labor disputes and the nationalisation of the Bank of France and some key munitions plants. The conservative opposition was

865:

On the left, the Popular Front pulled together Radicals (a centrist group), socialists and communists. The coalition stayed in power for 13 months from 1936 to 1937. After massive labor union strikes, it passed a series of reforms designed to help the working classes. The reforms were mostly

1792:

Catholicism was a major factor in the civilising mission, and many missionaries were sent and often operated schools and hospitals. During the 19th century, French citizenship, along with the right to elect a deputy to the French Chamber of Deputies, was granted to the four old colonies of

1171:. American music had a major impact since the avant-garde welcomed what they called "wild sound" of rhythmic explosions that unleashed gyrations upon the dance floor. However, white French musicians based in dance halls softened the harsh and shocking US style and made it very popular. 911:

Labour unions had supported the war effort and grew rapidly until 1919. The general strike and railway strikes of 1920 were a total failure; 25,000 railwaymen active in the unions were later fired, the companies blacklisted union leaders and trade union membership plunged. In 1921, the

1279:, an elaborate system of static border defences that was designed to stop any German invasion. However, it did not extend into Belgium, and Germany attacked there in 1940 and went around the French defenses. Military alliances were signed with weak powers in 1920–21, called the " 1024:

Reconciliation was enabled by the wartime dedication of so many Catholics fighting and dying for the nation and so most allegations of disloyalty disappeared. More immediately, the conservatives secured a large majority in the Chamber of Deputies In the 1919 elections, and

1100:

Expatriate writers, artists, composers and would-be intellectuals from around the world flocked to Paris for study, entertainment, connections and production of artistry in a highly-supportive environment. Many Americans came to escape the commercialism back home. Led by

1185:

Between 1908 and 1927, poor Chinese citizens could "pay" for studies in France by supplying manual labor in factories. Several prominent Chinese figures would acquire French language ability and familiarity with French culture through this program, notably future Premier

1770:

Pacific. The largest colonies were Indochina with 21.5 million (in five separate colonies), Algeria with 6.6 million, Morocco with 5.4 million and West Africa with 14.6 million in nine colonies. The total included 1.9 million Europeans and 350,000 "assimilated" natives.

1387:

became prime minister. He was disillusioned by the imperialist thrust of the Versailles Treaty, and sought a stable international peace in rapprochement with the Soviet Union to block the rising German revanchist movement, especially after Hitler's rise in January 1933.

1048:

recognised the Catholic Associations Culturelles established after the 1905 laws. The Catholics set up numerous local organizations, especially youth groups, to try to combat falling activism among the remaining church members. In 1919, the Church established a union,

1264:. It heavily damaged the German middle class, whose savings became worthless, and also damaged the French franc. The intervention was a failure, and in the summer of 1924, France accepted an international solution to the reparations issues, as expressed in the 1017:, to be restored to the Church's good graces. The new spirit from Rome enabled a permanent end to the rancorous prewar battles between secularism on one hand and Church on the other. It had climaxed in a major victory for the anticlerical Republicans in the 1672:. Stalin had recently ordered that all Communist Parties should stop fighting the socialists and combine to form an antifascist popular front, which was carried out in France. The communists supported the government but refused to take any cabinet seats. 1801:, who was elected in 1914. Elsewhere, in the largest and most populous colonies, a strict separation between "sujets français" (natives) and "citoyens français" (males of European extraction), with different rights and duties, was maintained until 1946. 1809:

which the French depended for collaboration but with only mixed results. After the Second World War, the segregationist approach modeled in Morocco had been discredited by its connections to Vichyism, and assimilationism enjoyed a brief renaissance.

899:

300 to 1200 strikes taking place, jumping to 17,000 in 1936, with the number of strikers soaring from 240,000 in 1929 to 2.4 million in 1936. As in other industrial countries, exports grew rapidly in the 1920s and plunged greatly in the 1930s.

879:

incapacitated. Many hundreds of thousands of civilians had died in the "Spanish" flu, which struck as the war was ending. The population was further weakened by missing births, amounting to about 1.4 million while the menfolk were at war.

887:

mines, factories, commercial offices and private housing were all massively affected. Germans pillaged the factories and farms, removing machines and tools as well as 840,000 head of cattle, 400,000 horses 900,000 sheep and 330,000 hogs.

1318:) and the left (socialists and communists). Party organizations at the departmental level were largely independent of Paris. National conventions were attended by only a third of the delegates, and there was no official party newspaper. 1033:. Formal diplomatic relations were reestablished in January 1921. In December 1923 the government set up diocesan associations under control of bishops for the administration of church property that had been seized two decades earlier. 869:

War came when Hitler's Germany stunningly reached a détente with Stalin's Soviet Union in August 1939, and both countries invaded Poland In September 1939. France and Britain had pledged to defend Poland and so declared war on Germany.

1362:. France had paid for the war with very heavy borrowing at home and from Britain and the United States. Heavy inflation resulted, and in 1922, Poincaré became prime minister. He justified his strong anti-German policies: 1372:

a showdown. The British strongly objected, arguing that it "would only impair German recovery, topple the German government, lead to internal anarchy and Bolshevism, without achieving the financial goals of the French."

862:

corruption and scandals in high government places. There was a growing threat of politicized right-wing violence in the streets of Paris, but the numerous right-wing groupings were unable to forge a political coalition.

1695:

militant workers made sure that even if demand was very strong, factories would shut down after 40 hours. Unemployment remained high, the government deficit soared and the government was forced to devalue the franc.

1528:

The young intellectuals (most were about 25 years old) all considered that France was confronted by a "civilisation crisis" and, despite their differences, opposed what Mounier called the "established disorder"

1271:

The United States demanded repayment of the war loans although the terms were slightly softened in 1926. All loans, payments and reparations were suspended in 1931, and everything was finally resolved in 1951.

246: 1349:

Domestic politics in the 1920s were a product of unresolved problems left by the war and peace, especially the economics of reconstruction and how to make Germany pay for it all. The great planners were

1655:

that they could reasonably have aimed at was the resignation of the Daladier Government. When this happened, on February 7, Colonel de la Rocque announced that 'the first objective had been attained.'

1053:(CFTC), to bargain with employers and act as a political force. It was in competition with socialist and communist labor unions. However, only a few industrial workers were unionized until the 1930s. 928:

textile mills, and construction. The greatest density was in printing, where 40% were members. Blue-collar government workers were increasingly unionized by 1930, especially the railways and trams.

1781:). Its principle was that it was France's duty to bring civilisation to benighted peoples. As such, colonial officials undertook a policy of Franco-Europeanisation in French colonies, most notably 890:

The government promised to make it good again, committing 20 billion francs. The plan was to have Germany repay everything by reparations. Repairs and rebuilding were quick and highly successful.

1646:, attacks took place against the police defending Parliament from physical assault, mostly by right-wing attackers. The police killed 15 demonstrators and halted their advance. Journalist 3045: 1375:

The Germans practiced passive resistance by flooding the economy with paper money that damaged both the German and French economies. The standoff was solved by American dollars in the

1018: 4086: 1668:

Centrists and leftists slowly began to assemble an unprecedented three-way coalition, with socialists being the largest party, followed by the Radicals and then the

1241:, as prime minister during five short intervals, directed French foreign policy by using his diplomatic skills and sense of timing to forge friendly relations with 1144:

movement, a racial identity movement for a community that included blacks from the French West Indies, the US and French Africa. Other prominent leaders included

3866: 3219:

Le Poids des mots. Le discours de gauche et de droite dans l'entre-deux-guerres. Maurice Thorez, Léon Blum, Pierre-Étienne Flandin et André Tardieu (1928-1939)

964: 1725:

When Hitler sent troops into the Rhineland, an area of Germany in which no troops were allowed, neither Paris nor London risked war and so nothing was done.

2247:

Whitney Walton, "Internationalism and the junior year abroad: American students in France in the 1920s and 1930s." Diplomatic History 29.2 (2005): 255–278.

1076:, alongside the movement's official newspaper. This was a devastating blow to the movement. On 8 March 1927, AF members were prohibited from receiving the 917: 1439:

The non-conformists of the 1930s were intellectuals seeking new solutions to face the political, economic and social crisis. The movement revolved around

1716: 824: 1812:

Critics of French colonialism gained an international audience in the 1920s and often used documentary reportage and access to agencies such as the

1164:

racial identity worldwide. Writers generally used a realist literary style and often used Marxist rhetoric reshaped to the black radical tradition.

1480: 924:

the cells, which then controlled the entire union at the factory. The strategy was a success and was essential to very rapid growth in the 1930s.

1747:

in 1938. France's military alliance with Czechoslovakia was sacrificed at Hitler's demand when France and Britain agreed to his terms at Munich.

1684: 1314:

vaguely in favor of liberty, social progress, and peace, and its structure was always much thinner than rival parties on the right (such as the

2979:

J.P. Daughton, "Behind the Imperial Curtain: International Humanitarian Efforts and the Critique of French Colonialism in the Interwar Years",

2369:

The Twilight of French Eastern Alliances, 1926-1936: French-Czechoslovak-Polish Relations from Locarno to the Remilitarization of the Rhineland

1140:, a poet from Martinique, was a representative leader of the emerging black community of Paris in the 1920s and 1930s. He was a founder of the 955:

20% below the 1929 output and there was no banking crisis. The depression had some effects on the local economy, which can partly explain the

4192: 3758: 647: 1820:

to make their protests heard. The main criticism was the high level of violence and suffering among the natives. Major critics included

1066:, which until then was supported by a large number of Catholics, clergy and laity alike. Several of the works of the movement's founder 3531: 1050: 913: 3357: 3184:

Institutions and Innovation: Voters, Parties, and Interest Groups in the Consolidation of Democracy—France and Germany, 1870–1939

1249:. He realised France could not contain the much larger Germany by itself or secure effective support from Britain or the League. 1203: 1029:

took the opportunity for reconciliation. In 1920, 80 members of Parliament joined the delegation to Rome for the canonization of

817: 1260:. Germany responded with passive resistance and supported the idled workers by printing additional money, spurring the onset of 3906: 3891: 3808: 3659: 2437: 2352: 1261: 1226: 467: 4290: 1309:, usually called the Radical Party, (1901–1940), was the 20th-century version of the radical political movement founded by 3306:

France: 1848–1945: Politics and Anger; Anxiety and Hypocrisy; Taste and Corruption; Intellect and Pride; Ambition and Love

3089: 2137: 1735:

France sought peace, even in the face of Hitler's escalating demands, by appeasing Germany, in co-operation with Britain.

4013: 3776: 3432: 3422: 3328:

Jackson, Peter. "Post-War Politics and the Historiography of French Strategy and Diplomacy Before the Second World War."

1180: 1080:. Many of its members left (two Catholics who were forced to look for a different path in politics and life were writers 585: 3275: 3861: 3063: 1797:" in Senegal. Typically, the elected deputies were white Frenchmen, but there were some blacks, such as the Senegalese 810: 3114: 3833: 3818: 3035: 2935: 2856: 2670: 2588: 2547:

Mildred Schlesinger, "The Development of the Radical Party in the Third Republic: The New Radical Movement, 1926-32"

1817: 1487:

became during the Popular Front vice-president of the Committee of Scientific Organisation of Labour of the Minister

1295: 1252:

In January 1923, in response to Germany's failure to ship enough coal as part of its reparations, France and Belgium

746: 4101: 3942: 3896: 1676: 1609: 699: 3205:

When Paris Sizzled: The 1920s Paris of Hemingway, Chanel, Cocteau, Cole Porter, Josephine Baker, and Their Friends

126: 768: 486: 2021:

Michael Torigian, "From guinea pig to prototype: Communist Labour policy in the Paris metal industry, 1922-35,"

4121: 3696: 3226: 3208: 2209: 1552:. They inherited from both currents a form of scepticism towards politics, which explains some stances towards 1315: 2308:

Peter Jackson, "France and the problems of security and international disarmament after the first world war."

2039: 1417:

property, the family, and the nation against the threat of decay or leftist revolution. The motto of PSF was "

4044: 3664: 3605: 3600: 3163: 1834: 763: 756: 741: 729: 714: 516: 3686: 3292: 2729: 4372: 4111: 3590: 3427: 2398: 1434: 2700:

Fascism, Liberalism and Europeanism in the Political Thought of Bertrand de Jouvenel and Alfred Fabre-Luce

439: 4229: 3949: 3823: 3813: 3561: 3402: 3350: 2116:

Vicki Caron, "The Antisemitic revival in France in the 1930s: the socioeconomic dimension reconsidered."

1222: 1072: 736: 1773:

A hallmark of the French colonial project from the late 19th century until the Second World war was the

4140: 4061: 3828: 3738: 3717: 3417: 3407: 3397: 1578: 1145: 937: 751: 719: 694: 254: 226: 204: 66: 2321:

Nicole Jordan, "The Reorientation of French Diplomacy in the mid-1920s: the Role of Jacques Seydoux."

4320: 4076: 3991: 3964: 3881: 3676: 3521: 320: 263: 33: 166: 4404: 4399: 4394: 3901: 3871: 3476: 3069: 2148:

Gearóid Barry, "Rehabilitating a Radical Catholic: Pope Benedict XV and Marc Sangnier, 1914–1922."

1560:

and distrusted the state. It favored "intermediate bodies", especially the family and the village.

1418: 1037: 1014: 282: 2508:

Philip A. Grant Jr. and Martin Schmidt, "France and the American War Debt Controversy, 1919-1929"

1413: 1021:, which disestablished the Catholic Church and took legal control of all its buildings and lands. 4157: 4039: 3986: 3932: 3886: 3575: 724: 704: 397: 2174:

J. de Fabrègues, J. "The Re-establishment of Relations between France and the Vatican in 1921."

1604: 1588: 429: 4262: 4224: 4182: 4167: 3959: 3781: 3681: 3343: 3177:

Reconciling France Against Democracy: the Croix de feu and the Parti social français, 1927–1945

1764: 1669: 1643: 1625: 1621: 1384: 1306: 1253: 960: 956: 709: 657: 536: 38: 3018: 2846: 2608: 2578: 2271:

The French Imperial Nation-State: Negritude & Colonial Humanism Between the Two World Wars

1556:

and renewed interest in social and economical transformations. The movement paid attention to

4187: 4177: 3969: 3793: 3701: 3636: 2925: 2634:

Reconciling France Against Democracy: The Croix-de-Feu and the Parti Social Français, 1927-45

1230: 1122: 667: 594: 556: 496: 4212: 3753: 3691: 3580: 3471: 1691:

dissolved, most notably the Croix de Feu, but it reorganised quickly as a political party.

1564: 1406: 903:

vehicles became the major new industrial sector of increased importance during the 1920s.

546: 272: 3121:

Sexual Moralities in France, 1780–1980: New Ideas on the Family, Divorce and Homosexuality

1509: 8: 4295: 4252: 4172: 4126: 4003: 3996: 3976: 3937: 3849: 3641: 3610: 3585: 3551: 3453: 3448: 2968:

The Moroccan Soul: French Education, Colonial Ethnology, and Muslim Resistance, 1912–1956

1740: 1513: 1451:) alternative" between socialism and capitalism and opposed both liberalism and fascism. 1402: 1355: 1106: 506: 415: 354: 344: 154: 110: 84: 1736: 1679:

confirmed the political upheaval. Conservative forces were decimated, and the socialist

1504: 1351: 1326: 1081: 1062: 158: 122: 76: 4207: 4152: 4106: 3954: 3920: 3504: 3055: 2478: 2470: 2344: 2055: 1782: 1774: 1598: 1541: 1380: 1330: 106: 3256:

Passmore, Kevin. "The French Third Republic: Stalemate Society or Cradle of Fascism?"

3079: 2619:

Sean Kennedy, "The End of Immunity? Recent Work on the Far Right in Interwar France."

2236:

Becoming Americans in Paris: Transatlantic politics and culture between the World Wars

1322: 130: 4353: 4335: 4330: 4315: 4300: 4239: 4202: 4116: 4049: 4027: 4008: 3876: 3803: 3626: 3526: 3412: 3392: 3369: 3222: 2931: 2852: 2666: 2584: 2482: 2433: 2348: 2190: 1813: 1786: 1729: 1593: 1460: 1246: 1137: 476: 375: 235: 142: 146: 4267: 4219: 4091: 4066: 3556: 2952:

Faith in Empire: Religion, Politics, and Colonial Rule in French Senegal, 1880–1940

2462: 2088: 1950: 1744: 1712: 1521: 1517: 1488: 1440: 1118: 1110: 1085: 992: 951: 449: 170: 88: 3729: 3568: 616: 421: 138: 134: 61: 4362: 4325: 4310: 4305: 4247: 4162: 3463: 2660: 1944: 1793:

Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guyanne, and Réunion as well as to the residents of the "

1647: 1636: 1359: 1338: 1334: 1238: 1126: 1067: 1026: 866:

failures, and the disheartened Popular Front collapsed on foreign policy issues.

854:

goal was complete assimilation, few colonial subjects were actually assimilated.

118: 114: 3708: 2848:

Britain, France and Appeasement: Anglo-French Relations in the Popular Front Era

1824:, Félicien Challaye, and Paul Monet, whose books and articles were widely read. 1722:

appeased Italy over Ethiopia for fear of an alliance between Italy and Germany.

1405:(Parti social français, PSF), originally the Fiery Cross (Croix de feu) and the 567: 199: 4285: 4280: 4272: 4096: 4054: 3631: 3214: 3153:

French Conservatism in Crisis: The Republican Federation of France in the 1930s

3060: 2295:

Jeffrey H. Jackson, "Music‐Halls and the Assimilation of Jazz in 1920s Paris."

1939: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1919: 1914: 1909: 1904: 1899: 1894: 1889: 1884: 1879: 1874: 1869: 1864: 1859: 1854: 1849: 1844: 1839: 1821: 1582: 1502:("Young Right") gathered young intellectuals who had broken with the far-right 1472: 1280: 1242: 1234: 1114: 1102: 800: 386: 162: 80: 2818:

Stephen A. Schuker, "France and the Remilitarization of the Rhineland, 1936,"

2466: 2337: 2121: 1728:

The Blum government joined Britain in establishing an arms embargo during the

1659: 946:

Evolution of gross domestic product in several countries between 1929 and 1939

4388: 4367: 4197: 3981: 3669: 2805:

Reynolds M. Salerno, "The French Navy and the Appeasement of Italy, 1937-9,"

2372: 1798: 1794: 1557: 1448: 1310: 1191: 1160:. The intellectuals disavowed colonialism and argued for the importance of a 1157: 1089: 1004: 1000: 785: 526: 96: 2206:

Ambivalent Alliance: The Catholic Church and the Action Française, 1899-1939

1739:

refused to go to war against Germany and Italy without British support when

1153: 4081: 3786: 3743: 3543: 3514: 2711:

Geoffrey Warner, "The Stavisky Affair and the Riots of February 6th 1934."

2092: 1574: 1553: 1484: 1276: 1167:

Blacks from the US made a dramatic impact by introducing New Orleans-style

1041: 883: 841:

covers the political, economic, diplomatic, cultural and social history of

634: 365: 150: 3318:

Cairns, John C. "Some Recent Historians and the 'Strange Defeat' of 1940"

3128:

Anglo-French relations before the Second World War: appeasement and crisis

1755: 1680: 1629: 1563:

After the February 6, 1934 riots, the non-conformists split several ways.

1141: 968: 174: 3748: 3651: 3496: 1708: 1537: 1476: 1444: 1161: 1030: 999:'s harsh anti-modernist crusade and returned to the tolerant policies of 996: 846: 629: 194: 92: 1536:

The non-conformists were influenced both by socialism, in particular by

1464:, founded in 1931 by Mounier and was the main mouthpiece of personalism. 989:

anticlerical secularists, and small minorities of Protestants and Jews.

4257: 3486: 3323: 3007: 2552: 2474: 2083:

Paul Beaudry and Franck Portier, "The French Depression in the 1930s,"

2059: 1376: 1265: 1187: 1077: 302: 3135:

France and the Nazi Threat: The Collapse of French Diplomacy 1932–1939

3065:

The Collapse of the Third Republic: An Inquiry into the Fall of France

2645:

John Bingham, "Defining French fascism, finding fascists in France."

1321:

It split into moderate and leftist wings, represented respectively by

3595: 3146:

Expatriate Paris: A Cultural and Literary Guide to Paris of the 1920s

2223:

Expatriate Paris: A Cultural and Literary Guide to Paris of the 1920s

1412:

The Croix de Feu was originally an elite veterans' organization that

1009: 2662:

Communitarian Third Way: Alexandre Marc and Ordre Nouveau, 1930–2000

1088:); and it entered a period of decline. Condemnation was repealed by 3032:

The Third Republic in France, 1870–1940: Conflicts and Continuities

1569: 1057: 1045: 2565:

The Carthaginian Peace, or The Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes

1003:. That enabled the French modernizers, such as Christian democrat 3509: 3377: 2927:

Assimilation and Association in French Colonial Theory, 1890–1914

1149: 329: 3335: 3052:

France since the Popular Front: Government and People, 1936–1986

2997:

A Biographical Dictionary of French Political Leaders since 1870

2873:

France since the Popular Front: Government and People, 1936–1986

2432:] (in German). Vol. 1. Munich: C.H. Beck. p. 451. 1567:

made the link between the non-conformists and the supporters of

942: 916:(CGT) split permanently, with more extreme elements forming the 3798: 3366: 3111:

Grandeur and Misery: France's Bid for Power in Europe 1914–1940

2163:

The Third Republic from its Origins to the Great War, 1871–1914

1019:

1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State

842: 333: 50: 2103:

Greg Burgess, "France and the German refugee crisis of 1933."

3042:

Historical Dictionary of the Third French Republic, 1870–1940

2256:

Tyler Stovall, "Aimé Césaire and the making of black Paris."

1383:" ("Cartel of the Lefts") won a majority, and Herriot of the 3235:

Millington, Chris. "Political Violence in Interwar France."

1245:

as the basis of a genuine peace within the framework of the

4071: 3481: 2453:

Marks, Sally (September 1978). "The Myths of Reparations".

1257: 1168: 292: 208: 2884:

Nicole Jordan, "Léon Blum and Czechoslovakia, 1936–1938."

2792:

Martin Thomas, "Appeasement in the Late Third Republic,"

190: 3170:

The Popular Front in France: Defending Democracy, 1934-38

1148:(elected in 1960 as the first president of independent 1225:

following the armistice. Foch supported Poland in the

2897:

Martin Thomas, "France and the Czechoslovak crisis,"

2510:

Proceedings of the Western Society for French History

1717:

European foreign policy of the Chamberlain ministry

2336: 2284:Paris noir: African Americans in the city of light 2134:Politics, Society and Christianity in Vichy France 1573:, a new economical theory invented by the Belgian 845:from 1918 to 1939. France suffered heavily during 3242:Millington, Chris. 2014. “Revolution Nationale.” 2050:Henry Laufenburger, "France and the Depression," 1702: 4386: 3246:64 (3): 38–45. on Right-wing politics 1930–1944. 2923: 2580:The Foreign Office and Foreign Policy, 1919-1926 615: 2962: 2960: 1428: 3299:Socialism in France: from Jaurès to Mitterrand 3160:The Politics of Depression in France 1932–1936 3137:(2004); Translation of his highly influential 2912:France overseas: a study of modern imperialism 2576: 1491:and participated in the technical reunions of 1307:Republican-Radical and Radical-Socialist Party 1015:the Church pressured him into shutting it down 3351: 3198:Paris 1919: six months that changed the world 2844: 2621:Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historiques 2334: 1174: 978: 893: 818: 3727: 3706: 3566: 3272:France between the Wars: Gender and Politics 3015:The development of modern France (1870–1939) 3004:The Decline of the Third Republic, 1914–1938 2957: 2930:. University of Nebraska Press. p. 10. 2658: 1971:The Decline of the Third Republic, 1914–1938 2665:. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. p. 13. 2652: 2161:Jean-Marie Mayeur and Madeleine Rebérioux, 2072:The French Economy in the Twentieth Century 1615: 1396: 3358: 3344: 2583:. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 122–23. 918:Confédération générale du travail unitaire 825: 811: 32: 3260:(1993) 7#4 417–449 doi=10.1093/fh/7.4.417 1401:The two major far-right parties were the 1221:France was part of the Allied force that 1051:French Confederation of Christian Workers 3213: 1997:One Hundred Years of Economic Statistics 1754: 1658: 1635:rapidly, especially during the dramatic 1233:and France also joined Spain during the 941: 3076:Democracy in France: The Third Republic 2423: 1683:, who led the largest coalition party, 4387: 2396: 2258:French Politics, Culture & Society 3339: 3282:The Hollow Years: France in the 1930s 3221:(in French). Paris: Honoré Champion. 3191:The French Radical Party in the 1930s 3002:Bernard, Philippe, and Henri Dubief. 2536:The French Radical Party in the 1930s 2452: 2397:Kunzel, Michael (14 September 2014). 2385:The Hollow Years: France in the 1930s 1835:French Third Republic#Interwar period 1237:. From 1925 until his death in 1932, 1095: 963:, led by the leader of the socialist 3103: 1056:In 1929, Pope Pius XI condemned the 959:and especially the formation of the 3287:Werth, Alexander and D. W. Brogan. 2702:(Amsterdam University Press, 2018.) 1999:(Facts on File, 1989), pp. 177–200. 1969:Philippe Bernard and Henri Dubief, 1663:PCF = Communists; SFIO = Socialists 1447:. They attempted to find a "third ( 1204:International relations (1919–1939) 1181:Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement 931: 13: 2989: 2724:Alexander Werth and D. W. Brogan, 2036:Labour Movement in Post-War France 2008:Alexander Werth and D. W. Brogan, 1750: 1007:, who had led the liberal-leftist 906: 14: 4416: 3365: 3312: 3289:The Twilight of France, 1933-1940 3179:(McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2007) 2726:The Twilight of France, 1933-1940 2424:Winkler, Heinrich August (2000). 2150:Journal of Ecclesiastical History 2010:The Twilight of France, 1933-1940 1818:International Labour Organization 1454:Three main currents were active: 1296:List of Prime Ministers of France 1197: 873: 3251:Foreign Policy of France 1914–45 1743:tried to save peace through the 1677:1936 French legislative election 1610:Organisation civile et militaire 794: 779: 245: 207: 189: 41:also known as the Veterans' Riot 2973: 2944: 2917: 2904: 2891: 2878: 2865: 2838: 2833:France since the Popular Front, 2825: 2812: 2799: 2786: 2773: 2760: 2747: 2734: 2718: 2705: 2692: 2679: 2639: 2626: 2613: 2597: 2570: 2557: 2541: 2528: 2515: 2502: 2489: 2446: 2417: 2390: 2377: 2361: 2328: 2315: 2302: 2289: 2276: 2263: 2250: 2241: 2228: 2215: 2198: 2181: 2176:Journal of Contemporary History 2168: 2155: 2142: 2126: 2110: 2097: 2023:Journal of Contemporary History 1586:. They influenced both Vichy's 1275:In the 1930s, France built the 914:General Confederation of Labour 3697:Government of National Defense 2210:University of Pittsburgh Press 2194:. January 10, 1927. p. 1. 2188:"Holy See Bans French Paper". 2077: 2064: 2044: 2028: 2015: 2002: 1989: 1976: 1963: 1703:Appeasement and war: 1938–1939 1471:(New Order) group, created by 1316:Democratic Republican Alliance 1254:occupied the industrial region 1132: 971:, who won the 1936 elections. 1: 3606:Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 3601:War of the Spanish Succession 3308:(2 vol 1979), topical history 3200:(2007). The peace conference. 2403:Deutsches Historisches Museum 882:In monetary terms, economist 185: 3322:46#1 (1974), pp. 60–85 3186:(U. of Michigan Press, 2001) 2512:(1981), Vol. 9, pp. 372–382. 2310:Journal of Strategic Studies 1435:Non-conformists of the 1930s 1429:Non-conformists of the 1930s 7: 3086:France: 1815 to the Present 2647:Canadian Journal of History 2085:Review of Economic Dynamics 1827: 1425:values of Church and Army. 1289: 1073:Index Librorum Prohibitorum 983: 10: 4421: 4087:French subdivisions by GDP 3834:2022 presidential election 3819:2017 presidential election 3265:The French Overseas Empire 3133:Duroselle, Jean-Baptiste. 3099:(5th ed. 1995) pp. 221–382 2910:Herbert Ingram Priestley, 2297:Journal of Popular Culture 1762: 1759:The interwar French empire 1706: 1619: 1432: 1344: 1300: 1293: 1201: 1178: 1175:Chinese Work-Study Program 979:Social and cultural trends 938:Great Depression in France 935: 894:Economic and social growth 4348: 4238: 4148: 4139: 4035: 4026: 3928: 3919: 3857: 3848: 3769: 3650: 3619: 3591:Second Hundred Years' War 3542: 3495: 3462: 3441: 3433:Liberalism and radicalism 3385: 3376: 3320:Journal of Modern History 2981:French Historical Studies 2924:Raymond F. Betts (2005). 2820:French Historical Studies 2807:English Historical Review 2551:46#3 (1974), pp. 476–501 2549:Journal of Modern History 2467:10.1017/s0008938900018707 2430:The Long Road to the West 2426:Der lange Weg nach Westen 2323:English Historical Review 2208:, pp.174-75 (Pittsburgh: 2118:Journal of Modern History 1986:(8th ed. 1965) pp 303-4. 203: 188: 180: 102: 72: 56: 46: 31: 26: 21: 3862:Administrative divisions 3040:Hutton, Patrick H., ed. 2983:, (2011) 34#3 pp. 503–28 2899:Diplomacy and Statecraft 2794:Diplomacy and Statecraft 2523:The Maginot Line 1928–45 2455:Central European History 2325:117.473 (2002): 867–888. 2054:(1936) 15#2 pp. 202–224 1957: 1616:Popular Front: 1936–1937 1419:travail, famille, patrie 1397:Conservatism and fascism 1391: 1216: 1038:Briand-Ceretti Agreement 604: 566: 396: 385: 364: 127:Frédéric François-Marsal 4082:Franc (former currency) 3687:Coup of 2 December 1851 3660:Long nineteenth century 3164:excerpt and text search 3139:La décadence, 1932–1939 3115:excerpt and text search 3036:excerpt and text search 3008:excerpt and text search 2809:112#445 (1997): 66–104. 2768:France in Modern Times 2687:Communitarian Third Way 2577:Ephraim Maisel (1994). 2025:(1997) 32#4 pp. 465–81. 1385:Radical Socialist Party 1227:Greater Poland Uprising 4102:Science and technology 3759:Provisional Government 3728: 3707: 3567: 3109:Adamthwaite, Anthony. 3097:France in Modern Times 2901:10.23 (1999): 122–159. 2845:Martin Thomas (1996). 2367:Piotr Stefan Wandycz, 2335:Richard Overy (1999). 2093:10.1006/redy.2001.0143 2012:(2nd ed. 1942) p. 102. 1765:French colonial empire 1760: 1670:French Communist Party 1664: 1644:February 6 and 7, 1934 1626:6 February 1934 crisis 1622:Popular Front (France) 1223:occupied the Rhineland 957:6 February 1934 crisis 947: 440:Valois-Angoulême kings 167:Pierre-Étienne Flandin 39:6 February 1934 crisis 16:1918 to 1939 in France 3239:10.3 (2012): 246–259. 3196:MacMillan, Margaret. 3056:online free to borrow 2851:. Berg. p. 137. 2822:14.3 (1986): 299–338. 2796:19#3 (2008): 566–607. 2659:John Hellman (2002). 2649:29.3 (1994): 525–544. 2312:29#2 (2006): 247–280. 2152:60.3 (2009): 514–533. 2107:16.2 (2002): 203–229. 2070:Jean-Pierre Dormois, 2052:International Affairs 1779:mission civilisatrice 1758: 1662: 1414:François de La Rocque 1294:Further information: 1202:Further information: 1190:and Paramount Leader 1146:Léopold Sédar Senghor 1123:Katherine Anne Porter 1070:were placed into the 1036:In January 1924, the 945: 3907:World Heritage Sites 3824:Coronavirus pandemic 3332:4.5 (2006): 870-905. 3030:Fortescue, William. 3010:, by French scholars 2995:Bell, David, et al. 2343:. Penguin. pp. 2178:2.4 (1967): 163–182. 2120:70.1 (1998): 24–73. 1605:Défense de la France 1589:Révolution nationale 1577:as well as with the 1565:Bertrand de Jouvenel 1407:French Popular Party 850:the time was ended. 648:Provisional Republic 430:Valois-Orléans kings 67:The Great Depression 4045:Automotive industry 3829:2021 labor protests 3586:Peace of Westphalia 3454:History of Normandy 3449:History of Brittany 3263:Quinn, Frederick. 3151:Irvine, William D. 2623:34.2 (2008): 25-45. 2534:Peter J. Larmour, 2497:Grandeur and Misery 2299:34#2 (2000): 69–82. 2260:27#3 (2009): 44–46. 2038:(1931) pp. 117–25. 1741:Neville Chamberlain 1514:Jean-Pierre Maxence 1403:French Social Party 1367:scarcely increased. 1356:Alexandre Millerand 1107:F. Scott Fitzgerald 155:Joseph Paul-Boncour 111:Alexandre Millerand 85:Alexandre Millerand 4112:Telecommunications 3814:2015 Paris attacks 3677:Revolution of 1848 3505:Visigothic Kingdom 3304:Zeldin, Theodore. 3297:Williams, Stuart. 3189:Larmour, Peter J. 3061:Shirer, William L. 3054:(Oxford UP, 1988) 3044:(Greenwood, 1986) 2950:Elizabeth Foster, 2914:(1938) pp. 440–41. 2888:5#1 (1991): 48–73. 2783:(1966) pp 126–273. 2770:(1995) pp 360–369. 2757:(1966) pp. 160–97. 2744:(1966) pp. 92–126. 2234:Brooke L. Blower, 2165:(1984) pp. 227–44. 1783:French West Africa 1775:civilising mission 1761: 1665: 1544:, which permeated 1542:Social Catholicism 1531:le désordre établi 1475:and influenced by 1381:Cartel des gauches 1331:Georges Clemenceau 1096:Expatriate culture 995:(1914–1922) ended 948: 801:History portal 297: until 50 BC 107:Georges Clemenceau 4382: 4381: 4344: 4343: 4135: 4134: 4022: 4021: 4014:Political parties 3950:Foreign relations 3915: 3914: 3844: 3843: 3627:French Revolution 3581:Thirty Years' War 3562:Absolute monarchy 3527:Kingdom of France 3423:Foreign relations 3403:Political history 3203:McAuliffe, Mary. 3182:Kreuzer, Marcus. 3168:Jackson, Julian. 3158:Jackson, Julian. 3144:Hansen, Arlen J. 3130:(Springer, 2001). 3119:Copley, A. R. H. 3104:Scholarly studies 3050:Larkin, Maurice. 3025:France, 1814–1940 2966:Spencer Segalla, 2607:(1937) pp. 21–38 2603:Alexander Werth, 2563:Étienne Mantoux, 2521:William Allcorn, 2439:978-3-406-66049-8 2354:978-0-14-028530-7 2221:Arlen J. Hansen, 2204:Arnal, Oscar L., 2191:Salt Lake Tribune 1984:Europe since 1914 1982:Frank Lee Benns, 1973:(1988) pp. 78–82. 1814:League of Nations 1730:Spanish Civil War 1510:Jean de Fabrègues 1337:(1863–1944), and 1247:League of Nations 1231:Polish–Soviet War 835: 834: 786:France portal 679: 678: 576: 575: 487:Kingdom of France 477:French Revolution 468:Long 19th century 458: 457: 406: 405: 376:Kingdom of France 311: 310: 219: 218: 215: 214: 143:Camille Chautemps 103:Prime Minister(s) 4412: 4146: 4145: 4062:Economic history 4033: 4032: 3926: 3925: 3855: 3854: 3733: 3712: 3611:Seven Years' War 3576:Wars of Religion 3572: 3557:House of Bourbon 3552:Early modern era 3532:Fundamental laws 3408:Military history 3383: 3382: 3360: 3353: 3346: 3337: 3336: 3270:Reynolds, Siân. 3232: 3126:Davis, Richard. 3095:Wright, Gordon. 3074:Thomson, David. 2984: 2977: 2971: 2964: 2955: 2948: 2942: 2941: 2921: 2915: 2908: 2902: 2895: 2889: 2882: 2876: 2871:Maurice Larkin, 2869: 2863: 2862: 2842: 2836: 2835:(1988) pp. 45–62 2829: 2823: 2816: 2810: 2803: 2797: 2790: 2784: 2777: 2771: 2764: 2758: 2751: 2745: 2738: 2732: 2722: 2716: 2709: 2703: 2696: 2690: 2683: 2677: 2676: 2656: 2650: 2643: 2637: 2630: 2624: 2617: 2611: 2605:Which Way France 2601: 2595: 2594: 2574: 2568: 2561: 2555: 2545: 2539: 2532: 2526: 2519: 2513: 2506: 2500: 2493: 2487: 2486: 2450: 2444: 2443: 2421: 2415: 2414: 2412: 2410: 2394: 2388: 2381: 2375: 2365: 2359: 2358: 2342: 2332: 2326: 2319: 2313: 2306: 2300: 2293: 2287: 2280: 2274: 2267: 2261: 2254: 2248: 2245: 2239: 2232: 2226: 2219: 2213: 2202: 2196: 2195: 2185: 2179: 2172: 2166: 2159: 2153: 2146: 2140: 2136:(1992) pp. 3–38 2130: 2124: 2114: 2108: 2101: 2095: 2081: 2075: 2068: 2062: 2048: 2042: 2032: 2026: 2019: 2013: 2006: 2000: 1995:Thelma Liesner, 1993: 1987: 1980: 1974: 1967: 1951:Interwar Britain 1745:Munich Agreement 1737:Édouard Daladier 1713:Munich Agreement 1522:Maurice Blanchot 1518:Thierry Maulnier 1505:Action Française 1489:Charles Spinasse 1441:Emmanuel Mounier 1352:Raymond Poincaré 1327:Édouard Daladier 1325:(1872–1957) and 1119:William Faulkner 1111:Ernest Hemingway 1086:Georges Bernanos 1082:François Mauriac 1063:Action Française 1040:was approved by 993:Pope Benedict XV 952:Great Depression 932:Great Depression 827: 820: 813: 799: 798: 797: 784: 783: 782: 675: 591: 590: 473: 472: 426: 425: 387:Direct Capetians 326: 325: 269: 268: 249: 239: 221: 220: 211: 193: 186: 171:Fernand Bouisson 159:Édouard Daladier 123:Raymond Poincaré 89:Gaston Doumergue 77:Raymond Poincaré 36: 19: 18: 4420: 4419: 4415: 4414: 4413: 4411: 4410: 4409: 4405:1930s in France 4400:1920s in France 4395:Interwar France 4385: 4384: 4383: 4378: 4377: 4358: 4340: 4321:Public holidays 4234: 4193:Life expectancy 4131: 4018: 3911: 3840: 3809:Great Recession 3782:Fourth Republic 3777:1900 to present 3765: 3682:Second Republic 3646: 3615: 3538: 3491: 3458: 3437: 3372: 3364: 3330:History Compass 3315: 3237:History Compass 3229: 3215:Mayaffre, Damon 3175:Kennedy, Sean. 3106: 3084:Wolf, John B. 3027:(2003) ch. 9–16 3023:Bury, J. P. T. 2992: 2990:Further reading 2987: 2978: 2974: 2965: 2958: 2949: 2945: 2938: 2922: 2918: 2909: 2905: 2896: 2892: 2883: 2879: 2875:(1988) pp 63-81 2870: 2866: 2859: 2843: 2839: 2830: 2826: 2817: 2813: 2804: 2800: 2791: 2787: 2778: 2774: 2766:Gordon Wright, 2765: 2761: 2752: 2748: 2739: 2735: 2723: 2719: 2715:(1958): 377–85. 2710: 2706: 2697: 2693: 2684: 2680: 2673: 2657: 2653: 2644: 2640: 2631: 2627: 2618: 2614: 2602: 2598: 2591: 2575: 2571: 2562: 2558: 2546: 2542: 2533: 2529: 2520: 2516: 2507: 2503: 2494: 2490: 2451: 2447: 2440: 2422: 2418: 2408: 2406: 2399:"Die Inflation" 2395: 2391: 2382: 2378: 2366: 2362: 2355: 2339:The road to war 2333: 2329: 2320: 2316: 2307: 2303: 2294: 2290: 2282:Tyler Stovall, 2281: 2277: 2268: 2264: 2255: 2251: 2246: 2242: 2233: 2229: 2220: 2216: 2203: 2199: 2187: 2186: 2182: 2173: 2169: 2160: 2156: 2147: 2143: 2131: 2127: 2115: 2111: 2102: 2098: 2087:(2002) 5:73–99 2082: 2078: 2069: 2065: 2049: 2045: 2033: 2029: 2020: 2016: 2007: 2003: 1994: 1990: 1981: 1977: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1955: 1945:Interwar period 1830: 1767: 1753: 1751:Overseas empire 1719: 1707:Main articles: 1705: 1648:Alexander Werth 1637:Stavisky Affair 1632: 1620:Main articles: 1618: 1437: 1431: 1399: 1394: 1360:Aristide Briand 1347: 1339:Aristide Briand 1335:Joseph Caillaux 1323:Édouard Herriot 1303: 1298: 1292: 1286: 1239:Aristide Briand 1219: 1206: 1200: 1183: 1177: 1135: 1127:Nadia Boulanger 1098: 1068:Charles Maurras 1027:Aristide Briand 986: 981: 940: 934: 909: 907:Labour movement 896: 876: 839:Interwar France 837: 831: 795: 793: 780: 778: 773: 681: 680: 673: 658:Fourth Republic 639: 606:Interwar period 588: 578: 577: 537:Second Republic 470: 460: 459: 418: 408: 407: 323: 313: 312: 266: 237: 230: 198: 184: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 131:Édouard Herriot 129: 125: 121: 119:Aristide Briand 117: 115:Georges Leygues 113: 109: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 65: 42: 22:Interwar France 17: 12: 11: 5: 4418: 4408: 4407: 4402: 4397: 4380: 4379: 4376: 4375: 4370: 4365: 4359: 4357: 4356: 4350: 4349: 4346: 4345: 4342: 4341: 4339: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4293: 4288: 4283: 4278: 4277:Cultural icons 4275: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4250: 4244: 4242: 4236: 4235: 4233: 4232: 4227: 4222: 4217: 4216: 4215: 4205: 4200: 4195: 4190: 4185: 4180: 4175: 4170: 4165: 4160: 4155: 4149: 4143: 4137: 4136: 4133: 4132: 4130: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4097:Stock exchange 4094: 4089: 4084: 4079: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4059: 4058: 4057: 4047: 4042: 4036: 4030: 4024: 4023: 4020: 4019: 4017: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4001: 4000: 3999: 3994: 3989: 3979: 3974: 3973: 3972: 3967: 3957: 3952: 3947: 3946: 3945: 3935: 3929: 3923: 3917: 3916: 3913: 3912: 3910: 3909: 3904: 3899: 3897:National parks 3894: 3889: 3884: 3879: 3874: 3872:Climate change 3869: 3864: 3858: 3852: 3846: 3845: 3842: 3841: 3839: 3838: 3837: 3836: 3831: 3826: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3794:Fifth Republic 3791: 3790: 3789: 3779: 3773: 3771: 3767: 3766: 3764: 3763: 3762: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3746: 3736: 3735: 3734: 3720: 3715: 3714: 3713: 3702:Third Republic 3699: 3694: 3689: 3684: 3679: 3673: 3672: 3667: 3662: 3656: 3654: 3648: 3647: 3645: 3644: 3639: 3637:First Republic 3634: 3632:Napoleonic era 3629: 3623: 3621: 3617: 3616: 3614: 3613: 3608: 3603: 3598: 3593: 3588: 3583: 3578: 3573: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3548: 3546: 3540: 3539: 3537: 3536: 3535: 3534: 3524: 3519: 3518: 3517: 3507: 3501: 3499: 3493: 3492: 3490: 3489: 3484: 3479: 3477:Greek colonies 3474: 3468: 3466: 3460: 3459: 3457: 3456: 3451: 3445: 3443: 3439: 3438: 3436: 3435: 3430: 3425: 3420: 3415: 3410: 3405: 3400: 3395: 3389: 3387: 3380: 3374: 3373: 3363: 3362: 3355: 3348: 3340: 3334: 3333: 3326: 3314: 3313:Historiography 3311: 3310: 3309: 3302: 3295: 3285: 3280:Weber, Eugen. 3278: 3268: 3261: 3258:French History 3254: 3247: 3240: 3233: 3227: 3211: 3201: 3194: 3187: 3180: 3173: 3166: 3156: 3149: 3142: 3131: 3124: 3117: 3105: 3102: 3101: 3100: 3093: 3082: 3072: 3058: 3048: 3046:online edition 3038: 3028: 3021: 3011: 3000: 2991: 2988: 2986: 2985: 2972: 2956: 2943: 2936: 2916: 2903: 2890: 2886:French History 2877: 2864: 2857: 2837: 2824: 2811: 2798: 2785: 2772: 2759: 2746: 2733: 2717: 2704: 2698:Daniel Knegt, 2691: 2678: 2671: 2651: 2638: 2632:Sean Kennedy, 2625: 2612: 2596: 2589: 2569: 2567:(1946), p. 23. 2556: 2540: 2527: 2514: 2501: 2499:pp. 29–30, 48. 2488: 2445: 2438: 2416: 2389: 2376: 2360: 2353: 2327: 2314: 2301: 2288: 2275: 2262: 2249: 2240: 2227: 2214: 2197: 2180: 2167: 2154: 2141: 2125: 2109: 2105:French History 2096: 2076: 2063: 2043: 2034:D. J. Saposs, 2027: 2014: 2001: 1988: 1975: 1961: 1959: 1956: 1954: 1953: 1948: 1942: 1940:1939 in France 1937: 1935:1938 in France 1932: 1930:1937 in France 1927: 1925:1936 in France 1922: 1920:1935 in France 1917: 1915:1934 in France 1912: 1910:1933 in France 1907: 1905:1932 in France 1902: 1900:1931 in France 1897: 1895:1930 in France 1892: 1890:1929 in France 1887: 1885:1928 in France 1882: 1880:1927 in France 1877: 1875:1926 in France 1872: 1870:1925 in France 1867: 1865:1924 in France 1862: 1860:1923 in France 1857: 1855:1922 in France 1852: 1850:1921 in France 1847: 1845:1920 in France 1842: 1840:1919 in France 1837: 1831: 1829: 1826: 1822:Albert Londres 1763:Main article: 1752: 1749: 1704: 1701: 1657: 1656: 1617: 1614: 1583:Groupe X-Crise 1526: 1525: 1496: 1481:Arnaud Dandieu 1473:Alexandre Marc 1465: 1433:Main article: 1430: 1427: 1398: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1369: 1368: 1346: 1343: 1302: 1299: 1291: 1288: 1281:Little Entente 1262:hyperinflation 1243:Weimar Germany 1218: 1215: 1199: 1198:Foreign policy 1196: 1179:Main article: 1176: 1173: 1134: 1131: 1115:E. E. Cummings 1103:Gertrude Stein 1097: 1094: 985: 982: 980: 977: 936:Main article: 933: 930: 908: 905: 895: 892: 875: 874:Wartime losses 872: 833: 832: 830: 829: 822: 815: 807: 804: 803: 775: 774: 772: 771: 766: 761: 760: 759: 754: 749: 739: 734: 733: 732: 722: 717: 712: 707: 702: 697: 691: 688: 687: 683: 682: 677: 676: 670: 668:Fifth Republic 664: 663: 660: 654: 653: 650: 644: 643: 640: 638: 637: 632: 626: 623: 622: 619: 612: 611: 608: 601: 600: 597: 595:Third Republic 589: 584: 583: 580: 579: 574: 573: 570: 563: 562: 559: 557:Third Republic 553: 552: 549: 543: 542: 539: 533: 532: 529: 523: 522: 519: 513: 512: 509: 503: 502: 499: 497:First Republic 493: 492: 489: 483: 482: 479: 471: 466: 465: 462: 461: 456: 455: 452: 446: 445: 442: 436: 435: 432: 419: 414: 413: 410: 409: 404: 403: 400: 393: 392: 389: 382: 381: 378: 372: 371: 368: 361: 360: 357: 351: 350: 347: 341: 340: 337: 324: 319: 318: 315: 314: 309: 308: 307:50 BC – 486 AD 305: 299: 298: 295: 289: 288: 287:600 BC – 49 BC 285: 283:Greek colonies 279: 278: 275: 267: 262: 261: 258: 257: 251: 250: 242: 241: 232: 231: 224: 217: 216: 213: 212: 202: 178: 177: 163:Albert Sarraut 147:Théodore Steeg 104: 100: 99: 81:Paul Deschanel 74: 70: 69: 58: 54: 53: 48: 44: 43: 37: 29: 28: 24: 23: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4417: 4406: 4403: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4392: 4390: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4366: 4364: 4361: 4360: 4355: 4352: 4351: 4347: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4266: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4256: 4254: 4251: 4249: 4246: 4245: 4243: 4241: 4237: 4231: 4228: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4214: 4211: 4210: 4209: 4206: 4204: 4201: 4199: 4196: 4194: 4191: 4189: 4186: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4176: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4166: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4158:Birth control 4156: 4154: 4151: 4150: 4147: 4144: 4142: 4138: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4090: 4088: 4085: 4083: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4056: 4053: 4052: 4051: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4037: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4025: 4015: 4012: 4010: 4007: 4005: 4002: 3998: 3995: 3993: 3990: 3988: 3985: 3984: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3962: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3944: 3941: 3940: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3933:Constitutions 3931: 3930: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3918: 3908: 3905: 3903: 3900: 3898: 3895: 3893: 3890: 3888: 3885: 3883: 3880: 3878: 3875: 3873: 3870: 3868: 3865: 3863: 3860: 3859: 3856: 3853: 3851: 3847: 3835: 3832: 3830: 3827: 3825: 3822: 3820: 3817: 3815: 3812: 3810: 3807: 3805: 3802: 3800: 3797: 3796: 3795: 3792: 3788: 3785: 3784: 3783: 3780: 3778: 3775: 3774: 3772: 3768: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3750: 3747: 3745: 3742: 3741: 3740: 3737: 3732: 3731: 3730:Années folles 3726: 3725: 3724: 3721: 3719: 3716: 3711: 3710: 3705: 3704: 3703: 3700: 3698: 3695: 3693: 3692:Second Empire 3690: 3688: 3685: 3683: 3680: 3678: 3675: 3674: 3671: 3670:July Monarchy 3668: 3666: 3663: 3661: 3658: 3657: 3655: 3653: 3649: 3643: 3640: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3624: 3622: 3618: 3612: 3609: 3607: 3604: 3602: 3599: 3597: 3594: 3592: 3589: 3587: 3584: 3582: 3579: 3577: 3574: 3571: 3570: 3569:Ancien Régime 3565: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3553: 3550: 3549: 3547: 3545: 3541: 3533: 3530: 3529: 3528: 3525: 3523: 3520: 3516: 3513: 3512: 3511: 3508: 3506: 3503: 3502: 3500: 3498: 3494: 3488: 3485: 3483: 3480: 3478: 3475: 3473: 3470: 3469: 3467: 3465: 3461: 3455: 3452: 3450: 3447: 3446: 3444: 3440: 3434: 3431: 3429: 3426: 3424: 3421: 3419: 3416: 3414: 3411: 3409: 3406: 3404: 3401: 3399: 3396: 3394: 3391: 3390: 3388: 3384: 3381: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3368: 3361: 3356: 3354: 3349: 3347: 3342: 3341: 3338: 3331: 3327: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3316: 3307: 3303: 3300: 3296: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3283: 3279: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3266: 3262: 3259: 3255: 3252: 3248: 3245: 3244:History Today 3241: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3199: 3195: 3192: 3188: 3185: 3181: 3178: 3174: 3171: 3167: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3154: 3150: 3147: 3143: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3129: 3125: 3122: 3118: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3107: 3098: 3094: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3071: 3067: 3066: 3062: 3059: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3026: 3022: 3020: 3016: 3013:Brogan, D. W 3012: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2998: 2994: 2993: 2982: 2976: 2969: 2963: 2961: 2953: 2947: 2939: 2937:9780803262478 2933: 2929: 2928: 2920: 2913: 2907: 2900: 2894: 2887: 2881: 2874: 2868: 2860: 2858:9781859731925 2854: 2850: 2849: 2841: 2834: 2828: 2821: 2815: 2808: 2802: 2795: 2789: 2782: 2776: 2769: 2763: 2756: 2750: 2743: 2740:Joel Colton, 2737: 2731: 2728:(1942) p. 16 2727: 2721: 2714: 2713:History Today 2708: 2701: 2695: 2688: 2682: 2674: 2672:9780773523760 2668: 2664: 2663: 2655: 2648: 2642: 2635: 2629: 2622: 2616: 2610: 2606: 2600: 2592: 2590:9781898723042 2586: 2582: 2581: 2573: 2566: 2560: 2554: 2550: 2544: 2537: 2531: 2524: 2518: 2511: 2505: 2498: 2495:Adamthwaite, 2492: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2449: 2441: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2420: 2404: 2400: 2393: 2387:(1996) p. 125 2386: 2383:Eugen Weber, 2380: 2374: 2370: 2364: 2356: 2350: 2346: 2341: 2340: 2331: 2324: 2318: 2311: 2305: 2298: 2292: 2285: 2279: 2272: 2269:Gary Wilder, 2266: 2259: 2253: 2244: 2237: 2231: 2224: 2218: 2211: 2207: 2201: 2193: 2192: 2184: 2177: 2171: 2164: 2158: 2151: 2145: 2139: 2135: 2132:W. D. Halls, 2129: 2123: 2119: 2113: 2106: 2100: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2080: 2073: 2067: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2047: 2041: 2037: 2031: 2024: 2018: 2011: 2005: 1998: 1992: 1985: 1979: 1972: 1966: 1962: 1952: 1949: 1946: 1943: 1941: 1938: 1936: 1933: 1931: 1928: 1926: 1923: 1921: 1918: 1916: 1913: 1911: 1908: 1906: 1903: 1901: 1898: 1896: 1893: 1891: 1888: 1886: 1883: 1881: 1878: 1876: 1873: 1871: 1868: 1866: 1863: 1861: 1858: 1856: 1853: 1851: 1848: 1846: 1843: 1841: 1838: 1836: 1833: 1832: 1825: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1800: 1799:Blaise Diagne 1796: 1795:Four Communes 1790: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1771: 1766: 1757: 1748: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1733: 1731: 1726: 1723: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1673: 1671: 1661: 1653: 1652: 1651: 1649: 1645: 1642:All night on 1640: 1638: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1613: 1611: 1607: 1606: 1601: 1600: 1595: 1591: 1590: 1585: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1571: 1566: 1561: 1559: 1558:civil society 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1534: 1532: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1506: 1501: 1497: 1494: 1493:Ordre nouveau 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1469:Ordre nouveau 1466: 1463: 1462: 1457: 1456: 1455: 1452: 1450: 1449:communitarian 1446: 1442: 1436: 1426: 1422: 1420: 1415: 1410: 1408: 1404: 1389: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1373: 1365: 1364: 1363: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1342: 1341:(1862–1932). 1340: 1336: 1333:(1841–1929), 1332: 1328: 1324: 1319: 1317: 1312: 1311:Leon Gambetta 1308: 1297: 1287: 1284: 1282: 1278: 1273: 1269: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1250: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1214: 1210: 1205: 1195: 1193: 1192:Deng Xiaoping 1189: 1182: 1172: 1170: 1165: 1163: 1159: 1158:French Guiana 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1130: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1093: 1091: 1090:Pope Pius XII 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1074: 1069: 1065: 1064: 1059: 1054: 1052: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1034: 1032: 1028: 1022: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1011: 1006: 1005:Marc Sangnier 1002: 1001:Pope Leo XIII 998: 994: 990: 976: 972: 970: 966: 962: 961:Popular Front 958: 953: 944: 939: 929: 925: 921: 919: 915: 904: 900: 891: 888: 885: 880: 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 851: 848: 844: 840: 828: 823: 821: 816: 814: 809: 808: 806: 805: 802: 791: 787: 777: 776: 770: 767: 765: 762: 758: 755: 753: 750: 748: 745: 744: 743: 740: 738: 735: 731: 728: 727: 726: 723: 721: 718: 716: 713: 711: 708: 706: 703: 701: 698: 696: 693: 692: 690: 689: 685: 684: 671: 669: 666: 665: 661: 659: 656: 655: 651: 649: 646: 645: 641: 636: 633: 631: 628: 627: 625: 624: 620: 618: 617:Années folles 614: 613: 609: 607: 603: 602: 598: 596: 593: 592: 587: 582: 581: 571: 569: 565: 564: 560: 558: 555: 554: 550: 548: 547:Second Empire 545: 544: 540: 538: 535: 534: 530: 528: 527:July Monarchy 525: 524: 520: 518: 515: 514: 510: 508: 505: 504: 500: 498: 495: 494: 490: 488: 485: 484: 480: 478: 475: 474: 469: 464: 463: 453: 451: 450:Bourbon kings 448: 447: 443: 441: 438: 437: 433: 431: 428: 427: 424: 423: 422:Ancien Régime 417: 412: 411: 401: 399: 395: 394: 390: 388: 384: 383: 379: 377: 374: 373: 369: 367: 363: 362: 358: 356: 353: 352: 348: 346: 343: 342: 338: 335: 331: 328: 327: 322: 317: 316: 306: 304: 301: 300: 296: 294: 291: 290: 286: 284: 281: 280: 276: 274: 271: 270: 265: 260: 259: 256: 253: 252: 248: 244: 243: 240: 234: 233: 228: 223: 222: 210: 206: 201: 196: 192: 187: 183: 179: 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 139:André Tardieu 136: 135:Paul Painlevé 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 108: 105: 101: 98: 97:Albert Lebrun 94: 90: 86: 82: 78: 75: 71: 68: 64: 63: 62:Années folles 59: 55: 52: 49: 45: 40: 35: 30: 25: 20: 4263:Coat of arms 4253:Architecture 4225:Social class 4183:Homelessness 4168:Demographics 4122:Trade unions 4055:Central bank 3997:criminal law 3960:Human rights 3943:presidential 3787:Algerian War 3770:Contemporary 3744:Vichy France 3739:World War II 3722: 3709:Belle Époque 3642:First Empire 3544:Early Modern 3515:West Francia 3329: 3319: 3305: 3298: 3288: 3281: 3271: 3264: 3257: 3250: 3243: 3236: 3218: 3204: 3197: 3190: 3183: 3176: 3169: 3159: 3152: 3145: 3138: 3134: 3127: 3120: 3110: 3096: 3092:pp. 349–501. 3085: 3075: 3064: 3051: 3041: 3031: 3024: 3014: 3003: 2996: 2980: 2975: 2967: 2951: 2946: 2926: 2919: 2911: 2906: 2898: 2893: 2885: 2880: 2872: 2867: 2847: 2840: 2832: 2827: 2819: 2814: 2806: 2801: 2793: 2788: 2780: 2775: 2767: 2762: 2754: 2749: 2741: 2736: 2725: 2720: 2712: 2707: 2699: 2694: 2686: 2681: 2661: 2654: 2646: 2641: 2633: 2628: 2620: 2615: 2604: 2599: 2579: 2572: 2564: 2559: 2548: 2543: 2535: 2530: 2522: 2517: 2509: 2504: 2496: 2491: 2458: 2454: 2448: 2429: 2425: 2419: 2407:. Retrieved 2402: 2392: 2384: 2379: 2371:(1988) ch 1 2368: 2363: 2338: 2330: 2322: 2317: 2309: 2304: 2296: 2291: 2283: 2278: 2270: 2265: 2257: 2252: 2243: 2235: 2230: 2222: 2217: 2205: 2200: 2189: 2183: 2175: 2170: 2162: 2157: 2149: 2144: 2133: 2128: 2117: 2112: 2104: 2099: 2084: 2079: 2074:(2004) p. 31 2071: 2066: 2051: 2046: 2035: 2030: 2022: 2017: 2009: 2004: 1996: 1991: 1983: 1978: 1970: 1965: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1791: 1778: 1772: 1768: 1734: 1727: 1724: 1720: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1674: 1666: 1641: 1633: 1603: 1597: 1587: 1581: 1579:technocratic 1575:Henri de Man 1568: 1562: 1554:anti-statism 1550:Jeune Droite 1549: 1545: 1535: 1530: 1527: 1508:, including 1503: 1500:Jeune Droite 1499: 1492: 1485:Jean Coutrot 1468: 1459: 1453: 1438: 1423: 1411: 1400: 1374: 1370: 1348: 1320: 1304: 1285: 1277:Maginot Line 1274: 1270: 1251: 1220: 1211: 1207: 1184: 1166: 1138:Aimé Césaire 1136: 1099: 1071: 1061: 1055: 1042:Pope Pius XI 1035: 1023: 1008: 991: 987: 973: 949: 926: 922: 910: 901: 897: 889: 884:Alfred Sauvy 881: 877: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 838: 836: 789: 747:Christianity 635:Vichy France 605: 586:20th century 568:Belle Époque 507:First Empire 420: 416:Early modern 366:West Francia 355:Carolingians 345:Merovingians 205:World War II 200:Belle Époque 181: 151:Pierre Laval 73:President(s) 60: 4373:WikiProject 4188:Immigration 4178:Health care 4040:Agriculture 3992:enforcement 3749:Free France 3718:World War I 3665:Restoration 3652:Late Modern 3522:Middle Ages 3497:Middle Ages 3482:Celtic Gaul 3090:online free 2405:(in German) 1947:, worldwide 1709:Appeasement 1538:Proudhonism 1477:Robert Aron 1458:The review 1445:personalism 1229:and in the 1162:Pan-African 1133:Black Paris 1031:Joan of Arc 997:Pope Pius X 847:World War I 700:Health care 630:Free France 517:Restoration 321:Middle Ages 293:Celtic Gaul 236:History of 195:World War I 93:Paul Doumer 4389:Categories 4316:Philosophy 4301:Literature 4213:secularism 4009:Parliament 3804:2005 riots 3754:Liberation 3620:Revolution 3487:Roman Gaul 3472:Prehistory 3428:Journalism 3228:2745302671 2461:(3): 237. 2409:26 October 1787:Madagascar 1699:betrayed. 1675:The 3 May 1594:Resistance 1483:'s works. 1377:Dawes Plan 1266:Dawes Plan 1188:Zhou Enlai 1154:Léon Damas 1078:sacraments 336:settlement 303:Roman Gaul 273:Prehistory 182:Chronology 4173:Education 4127:Transport 3977:Judiciary 3938:Elections 3892:Mountains 3850:Geography 3596:Louis XIV 3386:Overviews 3249:Nere, J. 3068:, (1969) 2781:Léon Blum 2755:Léon Blum 2742:Léon Blum 2685:Hellman, 2483:144072556 1681:Léon Blum 1630:Léon Blum 1142:négritude 1092:in 1939. 1060:movement 1010:Le Sillon 969:Léon Blum 769:Territory 662:1946–1958 652:1944–1946 642:1940–1944 621:1920–1929 610:1919–1939 599:1870–1940 572:1871–1914 561:1870–1940 551:1852–1870 541:1848–1852 531:1830–1848 521:1814–1830 511:1804–1814 501:1792–1804 491:1791–1792 481:1789–1799 454:1589–1792 444:1515–1589 434:1498–1515 402:1328–1498 175:Léon Blum 57:Including 27:1918–1939 4363:Category 4296:Language 4208:Religion 4153:Abortion 4107:Taxation 4004:Military 3965:Intersex 3955:Politics 3921:Politics 3723:Interwar 3418:Economic 3413:Language 3398:Timeline 3301:(1983) 3274:(1996) 3217:(2000). 2831:Larkin, 2779:Colton, 2753:Colton, 2212:, 1985). 1828:See also 1816:and the 1650:argues: 1592:and the 1570:planisme 1548:and the 1290:Politics 1058:royalist 1046:Holy See 1044:and the 984:Religion 764:Taxation 742:Religion 737:Politics 730:Consorts 725:Monarchs 720:Military 715:Medicine 391:987–1328 380:987–1792 334:Frankish 332:and the 255:Timeline 227:a series 225:Part of 47:Location 4354:Outline 4336:Theatre 4331:Symbols 4291:Gardens 4281:Fashion 4273:Cuisine 4240:Culture 4230:Welfare 4203:Poverty 4141:Society 4117:Tourism 4077:Exports 4050:Banking 4028:Economy 3987:history 3882:Islands 3877:Borders 3510:Francia 3464:Ancient 3442:Regions 3393:History 3378:History 3291:(1942) 3267:(2001). 3209:excerpt 3207:(2016) 3193:(1964). 3172:(1990). 3162:(2002) 3155:(1979). 3113:(1995) 3088:(1940) 3078:(1952) 3070:excerpt 3034:(2000) 3017:(1953) 3006:(1988) 2970:. 2009) 2636:(2007). 2538:(1964). 2525:(2012). 2475:4545835 2286:(1996). 2273:(2005). 2060:2601740 1540:and by 1301:Parties 1256:of the 1235:Rif War 1150:Senegal 757:Judaism 695:Economy 674:present 370:843–987 359:751–987 349:481–751 330:Francia 264:Ancient 4368:Portal 4268:Cinema 4248:Anthem 4220:Racism 4198:People 4092:Mining 4067:Energy 3902:Rivers 3867:Cities 3799:May 68 3370:topics 3367:France 3324:online 3293:Online 3284:(1996) 3276:Online 3253:(2010) 3225: 3148:(1920) 3141:(1979) 3123:(1992) 3080:online 3019:online 2999:(1990) 2954:(2013) 2934: 2855: 2730:online 2669: 2609:online 2587: 2553:online 2481: 2473: 2436: 2373:online 2351: 2238:(2011) 2225:(2014) 2138:Online 2122:online 2058: 2040:online 1715:, and 1628:, and 1612:etc.) 1599:Combat 1546:Esprit 1520:, and 1461:Esprit 1152:) and 1013:until 843:France 790:· 788: 686:Topics 398:Valois 339: 277: 238:France 229:on the 51:France 4326:Sport 4311:Music 4306:Media 4163:Crime 3887:Lakes 2479:S2CID 2471:JSTOR 2428:[ 2347:–41. 2056:JSTOR 1958:Notes 1392:1930s 1345:1920s 1217:1920s 792: 752:Islam 672:1958– 4286:Flag 4072:Euro 3970:LGBT 3223:ISBN 2932:ISBN 2853:ISBN 2667:ISBN 2585:ISBN 2434:ISBN 2411:2023 2349:ISBN 1785:and 1685:SFIO 1498:The 1479:and 1467:The 1358:and 1305:The 1258:Ruhr 1169:jazz 1121:and 1084:and 965:SFIO 950:The 710:LGBT 4258:Art 3982:Law 2463:doi 2345:140 2089:doi 1443:'s 1283:". 1156:of 705:Law 4391:: 2959:^ 2477:. 2469:. 2459:11 2457:. 2401:. 1789:. 1711:, 1624:, 1608:, 1602:, 1516:, 1512:, 1354:, 1194:. 1129:. 1117:, 1113:, 1109:, 1105:, 967:, 3359:e 3352:t 3345:v 3231:. 2940:. 2861:. 2689:. 2675:. 2593:. 2485:. 2465:: 2442:. 2413:. 2357:. 2091:: 1777:( 1596:( 1529:( 1524:. 1495:. 826:e 819:t 812:v 197:,

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.