666:, or heavily dependent, and where there is a high turnover rate for dominant males, which leads to infanticide of the previous dominant male's young. Examples include, but are not limited to; white-footed mice, hamsters, lions, langurs, baboons, and macaques. Along with mating with multiple males, the mating of females throughout the entirety of a reproductive cycle also serves a purpose for inhibiting the chance of infanticide. This theory assumes that males use information on past matings to make decisions on committing infanticide, and that females subsequently manipulate that knowledge. Females which are able to appear sexually active or receptive at all stages of their cycle, even during pregnancy with another male's offspring, can confuse the males into believing that the subsequent children are theirs. This "pseudo-estrus" theory applies to females within species that do not exhibit obvious clues to each stage of their cycle, such as langurs, rhesus macaques, and gelada baboons. An alternative to paternity confusion as a method of infanticide prevention is paternity concentration. This is the behavior of females to concentrate paternity to one specific dominant male as a means of protection from infanticide at the hands of less-dominant males. This particularly applies to species in which a male has a very long tenure as the dominant male, and faces little instability in this
409:
3600:
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243:, among other species, who also kill young cubs, thereby enabling them to impregnate the females. Unlike langurs, male lions live in small groups, which cooperate to take control of a pride from an existing group. They will attempt to kill any cubs that are roughly nine months old or younger, though as in other species, the female will attempt to defend her cubs viciously. Males have, on average, only a two-year window in which to
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228:. It then becomes easier to understand how infanticide evolved. If a male kills a female's young, she stops lactating and is able to become pregnant again. Because of this, the newly dominant male is able to reproduce at a faster rate than without the act of infanticide. As males are in a constant struggle to protect their group, those that express infanticidal behavior will contribute a larger portion to future
521:, a seasonal breeding primate, have shown that infanticide does lessen the interbirth period of the females and can allow them to breed with the next breeding group. Other cases of seasonal breeding species where the infanticidal characteristic is observed has been explained as a way of preserving the mother's resources and energy in turn increasing the reproductive success of upcoming breeding periods.
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over the dominant role within a group, usually resulting in an aggressive struggle with the existing dominant male. If successful in overthrowing the previous male, unrelated infants of the females are then killed. This infanticidal period is limited to the window just after the group is taken over. Cannibalism, however, has not been observed in this species.
670:. Females choose these dominant males as the best available form of protection, and therefore mate exclusively with this male. This is especially common within small rodents. An additional behavioral strategy to prevent infanticide by males may be aggressive protection of the nest along with female presence. This strategy is commonly used in species such as
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presence of a parent significantly reduces the rate of infanticide because conspecific adults ignore juveniles when a parent is present, likely because another adult is more threatening to the aggressive lizard. Therefore, a juvenile living within its parents' own territory will experience far less attacks from conspecific adults.
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experiments that this behavior does not provide their young with any better nourishment, nor is it of any use in defending against predators. However, other burying bugs may try to take their nesting space. When this occurs, a male-female pair is over twice as successful in nest defense, preventing the ovicide of their offspring.
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almost two months, but afterwards they become infanticidal once more. It is no coincidence here that the female gestation period is three weeks as well, or that it takes roughly two months for pups to become fully weaned and leave their nest. The proximate mechanism that allows for the correct timing of these periods involves
776:, the father guards the area, circling around them and keeping them together, as well as providing protection from would-be predators. After a few days, most of the fish will swim away. At this point the male's behavior changes: instead of defending the stragglers, he treats them as any other small prey, and eats them.
298:. In birds, however, the situation is more complex, as female eggs are fertilized one at a time, with a 24-hour delay between each. Males may destroy clutches laid 12 days or more after their arrival, though their investment of around 60 days of parental care is large, so a high level of parental certainty is needed.
662:), female mating with multiple males, or dilution of paternity, was found to inhibit male-to-infant aggression and infanticide eight times less towards infants of females with which they had previously mated. Multi-male mating, or MMM, is recorded as a measure to prevent infanticide in species where young is
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revealed that infanticide is widespread in this species, including infanticide from invading males and immigrant females, as well as occasional cannibalism of an individual's own offspring. The surprising finding of the study was that by far the most common type of infanticide involved the killing of
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and will not hatch. In this species, males are a scarce resource that females must sometimes compete for. Those that cannot find a free male often stab the eggs of a brooding one. As in the above case, males then fertilize this female and care for her eggs. Noritaka
Ichikawa has found that males only
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Costs of the behavior described in prairie dogs include the risk to an individual of losing their own young while killing another's, not to mention the fact that they are killing their own relatives. In a species where infanticide is common, perpetrators may well be victims themselves in the future,
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favors behaviors that promote the well-being of closely related individuals. It was postulated that this form of infanticide is more successful than trying to kill young in nearby groups, as the whole group must be bypassed in this case, while within a group only the mother need be evaded. Marauding
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animal, living in groups that consist of a single dominant male and multiple females. The dominant male has a reproductive monopoly within the group, which causes sub-ordinate males to have a much lower fitness value in comparison. To gain the opportunity to reproduce, sub-ordinate males try to take
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Sedlak, A.J., Mettenburg, J., Basena, M., Petta, I., McPherson, K., Greene, A., and Li, S. (2010). Fourth
National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS–4): Report to Congress, Executive Summary. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and
826:
Family structure is the most important risk factor in child abuse and infanticide. Children who live with both their natural (biological) parents are at low risk for abuse. The risk increases greatly when children live with step-parents or with a single parent. Children living without either parent
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produced a mixed result. The hives of some offspring were hygienic, while others were not. There was also a third type of hive where workers removed the wax cap of the infected cells, but did nothing more. What was not apparent was the presence of a fourth group who threw diseased larvae out of the
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behavior is adaptive, because males will not know whether it is their own offspring they are killing or not, and may be more reluctant or invest less effort in infanticide attempts. Lionesses cooperatively guard against scouting males, and a pair were seen to violently attack a male after it killed
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the arrival of the new male are killed. This is less common than infanticide of existing young, but can still increase fitness in cases where the offspring could not possibly have been fathered by the new mate, i.e. one gestation or fertility period. This is known to occur in lions and langurs, and
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This form of infanticide represents a struggle between the sexes, where one sex exploits the other, much to the latter's disadvantage. It is usually the male who benefits from this behavior, though in cases where males play similar roles to females in parental care the victim and perpetrator may be
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by staying guard, as males that only guarded the nest for short periods were seen to have similar hatching rates in a controlled experiment where there were no females present. It seems rather that males are more successful in avoiding infanticidal females when they are out of the water with their
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the offending females and cared for their young. Emlen describes how he "shot a female one night, and ... by first light a new female was already on the turf. I saw terrible things—pecking and picking up and throwing down chicks until they were dead. Within hours she was soliciting the male,
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Females are also known to display infanticidal behavior. This may appear unexpected, as the conditions described above do not apply. Males are not always an unlimited resource though—in some species, males provide parental care to their offspring, and females may compete indirectly with others by
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show great variation in behavior over time. After fertilizing a female, they become aggressive towards mouse pups for three weeks, killing any they come across. After this period however, their behavior changes dramatically, and they become paternal, caring for their own offspring. This lasts for
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Infanticide in burying beetles may have led to male parental care. In this species males often cooperate with the female in preparing a piece of carrion, which is buried with the eggs and eaten by the larvae when they hatch. Males may also guard the site alongside the female. It is apparent from
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tribes. Infants and young children would often be killed, roasted, and eaten by their mother and sometimes also fed to siblings, usually during times of famine. In non-filial cases when a child was "well-fed" and in the absence of its mother sometimes a man or the whole community would kill and
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confusion or dilution. In theory, this implies that a female that mates with multiple males will widely spread the assumption of paternity across many males, and therefore make them less likely to kill or attack offspring that could potentially carry their genes. This theory operates under the
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physiology, and disturbances in the duration of these cycles results in different periods of time between behaviors. The adaptive value of this behavior switching is twofold; infanticide removes competitors for when the mouse does have offspring, and allows the female victims to be impregnated
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live in small families and adults defend their territories against conspecifics. The small "nuclear families" live in the same permanent shelter and the parents protect their infants from infanticidal conspecifics in this way. Adults attack unrelated juveniles but not their own offspring. The
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ethologist Glenn
Hausfater states that "infanticide has not received much study because it's a repulsive subject Many people regard it as reprehensible to even think about it." Research into infanticide in animals is in part motivated by the desire to understand human behaviors, such as
599:
Because this form of infanticide reduces the fitness of killed individuals' parents, animals have evolved a range of counter-strategies against this behavior. These may be divided into two very different classes - those that tend to prevent infanticide, and those that minimize losses.
517:, birthing periods can happen anytime during the year, as long as there is not an unweaned offspring of that female. This is a contributor to the frequency of infanticide in carnivorous felids. Some species of seasonal breeders have been observed to commit infanticide. Cases in the
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such that they come out no better off; but as long as an infanticidal individual gains in reproductive output by its behavior, it will tend to become common. Further costs of the behavior in general may be induced by counter-strategies evolved in the other sex, as described below.
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Infanticide, the destruction of offspring characteristic to many species, has posed so great a threat that there have been observable changes of behavior in respective female mothers; more specifically, these changes exist as preventive measures. A common behavioral
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moisten their eggs during the first 90 seconds or so, after which all of the moisture on their bodies has evaporated. However, they guard the egg masses for as long as several hours at a time, when they could be hunting prey. They do not seem to prevent further
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In mammals, male infanticide is most often observed in non-seasonal breeders. There is less fitness advantage for a conspecific to carry out infanticide if the interbirth period of the mother will not be decreased and the female will not return to estrous. In
278:, on the other hand, no longer commit infanticide once they have paired with a female, but actively kill and eat other offspring when young. The females of this species behave much like male mice, hunting down other litters except when rearing their own.
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behavior is evidently adaptive, as infanticidal females had more and healthier young than others, and were heavier themselves as well. This behavior appears to reduce competition with other females for food, and future competition among offspring.
126:, in which the victim sex may have counter-adaptations that reduce the success of this practice. It may also occur for other reasons, such as the struggle for food between females. In this case individuals may even kill closely related offspring.
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Infanticide has been, and still is, practiced by some human cultures, groups, or individuals. In many past societies, certain forms of infanticide were considered permissible, whereas in most modern societies the practice is considered
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Filial infanticide occurs when a parent kills its own offspring. Both male and female parents have been observed to do this, as well as sterile worker castes in some eusocial animals. Filial infanticide is also observed as a form of
2042:
Yao, Hui; Yu, Huiliang; Yang, Banghe; Yang, Wangji; Xu, Haiqing; Grueter, Cyril C.; Li, Ming; Xiang, Zuofu (2016-02-02). "Male
Infanticide in the Golden Snub-Nosed Monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana), a Seasonally Breeding Primate".
160:(members of the same species) rarely killed each other. By the 1980s it had gained much greater acceptance. Possible reasons it was not treated as a prevalent natural phenomenon include its abhorrence to people, the popular
612:. This may prevent their young from being killed after birth, saving the mother wasted time and energy. However, this strategy also benefits the new male. In mice this can occur by the proximate mechanism of the female
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one of their young. Resistance to infanticide is also costly, though: for instance, a female may sustain serious injuries in defending her young. At times it is simply more advantageous to submit than to fight.
842:. Hausfater explains that researchers are "trying to see if there's any connection between animal infanticide and child abuse, neglect and killing by humans We just don't know yet what the connections are."
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Children who live with a single parent that has a live-in partner are at the highest risk: they are 20 times more likely to be victims of child abuse than children living with both biological parents.
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of this behavior are quite complex. Experiments by
Rothenbuhler showed that the 'hygienic' behavior of the queen was lost by crossing with a non-hygienic drone. This means that the trait must be
566:. If each female were to have her own private nest away from others, she would be much less likely to have her infants killed when absent. This, and other costs such as increased spread of
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Demong and Emlen found that removing females from a territory resulted in nearby females attacking the chicks of the male in most cases, evicting them from their nest. The males then
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hive, but did not have the uncapping gene. This was suspected by
Rothenbuhler however, who manually removed the caps, and found some hives proceeded to clear out infected cells.
2490:
Soltis, J.; Thomsen, R.; Matsubayashi, K.; Takenaka, O. (2000). "Infanticide by resident males and female counter-strategies in wild
Japanese macaques ( Macaca fuscata )".
379:. In this species the males take care of masses of eggs by keeping them hydrated with water from their bodies. Without a male caring for the eggs like this, they become
156:, infanticide was attributed to stress causing factors like overcrowding and captivity, and was considered pathological and maladaptive. Classical ethology held that
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species of spider have been known to exhibit infanticide as a way to encourage females to mate again. There is at least one documented case of infanticide among
791:, which attacks the developing bee larva while still living in the cell. Some hives however have evolved a behavioral adaptation that resists this disease: the
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and allow the male to copulate, deceiving him into thinking she is actually sexually receptive. Females may also have sexual liaisons with other males. This
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Hrdy, S. B. (1979). "Infanticide among animals: A review, classification, and examination of the implications for the reproductive strategies of females".
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on them to conform to this behavior is strong. In fact it is estimated that a quarter of cubs dying in the first year of life are victims of infanticide.
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afforded to their own young, and allows females to become fertile faster. This is because females of this species, as well as many other mammals, do not
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bees selectively kill the infected individuals by removing them from their cells and tossing them out of the hive, preventing it from spreading. The
2105:
Mumme, R. L.; Koenig, W. D.; Pitelka, F. A. (1983). "Reproductive competition in the communal acorn woodpecker: Sisters destroy each other's eggs".
474:), including cases of females killing their mother's, sister's, and daughter's offspring. Infanticidal raids from neighboring groups also occurred.
542:
in a fight with another male, attacks from females who vigorously defend their offspring may be telling for harem-polygynous males, with a risk of
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O'Connor D, Shine R (2004) Parental care protects against infanticide in the lizard
Egernia saxatilis(Scincidae). Animal Behaviour 68, 1361–1369.
323:
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583:. Females nest together, possibly because those nesting alone have their eggs constantly destroyed by rivals. Even so, eggs are consistently
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While it may be beneficial for some species to behave this way, infanticide is not without risks to the perpetrator. Having already expended
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and he was mounting her the same day. The next night I shot the other female, then came out the next morning and saw the whole thing again."
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1934:
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Rödel, H.G; Starkloff, A (2008). "Infanticide and maternal offspring defence in european rabbits under natural breeding conditions".
152:
Infanticide only came to be seen as a significant occurrence in nature quite recently. At the time it was first seriously treated by
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1500:
Perrigo, G.; Bryant, W. C.; Vomsaal, F (1990). "A unique neural timing system prevents male mice from harming their own offspring".
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O'Connor, D.; Shine, R. (2003). "Lizards in 'nuclear families': A novel reptilian social system in
Egernia saxatilis (Scincidae)".
608:
Some females abort or resorb their own young while they are still in development after a new male takes over; this is known as the
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Trumbo, S. (1994). "Interspecific competition, brood parasitism, and the evolution of biparental cooperation in
Burying beetles".
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Agrell, J.; Wolff, J.; Ylönen, H.; Ylonen, Hannu (1998). "Counter-strategies to infanticide in mammals: Costs and consequences".
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Clutton-Brock, T. H.; P. N. M., B.; Smith, R.; McIlrath, G. M.; Kansky, R.; Gaynor, D.; O'Riain, M. J.; Skinner, J. D. (1998).
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the eggs as a group, but by this time a significant proportion of their eggs have been lost because of this ovicidal behavior.
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occurs when a parent kills its own offspring. This sometimes involves consumption of the young themselves, which is termed
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2807:
Boyd, I. L. (1985). "Investment in growth by pregnant wild rabbits in relation to litter size and sex of the offspring".
3185:
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966:
2745:"Brood Reduction and Parental Infanticide — are the White StorkCiconia ciconiaand the Black StorkC. nigraexceptional?"
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assumption that the specific males keep a memory of past mates, under a desire to perpetuate their own genes In the
1061:
878:, is more common than the killing of male offspring, especially in cultures where male children are more desirable.
2850:
2708:
Tortosa, Francisco S.; Redondo, Tomas (1992). "Motives for Parental Infanticide in White Storks Ciconia ciconia".
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tend to kill the existing young upon taking control of a harem. There have been sightings of infanticide in the
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570:, must be made up for by other benefits, such as group territory defense and increased awareness of predators.
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at Dong Yai Wildlife Sanctuary, with the researchers describing it as likely normal behavior among aggressive
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will eat the kits of strange females for a source of nutrition, and to take over the nest for her own litter.
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827:(foster children) are 10 times more likely to be abused than children who live with both biological parents.
2409:
1581:
Freed, L. A. (1987). "Prospective infanticide and protection of genetic paternity in tropical house wrens".
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defended by all individuals, and underground nesting. Black-tails only have one litter per year, and are in
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at first by nest partners themselves, until the entire group lays on the same day. They then cooperate and
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Female langurs may leave the group with their young alongside the outgoing male, and others may develop a
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notions of the time (the idea that individuals behave for the good of the group or species; compare with
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contain the gene for hygienic behavior. Furthermore, the behavior is dependent on two separate loci. A
435:
3448:
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Hoogland, J. L. (1985). "Infanticide in prairie dogs: Lactating females kill offspring of close kin".
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Taking a broader view of the black-tailed prairie dog situation, infanticide can be seen as a cost of
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63:. The practice has been observed in many species throughout the animal kingdom, especially primates (
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3253:
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420:
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Scott, M. P. (1990). "Brood guarding and the evolution of male parental care in burying beetles".
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Wanghongsa, Sawai; Boonkird, Kalyanee (2006). "On the incident of infanticide in wild elephants".
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partner of the victim's parent, which would otherwise be unavailable. This represents a gain in
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infanticide has been recorded in almost every culture. A unique aspect of human infanticide is
119:
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Packer, C.; Pusey, A. (1983). "Adaptations of female lions to infanticide by incoming males".
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1821:
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Ichikawa, N. (1995). "Male counterstrategy against infanticide of the female giant water bug
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1331:
1182:"Infanticide as Sexual Conflict: Coevolution of Male Strategies and Female Counterstrategies"
674:. Aggressive protection of the nest in an effort to reduce infanticide is observed with the
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by females to reduce the risk of infanticide of future offspring is through the process of
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8:
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Hausfater, Glenn (1984-08-01). "Infanticide: Comparative and Evolutionary Perspectives".
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2661:"Filial cannibalism improves survival and development of Beaugregory damselfish embryos"
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2088:"Comparative and evolutionary perspectives on infanticide: An introduction and overview"
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Labov, J. B. (1981). "Pregnancy blocking in rodents: Adaptive advantages for females".
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Mei, Long; Yan, Rongzhen; Yin, Luping; Sullivan, Regina M.; Lin, Dayu (2023-06-29).
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136:. The behavior is widespread in fishes, and is seen in terrestrial animals as well.
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2012:
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Balme, Guy A.; Hunter, Luke T.B. (2013-10-01). "Why leopards commit infanticide".
1324:"Mating conflict in primates: infanticide, sexual harassment and female sexuality"
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between the incumbent's offspring and those of other males but also increases the
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438:. Their living arrangement involves one male living with four or so females in a
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2562:"How do infanticidal male bank voles (myodes glarelus) find the next with pups?"
1535:
Hausfater, G. (1984). "Infanticide: Comparative and evolutionary perspectives".
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2919:"Antagonistic circuits mediating infanticide and maternal care in female mice"
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768:—where fathers eat their own offspring—may also occur. When young
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889:. This is documented in many regions, but particularly amongst pre-colonial
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earlier than if they continued to care for their young, as mentioned above.
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1157:"Jasenovac in Croatia or a short story about a war and mass killing in it"
1079:"Jasenovac in Croatia or a short story about a war and mass killing in it"
874:— sometimes with tacit societal acceptance. Female infanticide, a form of
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Hrdy, D. B. (1977). "Infanticide as a primate reproductive strategy".
3036:"Behavior genetics of nest cleaning in honey bees. IV. Responses of F
2410:"Why mothers do not resist infanticide: A cost-benefit genetic model"
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715:
667:
663:
613:
543:
397:
372:
369:
229:
225:
80:
40:
2984:
Cannibalism: Ecology and Evolution of Cannibalism among Diverse Taxa
2895:
2836:
2721:
2428:
2351:
1835:
1636:
1156:
1078:
977:(6th ed.). Sinauer Associates, Inc. Sunderland, Massachusetts.
36:
23:
Lion cubs may be killed by males replacing other males in the pride.
3325:
3320:
3295:
3194:
2386:
2218:
1594:
1548:
1470:
863:
796:
738:
567:
431:
172:), and the fact that it is very difficult to observe in the field.
52:
2851:"What Can You Do to Keep Your Hamster From Eating Its Own Babies?"
1762:
833:
Infanticide is a subject that some humans may find discomforting.
322:
that the males represent. This has been documented in research by
289:
is a subset of sexual competition infanticide in which young born
106:
has the general theme of the killer (often male) becoming the new
3360:
2828:
2489:
1618:"Experimental induction of infanticide in female wattled jacanas"
847:
750:
514:
494:
467:
443:
221:
68:
48:
44:
16:
Killing of young offspring by an adult animal of the same species
745:. Similar behavior has been observed in various animals such as
485:
have been reported to kill their young through impact injuries.
306:
1237:
Sugiyama, Y. (1965). "On the social change of Hanuman langurs (
804:
746:
730:
650:
535:
490:
275:
268:
115:
96:
88:
72:
28:
3091:"Infanticide: Animal behavior scrutinized for clues to humans"
1935:"The evolution of infanticide by males in mammalian societies"
1765:"Infanticide and expulsion of females in a cooperative mammal"
1363:"The evolution of infanticide by males in mammalian societies"
3263:
851:
617:
539:
506:
338:. In the wattled jacana, it is exclusively the male sex that
247:, and lionesses only give birth once every two years, so the
201:
137:
1010:
991:
3370:
3163:
938:
267:), each day and night cycle affecting the mouse's internal
255:
240:
92:
84:
76:
1864:"The evolution of infanticidal mechanisms in male langurs"
885:
communities, infanticide would sometimes be extended into
734:
123:
2710:
Ornis Scandinavica (Scandinavian Journal of Ornithology)
686:
175:
2981:
2329:
1300:
Infanticide: Comparative and Evolutionary Perspectives
1297:
446:
for only a single day around the beginning of spring.
1047:
550:
to pursue a mother's young, which may try to escape.
3118:"Life and Death in Pre-Contact Aboriginal Australia"
1499:
1452:
1450:
787:
may become infected with a bacterial disease called
2407:
3040:and backcross generations to disease killed brood"
2658:
2295:
2150:"An exteroceptive block to pregnancy in the mouse"
2104:
1910:
1616:Emlen, S. T.; Demong, N. J.; Emlen, D. J. (1989).
970:
729:occurs when newborn offspring are killed by their
2916:
2659:Payne, A. G.; Smith, C.; Campbell, A. C. (2002).
2607:
1657:For footage of this, see Attenborough, D. (1990)
1447:
3616:
1615:
458:close kin's offspring. This seems illogical, as
294:has also been observed in other species such as
3144:"Infanticide in Traditional Aboriginal Society"
2559:
557:
3088:
2707:
2524:
3535:Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour
3179:
2325:
2323:
2321:
2319:
2085:
2041:
1056:. Harwood Academic Press, Chur, Switzerland.
779:
3116:Rubinstein, William D. (November 18, 2020).
3033:
2408:Yamamura, N.; Hasegawa, T.; Ito, Y. (1990).
1933:Lukas, Dieter; Huchard, Elise (2014-11-14).
1932:
1678:
1360:
1052:. In Parmigiani, S.; vom Saal, F.S. (eds.).
114:by the killer, and a loss in fitness by the
3142:Rubinstein, William D. (January 13, 2022).
3006:
2458:
2456:
2454:
2372:
2302:. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
1998:
1707:
1705:
1015:. Cambridge University Press. p. 569.
118:of the offspring killed. This is a type of
3540:International Society for Applied Ethology
3186:
3172:
3141:
3115:
2777:
2316:
2290:
1277:
1186:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
1099:
1097:
1095:
965:
466:Similar behavior has been reported in the
281:
3055:
2958:
2760:
2742:
2684:
2173:
2092:Comparative and Evolutionary Perspectives
1830:. Vol. 154, no. 3. p. 36.
1796:
1534:
1456:
1213:
1013:Infanticide By Males And Its Implications
973:Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach
815:
623:
2982:Elgar, M.A.; Crespi, B.J., eds. (1992).
2451:
2086:Hrdy, Sarah; Hausfater, G (1984-01-01).
1711:
1702:
1576:
1574:
1236:
1179:
1103:
696:
529:
407:
318:killing their offspring, freeing up the
305:
18:
1092:
1043:
1041:
1039:
1011:van Schaik, C.P.; Janson, C.H. (2000).
992:Parmigiani, S.; vom Saal, F.S. (1994).
701:Damselfish may eat their own offspring.
403:
91:. Infanticide can be practiced by both
3617:
2873:
1885:
1819:
1361:Lukas, Dieter; Huchard, Elise (2014).
239:Similar behavior is also seen in male
3167:
2986:. Oxford University Press, New York.
2975:
2247:
2204:
2147:
1928:
1926:
1580:
1571:
1356:
1354:
1287:. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Worl.
1154:
1076:
687:Infanticide by parents and caregivers
594:
524:
176:Infanticide involving sexual conflict
2806:
2462:
2045:International Journal of Primatology
1418:
1175:
1173:
1036:
603:
2492:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
2250:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
710:in some birds species, such as the
389:eggs, which might well explain the
185:for discussion of this asymmetry).
47:. Animal infanticide is studied in
13:
2743:Zieliński, Piotr (December 2002).
2560:Yöken, H.; Haapakoski, A. (2017).
1923:
1822:"Infanticide reported in dolphins"
1351:
959:
375:insect found in still waters near
14:
3656:
1888:"Cheating cheetahs caught by DNA"
1298:Hausfater, G.; S.B. Hrdy (1984).
1170:
803:, only being expressed when both
453:by John Hoogland and others from
3599:
3598:
2665:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
2630:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2003.01777.x
2547:10.1111/j.1439-0310.2007.01447.x
1769:Proceedings: Biological Sciences
1241:) in their natural conditions".
1180:Palombit, Ryne A. (2015-06-01).
1048:Pusey, A.E.; Packer, C. (1994).
996:. Harwood: London. p. 493.
858:usually because of the parent's
59:is the analogous destruction of
3135:
3109:
3082:
3072:
3027:
3000:
2910:
2867:
2843:
2800:
2795:North Carolina State University
2736:
2701:
2652:
2601:
2592:
2553:
2518:
2483:
2401:
2366:
2284:
2241:
2198:
2141:
2098:
2079:
2035:
1992:
1904:
1886:Fildes, Jonathan (2007-05-29).
1879:
1856:
1813:
1756:
1744:
1672:
1651:
1609:
1528:
1493:
1412:
714:. This may be due to a lack of
170:gene-centered view of evolution
51:, specifically in the field of
43:by a mature animal of the same
3244:Bee learning and communication
2784:North Carolina Pork Conference
1716:(Hemiptera: Belostomatidae)".
1316:
1291:
1271:
1230:
1148:
1070:
854:. It still takes place in the
573:An avian example published in
538:and perhaps sustained serious
412:The Black-tailed prairie dog (
313:females carry out infanticide.
1:
3089:Bayard Webster (1982-08-17).
2809:The Journal of Animal Ecology
2013:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.07.019
1514:10.1016/S0003-3472(05)80419-1
1155:Logos, Aleksandar A. (2022).
1126:10.1126/science.230.4729.1037
1077:Logos, Aleksandar A. (2022).
1054:Infanticide and Parental Care
1030:
994:Infanticide and Parental Care
497:population. The males of the
342:, while females defend their
301:
212:Infanticide not only reduces
147:
3193:
3034:Rothenbuhler, W. C. (1964).
2477:10.1016/0162-3095(79)90004-9
1820:Milius, S. (July 18, 1998).
741:, which affects up to 5% of
733:. This is sometimes seen in
558:As a cost of social behavior
358:Infanticide is also seen in
67:) but including microscopic
7:
3013:. Oxford University Press.
1198:10.1101/cshperspect.a017640
897:
760:
721:
616:the odor of the new male's
546:. It is also energetically
188:
10:
3661:
2943:10.1038/s41586-023-06147-9
1751:Infanticide in Norway rats
1718:Journal of Insect Behavior
819:
780:Worker caste killing young
690:
3594:
3548:
3527:
3406:
3301:Evolutionary neuroscience
3201:
2465:Ethology and Sociobiology
2057:10.1007/s10764-016-9892-2
1159:. pp. 10 and note 28
924:Parent–offspring conflict
909:Infanticide in carnivores
876:sex-selective infanticide
421:Black-tailed prairie dogs
214:intraspecific competition
142:sex-selective infanticide
35:involves the intentional
3254:Behavioral endocrinology
1684:"First, kill the babies"
477:
3449:Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt
3229:Animal sexual behaviour
2375:The American Naturalist
1962:10.1126/science.1257226
1669:, Episode 3 "Why Sex?".
1583:The American Naturalist
1390:10.1126/science.1257226
914:Infanticide in primates
423:are colonially-living,
287:Prospective infanticide
282:Prospective infanticide
3388:Tool use by non-humans
3341:Philosophical ethology
3286:Comparative psychology
3234:Animal welfare science
2677:10.1098/rspb.2002.2144
1781:10.1098/rspb.1998.0573
1339:Cite journal requires
1050:"Infanticide in lions"
919:Infanticide in rodents
866:, in addition to some
816:Humans and infanticide
737:, a behavior known as
702:
624:Preventive adaptations
417:
326:and Natalie Demong on
314:
196:(or gray langurs) are
102:Infanticide caused by
24:
2504:10.1007/s002650000224
2148:Bruce, H. M. (1959).
891:Aboriginal Australian
700:
530:Costs of the behavior
411:
309:
120:evolutionary struggle
22:
3494:William Homan Thorpe
3259:Behavioural genetics
3219:Animal consciousness
3214:Animal communication
3007:Dawkins, R. (1976).
2762:10.3161/068.037.0207
1714:Lethocerus deyrollei
1537:Current Anthropology
1459:Current Anthropology
1302:. New York, Aldine.
766:Paternal infanticide
727:Maternal infanticide
499:Stegodyphus lineatus
455:Princeton University
434:found mainly in the
414:Cynomys ludovicianus
404:Resource competition
365:Lethocerus deyrollei
166:species selectionist
3249:Behavioural ecology
3057:10.1093/icb/4.2.111
2935:2023Natur.618.1006M
2929:(7967): 1006–1016.
2888:1994Oikos..69..241T
2821:1985JAnEc..54..137B
2671:(1505): 2095–2102.
2622:2003MolEc..12..743O
2578:2017Ethol.123..105Y
2539:2008Ethol.114...22R
2344:1998Oikos..83..507A
2207:American Naturalist
2166:1959Natur.184..105B
2119:1983Natur.306..583M
1954:2014Sci...346..841L
1775:(1412): 2291–2295.
1433:1977AmSci..65...40B
1382:2014Sci...346..841L
1118:1985Sci...230.1037H
1112:(4729): 1037–1040.
894:consume the child.
757:, mice and humans.
483:Bottlenose dolphins
245:pass on their genes
218:parental investment
183:Bateman's principle
65:primate infanticide
3578:Behavioral Ecology
3499:Nikolaas Tinbergen
3291:Emotion in animals
3269:Cognitive ethology
3096:The New York Times
3044:American Zoologist
2789:2007-08-20 at the
2749:Acta Ornithologica
2298:The Langurs of Abu
2262:10.1007/BF00174022
1730:10.1007/BF01988903
1660:The Trials of Life
1421:American Scientist
1257:10.1007/BF01730356
1239:Presbytis entellus
944:Sexual cannibalism
872:population control
835:Cornell University
703:
693:Filial cannibalism
595:Counter-strategies
525:Costs and defenses
472:Suricata suricatta
451:natural experiment
418:
393:of this behavior.
315:
249:selective pressure
134:filial cannibalism
130:Filial infanticide
25:
3612:
3611:
3504:Jakob von UexkĂĽll
3274:Comfort behaviour
3020:978-0-19-286092-7
2993:978-0-19-854650-4
2610:Molecular Ecology
2586:10.1111/eth.12579
2113:(5943): 583–584.
1948:(6211): 841–844.
1913:Wildlife Yearbook
1753:. ratbehavior.org
1663:, Episode 12, or
1309:978-0-202-02022-8
1022:978-0-521-77295-2
1003:978-3-7186-5505-2
984:978-0-87893-009-8
904:Human infanticide
887:child cannibalism
718:in this species.
680:Egernia saxatilis
604:Loss minimization
581:acorn woodpeckers
519:snub-nosed monkey
320:limiting resource
261:circadian rhythms
234:natural selection
198:Old World monkeys
154:Yukimaru Sugiyama
3652:
3602:
3601:
3564:Animal Cognition
3557:Animal Behaviour
3509:Wolfgang Wickler
3209:Animal cognition
3188:
3181:
3174:
3165:
3164:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3139:
3133:
3132:
3130:
3128:
3113:
3107:
3106:
3104:
3103:
3086:
3080:
3076:
3070:
3069:
3059:
3031:
3025:
3024:
3010:The Selfish Gene
3004:
2998:
2997:
2979:
2973:
2972:
2962:
2914:
2908:
2907:
2871:
2865:
2864:
2862:
2861:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2804:
2798:
2781:
2775:
2774:
2764:
2740:
2734:
2733:
2705:
2699:
2698:
2688:
2656:
2650:
2649:
2605:
2599:
2596:
2590:
2589:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2522:
2516:
2515:
2487:
2481:
2480:
2460:
2449:
2448:
2423:(5): 1346–1357.
2414:
2405:
2399:
2398:
2370:
2364:
2363:
2327:
2314:
2313:
2301:
2288:
2282:
2281:
2245:
2239:
2238:
2202:
2196:
2195:
2177:
2175:10.1038/184105a0
2145:
2139:
2138:
2127:10.1038/306583a0
2102:
2096:
2095:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2001:Animal Behaviour
1996:
1990:
1989:
1939:
1930:
1921:
1920:
1908:
1902:
1901:
1899:
1898:
1883:
1877:
1876:
1874:
1873:
1868:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1851:
1850:
1817:
1811:
1810:
1800:
1760:
1754:
1748:
1742:
1741:
1709:
1700:
1699:
1697:
1696:
1676:
1670:
1655:
1649:
1648:
1622:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1578:
1569:
1568:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1502:Animal Behaviour
1497:
1491:
1490:
1454:
1445:
1444:
1416:
1410:
1409:
1367:
1358:
1349:
1348:
1342:
1337:
1335:
1327:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1295:
1289:
1288:
1275:
1269:
1268:
1251:(3–4): 381–417.
1234:
1228:
1227:
1217:
1177:
1168:
1167:
1165:
1164:
1152:
1146:
1145:
1101:
1090:
1089:
1087:
1086:
1074:
1068:
1067:
1045:
1026:
1007:
988:
976:
949:Sexual selection
864:violent behavior
676:Black Rock Skink
672:European rabbits
656:Japanese macaque
360:giant water bugs
122:between the two
3660:
3659:
3655:
3654:
3653:
3651:
3650:
3649:
3615:
3614:
3613:
3608:
3590:
3544:
3523:
3519:Solly Zuckerman
3459:Karl von Frisch
3444:Richard Dawkins
3429:John B. Calhoun
3414:Patrick Bateson
3402:
3336:Pain in animals
3197:
3192:
3162:
3152:
3150:
3148:quadrant.org.au
3140:
3136:
3126:
3124:
3122:quadrant.org.au
3114:
3110:
3101:
3099:
3087:
3083:
3077:
3073:
3039:
3032:
3028:
3021:
3005:
3001:
2994:
2980:
2976:
2915:
2911:
2896:10.2307/3546144
2872:
2868:
2859:
2857:
2855:The Spruce Pets
2849:
2848:
2844:
2805:
2801:
2791:Wayback Machine
2782:
2778:
2741:
2737:
2722:10.2307/3676447
2706:
2702:
2657:
2653:
2606:
2602:
2597:
2593:
2558:
2554:
2523:
2519:
2488:
2484:
2461:
2452:
2429:10.2307/2409294
2412:
2406:
2402:
2371:
2367:
2352:10.2307/3546678
2328:
2317:
2310:
2289:
2285:
2246:
2242:
2203:
2199:
2146:
2142:
2103:
2099:
2084:
2080:
2040:
2036:
1997:
1993:
1937:
1931:
1924:
1909:
1905:
1896:
1894:
1884:
1880:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1862:
1861:
1857:
1848:
1846:
1836:10.2307/4010610
1818:
1814:
1761:
1757:
1749:
1745:
1710:
1703:
1694:
1692:
1677:
1673:
1656:
1652:
1637:10.2307/4087750
1620:
1614:
1610:
1579:
1572:
1533:
1529:
1498:
1494:
1455:
1448:
1417:
1413:
1376:(6211): 841–4.
1365:
1359:
1352:
1340:
1338:
1329:
1328:
1322:
1321:
1317:
1310:
1296:
1292:
1276:
1272:
1235:
1231:
1178:
1171:
1162:
1160:
1153:
1149:
1102:
1093:
1084:
1082:
1075:
1071:
1064:
1046:
1037:
1033:
1023:
1004:
985:
962:
960:Further reading
900:
883:hunter-gatherer
824:
818:
782:
772:hatch from the
763:
755:burying beetles
724:
708:brood reduction
695:
689:
626:
606:
597:
560:
532:
527:
503:Asian elephants
480:
406:
368:is a large and
328:wattled jacanas
304:
284:
194:Hanuman langurs
191:
178:
150:
104:sexual conflict
17:
12:
11:
5:
3658:
3648:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3610:
3609:
3607:
3606:
3595:
3592:
3591:
3589:
3588:
3581:
3574:
3571:Animal Welfare
3567:
3560:
3552:
3550:
3546:
3545:
3543:
3542:
3537:
3531:
3529:
3525:
3524:
3522:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3484:Desmond Morris
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3439:Marian Dawkins
3436:
3434:Charles Darwin
3431:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3410:
3408:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3379:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3316:Human ethology
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3282:
3281:
3271:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3224:Animal culture
3221:
3216:
3211:
3205:
3203:
3199:
3198:
3191:
3190:
3183:
3176:
3168:
3161:
3160:
3134:
3108:
3081:
3071:
3050:(2): 111–123.
3037:
3026:
3019:
2999:
2992:
2974:
2909:
2882:(2): 241–249.
2866:
2842:
2815:(1): 137–147.
2799:
2776:
2755:(2): 113–119.
2735:
2716:(2): 185–189.
2700:
2651:
2616:(3): 743–752.
2600:
2591:
2572:(2): 105–112.
2552:
2517:
2482:
2450:
2400:
2387:10.1086/284097
2381:(5): 716–728.
2365:
2338:(3): 507–517.
2315:
2309:978-0674510586
2308:
2283:
2240:
2219:10.1086/283828
2213:(3): 361–371.
2197:
2140:
2097:
2078:
2051:(2): 175–184.
2034:
2007:(4): 791–799.
1991:
1922:
1903:
1878:
1855:
1812:
1755:
1743:
1724:(2): 181–186.
1701:
1682:(1996-09-01).
1671:
1650:
1608:
1595:10.1086/284758
1589:(6): 948–954.
1570:
1549:10.1086/203169
1543:(4): 500–502.
1527:
1508:(3): 535–539.
1492:
1471:10.1086/203169
1465:(4): 500–502.
1446:
1411:
1350:
1341:|journal=
1315:
1308:
1290:
1270:
1229:
1192:(6): a017640.
1169:
1147:
1091:
1069:
1062:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1027:
1021:
1008:
1002:
989:
983:
961:
958:
957:
956:
951:
946:
941:
936:
931:
926:
921:
916:
911:
906:
899:
896:
868:poor countries
860:mental illness
820:Main article:
817:
814:
781:
778:
762:
759:
723:
720:
688:
685:
660:macaca fuscata
625:
622:
605:
602:
596:
593:
559:
556:
531:
528:
526:
523:
479:
476:
405:
402:
391:ultimate cause
334:), a tropical
303:
300:
283:
280:
190:
187:
181:reversed (see
177:
174:
149:
146:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3657:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3622:
3620:
3605:
3597:
3596:
3593:
3587:
3586:
3582:
3580:
3579:
3575:
3573:
3572:
3568:
3566:
3565:
3561:
3559:
3558:
3554:
3553:
3551:
3547:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3532:
3530:
3526:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3489:Thomas Sebeok
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3479:Konrad Lorenz
3477:
3475:
3474:Julian Huxley
3472:
3470:
3469:Heini Hediger
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3411:
3409:
3405:
3399:
3398:Zoomusicology
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3358:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3331:Neuroethology
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3280:
3277:
3276:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3239:Anthrozoology
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3206:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3189:
3184:
3182:
3177:
3175:
3170:
3169:
3166:
3149:
3145:
3138:
3123:
3119:
3112:
3098:
3097:
3092:
3085:
3075:
3067:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3030:
3022:
3016:
3012:
3011:
3003:
2995:
2989:
2985:
2978:
2970:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2913:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2870:
2856:
2852:
2846:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2803:
2796:
2793:notes. 2002.
2792:
2788:
2785:
2780:
2772:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2739:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2704:
2696:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2655:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2604:
2595:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2556:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2521:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2486:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2459:
2457:
2455:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2411:
2404:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2369:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2326:
2324:
2322:
2320:
2311:
2305:
2300:
2299:
2293:
2287:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2244:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2201:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2160:(4680): 105.
2159:
2155:
2151:
2144:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2101:
2093:
2089:
2082:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2038:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1995:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1936:
1929:
1927:
1918:
1914:
1907:
1893:
1889:
1882:
1865:
1859:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1828:
1823:
1816:
1808:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1759:
1752:
1747:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1708:
1706:
1691:
1690:
1685:
1681:
1675:
1668:
1667:
1662:
1661:
1654:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1619:
1612:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1577:
1575:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1531:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1496:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1453:
1451:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1415:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1364:
1357:
1355:
1346:
1333:
1325:
1319:
1311:
1305:
1301:
1294:
1286:
1285:
1284:On Aggression
1280:
1274:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1245:
1240:
1233:
1225:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1176:
1174:
1158:
1151:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1080:
1073:
1065:
1063:9783718655052
1059:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1035:
1024:
1018:
1014:
1009:
1005:
999:
995:
990:
986:
980:
975:
974:
968:
964:
963:
955:
952:
950:
947:
945:
942:
940:
937:
935:
934:Paternal care
932:
930:
927:
925:
922:
920:
917:
915:
912:
910:
907:
905:
902:
901:
895:
892:
888:
884:
881:Amongst some
879:
877:
873:
870:as a form of
869:
865:
861:
857:
856:Western world
853:
849:
843:
841:
836:
831:
828:
823:
813:
810:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
777:
775:
771:
767:
758:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
719:
717:
713:
709:
699:
694:
684:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
652:
648:
642:
639:
635:
634:false estrous
630:
621:
619:
615:
611:
601:
592:
590:
586:
582:
578:
577:
571:
569:
565:
564:social living
555:
551:
549:
545:
541:
537:
522:
520:
516:
510:
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
475:
473:
469:
464:
461:
460:kin selection
456:
452:
449:A seven-year
447:
445:
441:
437:
436:United States
433:
430:
426:
422:
415:
410:
401:
399:
394:
392:
387:
382:
378:
374:
371:
367:
366:
361:
356:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
332:Jacana jacana
329:
325:
324:Stephen Emlen
321:
312:
311:Jacana jacana
308:
299:
297:
292:
288:
279:
277:
273:
270:
266:
265:chronobiology
262:
257:
252:
250:
246:
242:
237:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
210:
207:
204:. They are a
203:
199:
195:
186:
184:
173:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
145:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
100:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
21:
3630:Sociobiology
3583:
3576:
3569:
3562:
3555:
3514:E. O. Wilson
3464:Jane Goodall
3424:Donald Broom
3393:Zoosemiotics
3346:Sociobiology
3151:. Retrieved
3147:
3137:
3125:. Retrieved
3121:
3111:
3100:. Retrieved
3094:
3084:
3074:
3047:
3043:
3029:
3009:
3002:
2983:
2977:
2926:
2922:
2912:
2879:
2875:
2869:
2858:. Retrieved
2854:
2845:
2829:10.2307/4626
2812:
2808:
2802:
2779:
2752:
2748:
2738:
2713:
2709:
2703:
2668:
2664:
2654:
2613:
2609:
2603:
2594:
2569:
2565:
2555:
2533:(1): 22–31.
2530:
2526:
2520:
2495:
2491:
2485:
2468:
2464:
2420:
2416:
2403:
2378:
2374:
2368:
2335:
2331:
2297:
2286:
2256:(1): 31–40.
2253:
2249:
2243:
2210:
2206:
2200:
2157:
2153:
2143:
2110:
2106:
2100:
2091:
2081:
2048:
2044:
2037:
2004:
2000:
1994:
1945:
1941:
1916:
1912:
1906:
1895:. Retrieved
1891:
1881:
1870:. Retrieved
1858:
1847:. Retrieved
1827:Science News
1825:
1815:
1772:
1768:
1758:
1746:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1693:. Retrieved
1687:
1680:Zimmer, Carl
1674:
1664:
1658:
1653:
1628:
1624:
1611:
1586:
1582:
1540:
1536:
1530:
1505:
1501:
1495:
1462:
1458:
1427:(1): 40–49.
1424:
1420:
1414:
1373:
1369:
1332:cite journal
1318:
1299:
1293:
1283:
1273:
1248:
1242:
1238:
1232:
1189:
1185:
1161:. Retrieved
1150:
1109:
1105:
1083:. Retrieved
1081:. p. 10
1072:
1053:
1012:
993:
972:
880:
844:
832:
829:
825:
783:
765:
764:
726:
725:
704:
679:
659:
643:
633:
631:
627:
610:Bruce effect
607:
598:
574:
572:
561:
552:
533:
511:
481:
471:
465:
448:
419:
413:
395:
363:
357:
331:
316:
310:
290:
286:
285:
274:
253:
238:
211:
192:
179:
158:conspecifics
151:
129:
128:
101:
56:
32:
26:
3625:Infanticide
3454:Dian Fossey
3419:Marc Bekoff
3407:Ethologists
840:child abuse
822:Infanticide
712:white stork
638:promiscuous
509:elephants.
386:evaporation
336:wading bird
296:house wrens
33:infanticide
3640:Population
3619:Categories
3356:Structures
3351:Stereotypy
3102:2008-01-18
2860:2022-06-15
2498:(3): 195.
2292:Hrdy, S.B.
1919:: 111–119.
1897:2007-05-30
1872:2007-05-22
1849:2007-05-22
1695:2008-01-19
1631:(1): 1–7.
1279:Lorenz, K.
1163:2022-09-11
1085:2022-09-11
1031:References
967:Alcock, J.
789:foul brood
785:Honey bees
691:See also:
429:polygynous
381:desiccated
377:vegetation
352:fertilized
348:experiment
346:. In this
302:By females
230:gene pools
148:Background
81:amphibians
3585:Behaviour
3528:Societies
3366:Honeycomb
3127:March 17,
3079:Families.
2951:0028-0836
2771:0001-6454
2471:: 13–18.
2417:Evolution
2065:0164-0291
2021:0003-3472
1986:206559886
1970:0036-8075
1666:Evolution
1479:0011-3204
1406:206559886
1206:1943-0264
954:Siblicide
929:Parricide
809:backcross
801:recessive
716:siblicide
668:hierarchy
664:altricial
651:paternity
647:mechanism
568:parasites
544:infection
440:territory
432:squirrels
373:predatory
370:nocturnal
344:territory
226:lactation
200:found in
41:offspring
39:of young
3645:Ethology
3604:Category
3549:Journals
3376:Instinct
3326:Learning
3321:Instinct
3296:Ethogram
3279:Grooming
3202:Branches
3195:Ethology
3153:April 3,
3066:14172721
2969:37286598
2960:10648307
2787:Archived
2695:12396483
2646:45090454
2638:12675829
2566:Ethology
2527:Ethology
2512:22485349
2445:28563893
2395:84927815
2294:(1977).
2278:23748510
2235:85020158
2184:13805128
2135:19299353
2073:14544830
2029:53266285
1978:25395534
1892:BBC News
1738:41306483
1689:Discover
1603:84236418
1565:84753908
1522:53200704
1487:84753908
1398:25395534
1281:(1966).
1265:26758190
1244:Primates
1224:25986557
1142:23653101
1134:17814930
969:(1998).
898:See also
852:criminal
797:genetics
761:Paternal
751:hamsters
739:savaging
722:Maternal
614:smelling
589:incubate
487:Dominant
189:By males
69:rotifers
53:ethology
3635:Zoology
3306:Feeding
2931:Bibcode
2904:3546144
2884:Bibcode
2817:Bibcode
2730:3676447
2686:1691142
2618:Bibcode
2574:Bibcode
2535:Bibcode
2437:2409294
2360:3546678
2340:Bibcode
2270:4600371
2227:2460637
2192:4200823
2162:Bibcode
2115:Bibcode
1950:Bibcode
1942:Science
1844:4010610
1807:9881475
1798:1689533
1645:4087750
1557:2742911
1429:Bibcode
1378:Bibcode
1370:Science
1215:4448612
1114:Bibcode
1106:Science
848:immoral
805:alleles
747:rabbits
585:removed
515:Felidae
495:leopard
491:langurs
468:meerkat
444:estrous
396:Female
276:Gerbils
224:during
222:ovulate
116:parents
112:fitness
97:females
89:mammals
73:insects
57:Ovicide
49:zoology
45:species
37:killing
29:animals
3064:
3017:
2990:
2967:
2957:
2949:
2923:Nature
2902:
2835:
2769:
2728:
2693:
2683:
2644:
2636:
2510:
2443:
2435:
2393:
2358:
2306:
2276:
2268:
2233:
2225:
2190:
2182:
2154:Nature
2133:
2107:Nature
2071:
2063:
2027:
2019:
1984:
1976:
1968:
1842:
1805:
1795:
1787:
1736:
1643:
1601:
1563:
1555:
1520:
1485:
1477:
1441:402873
1439:
1404:
1396:
1306:
1263:
1222:
1212:
1204:
1140:
1132:
1060:
1019:
1000:
981:
793:worker
731:mother
576:Nature
548:costly
540:wounds
536:energy
340:broods
269:neural
206:social
108:sexual
3383:Swarm
3311:Hover
3264:Breed
2900:JSTOR
2876:Oikos
2833:JSTOR
2726:JSTOR
2642:S2CID
2508:S2CID
2433:JSTOR
2413:(PDF)
2391:S2CID
2356:JSTOR
2332:Oikos
2274:S2CID
2266:JSTOR
2231:S2CID
2223:JSTOR
2188:S2CID
2131:S2CID
2069:S2CID
2025:S2CID
1982:S2CID
1938:(PDF)
1867:(PDF)
1840:JSTOR
1789:51272
1785:JSTOR
1734:S2CID
1641:JSTOR
1621:(PDF)
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