680:, then species could be subject to selection and thus could change their occurrence over geological time, much as heritable selected-for traits change theirs over generations. For evolution to be driven by species selection, differential success must be the result of selection upon species-intrinsic properties, rather than for properties of genes, cells, individuals, or populations within species. Such properties include, for example, population structure, their propensity to speciate, extinction rates, and geological persistence. While the fossil record shows differential persistence of species, examples of species-intrinsic properties subject to natural selection have been much harder to document.
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by what the group does to the rabbit. Indeed, the proper, directly selected group property is that of "not killing the rabbit too early" rather than individual virulence. In situations such as these, we would expect there to be selection for cooperation amongst the viruses in a group in such a way that the group will not "kill the rabbit too early". It is of course true that any group behavior is the result of individual traits, such as individual viruses suppressing the virulence of their neighbours, but the causes of phenotypes are rarely the causes of fitness differences.
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with the environment ("vehicles"). Genes are "replicators" whereas individuals and groups of individuals are "vehicles". Dawkins argues that, although they are both aspects of the same process, "replicators" rather than "vehicles" should be preferred as units of selection. This is because replicators, owing to their permanence, should be regarded as the ultimate beneficiaries of adaptations. Genes are replicators and therefore the gene is the unit of selection. Dawkins further expounded this view in an entire chapter called '
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bitten it, since otherwise all the viruses inside the dead rabbit would rot with it. And indeed in natural systems such viruses display much lower virulence levels than do mutants of the same viruses that in laboratory culture readily outcompete non-virulent variants (or than do tick-transmitted viruses since ticks do bite dead rabbits).
509:
fight off infecting pathogens is a case of programmed and exquisitely contained cellular proliferation, it represents a case of the individual manipulating selection at the level of the cell to enhance its own fitness. In the case of the vertebrate immune system, selection at the level of the cell and individual are not in conflict.
611:
In the previous passage, the group is assumed to have "lower virulence", i.e., "virulence" is presented as a group trait. One could argue then that the selection is in fact against individual viruses that are too virulent. In this case, however, the fitness of all viruses within a rabbit is affected
508:
This selection for unconstrained proliferation is in conflict with the fitness interests of the individual, and thus there is tension between selection at the level of the cell and selection at the level of the individual. Since the proliferation of specific cells of the vertebrate immune system to
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Some mosquito-transmitted rabbit viruses are only transmitted to uninfected rabbits from infected rabbits which are still alive. This creates a selective pressure on every group of viruses already infecting a rabbit not to become too virulent and kill their host rabbit before enough mosquitoes have
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has written several books popularizing and expanding the idea. According to
Dawkins, genes cause phenotypes and a gene is 'judged' by its phenotypic effects. Dawkins distinguishes entities which survive or fail to survive ("replicators") from entities with temporary existence that interact directly
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are DNA sequences that, once replicated by the cellular machinery, insert themselves in the genome more or less randomly. Such insertions can be very mutagenic and thus reduce drastically individual fitness, so that there is strong selection against elements that are very active. Meiotic-drive
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The generality of the principles of natural selection means that any entities in nature that have variation, reproduction, and heritability may evolve. ...the principles can be applied equally to genes, organisms, populations, species, and at opposite ends of the scale, prebiotic molecules and
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Specific syndromes of selective factors can create situations in which groups are selected because they display group properties which are selected-for. Many common examples of group traits are reducible to individual traits, however. Selection of these traits is thus more simply explained as
376:) manipulate the machinery of chromosomal segregation so that chromosomes carrying the mutation are later found in more than half of the gametes produced by individuals heterozygous for the mutation, and for this reason the frequency of the mutation increases in the population.
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If a group of organisms, owing to their interactions or division of labor, provides superior fitness compared to other groups, where the fitness of the group is higher or lower than the mean fitness of the constituent individuals, group selection can be declared to occur.
560:, and is well understood and considered common. If a relatively faster gazelle manages to survive and reproduce more, the causation of the higher fitness of this gazelle can be fully accounted for if one looks at how individual gazelles fare under predation.
226:
Two useful introductions to the fundamental theory underlying the unit of selection issue and debate, which also present examples of multi-level selection from the entire range of the biological hierarchy (typically with entities at level
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The speed of the faster gazelle could be caused by a single gene, be polygenic, or be fully environmentally determined, but the unit of selection in this case is the individual since speed is a property of each individual gazelle.
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hypothesis, RNA sequences performing both enzymatic and information storage roles in autocatalytic sets were an early unit of selection and evolution that would later transition into living cells. It is possible that
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reflects the conflict between selective pressures acting at the level of the cell and those acting at the level of the multicellular individual. This perspective can shed new light on phenomena as diverse as
372:. In both of these cases, gene sequences increase their relative frequency in a population without necessarily providing benefits at other levels of organization. Meiotic-drive mutations (see
772:
Zee, Peter; Dyken, J. David Van; Bever, James D.; Richerson, Peter J.; Fletcher, Jeffrey A.; Linksvayer, Timothy A.; Breden, Felix; Fields, Peter; Edmund D. Brodie Iii (February 2010).
542:
Gene–culture coevolution was developed to explain how human behavior is a product of two different and interacting evolutionary processes: genetic evolution and cultural evolution.
488:
218:. There also is debate over the definition of the units themselves, and the roles for selection and replication, and whether these roles may change in the course of evolution.
972:
From
Darwinian Metaphysics towards Understanding the Evolution of Evolutionary Mechanisms. A Historical and Philosophical Analysis of Gene-Darwinism and Universal Darwinism
418:
also differ in their tendency to diversify and avoid loss during evolution. This latter form of selection more closely resembles clade selection of groups of species.
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195:. There is debate among evolutionary biologists about the extent to which evolution has been shaped by selective pressures acting at these different levels.
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Below, cases of selection at the genic, cellular, individual and group level from within the multi-level selection perspective are presented and discussed.
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There is debate over the relative importance of the units themselves. For instance, is it group or individual selection that has driven the evolution of
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alleles have also been shown strongly to reduce individual fitness, clearly exemplifying the potential conflict between selection at different levels.
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It remains controversial among biologists whether selection can operate at and above the level of species. Proponents of species selection include
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In the microbial realm, it has been interpreted that the unit of selection is a blend of ecological and functional behaviors, or
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with the gene as the unit of selection, arguing that a unit of selection should exhibit a high degree of permanence.
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1155:"Extended phenotype redux. How far can the reach of genes extend in manipulating the environment of an organism?"
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1052:"The RNA world hypothesis: The worst theory of the early evolution of life (except for all the others)a"
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206:, individual-centered explanations for the evolution of altruism become complex and rely on the use of
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231:-1 competing for increased representation, i.e., higher frequency, at the immediately higher level
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group-selected cooperation can always be cast within some broad-based individual selection model
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and are thus part of the same clade. This criticism does not apply to selection among different
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1651:"Lewontin's Living Legacy: Levels of Selection and Organismic Construction of the Environment"
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676:. If one views species as entities that replicate (speciate) and die (go extinct) within a
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and lost at different rates rather than speciating and going extinct at different rates.
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1106:"Differential Retention of Pfam Domains Contributes to Long-term Evolutionary Trends"
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Science and
Selection: Essays on biological evolution and the philosophy of science
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1941:
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The gene-centered view of evolution normally refers to selection among different
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1426:"Ordering microbial diversity into ecologically and genetically cohesive units"
1425:
1315:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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is that they are not independent, i.e. all species are descended from the same
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is still taking place today. Other subcellular entities such as viruses, both
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259:. As a theoretical introduction to units of selection, Lewontin writes:
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1485:
Genes, Organisms, Population: Controversies Over the Units of
Selection
1295:
627:
160:
1219:
364:
Some clear-cut examples of selection at the level of the gene include
3806:
2934:
2785:
2394:
2012:
1760:
557:
400:
396:
387:
235:, e.g., organisms in populations or cell lineages in organisms), are
1287:
279:
introduction to the debate. Three more recent introductions include
35:
4258:
4018:
3723:
2837:
2039:
1591:
The Nature of
Selection: Evolutionary Theory in Philosophical Focus
1498:
525:
483:
199:
180:
1632:
4159:
2222:
1936:
1104:
James, Jennifer E; Nelson, Paul G; Masel, Joanna (4 April 2023).
472:
188:
27:
Biological entity within the hierarchy of biological organization
497:
411:
1575:, Greenwood Press (Reprinted Princeton University Press, 1994
2143:
1370:"Stephen Jay Gould on species selection: 30 years of insight"
741:
Hull, David L.; Langman, Rodney E.; Glenn, Sigrid S. (2001).
684:
677:
1389:
10.1666/0094-8373(2005)031[0113:SJGOSS]2.0.CO;2
1367:
556:
Selection at the level of the organism can be described as
172:
1274:
Vrba, Elisabeth S. (1984). "What is
Species Selection?".
1368:
Lieberman, Bruce S.; Vrba, Elisabeth S. (Spring 2005).
771:
736:
734:
1573:
The
Structure and Confirmation of Evolutionary Theory
974:. Universitaetsverlag Goettingen Press. p. 481.
567:
When speaking about individual organism evolution an
432:
Contribution of epigenetic modifications to evolution
273:
The
Structure and Confirmation of Evolutionary Theory
873:. In Dugatkin, Lee Alan; Reeve, Hudson Kern (eds.).
836:
774:"Multilevel and kin selection in a connected world"
731:
695:that are not evolutionarily related, and which are
668:processes which shape evolution, not driven by the
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
868:
742:
151:. Wilson himself compared his model to such a set.
1483:Brandon, Robert; Burian, Richard M. eds., (1984)
4354:
1103:
1006:
969:
1424:Shapiro, B. Jesse; Polz, Martin F. (May 2014).
1311:"A theory of evolution above the species level"
904:Facts, Conventions, and the Levels of Selection
471:There is also view that evolution is acting on
289:Facts, Conventions, and the Levels of Selection
1618:Facts, Conventions and the Levels of Selection
147:Model, illustrated by a nested set of Russian
2999:
1704:
1672:, (Fall 2005 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
1302:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1201:
1099:
1097:
720:
718:
615:
3013:
1423:
1204:"Cancer stem cells as 'units of selection'"
830:
744:"Chapter 3: A general account of selection"
3006:
2992:
1711:
1697:
1645:
1525:. Princeton University Press, Princeton. (
1152:
302:
1457:
1344:
1334:
1258:
1227:
1178:
1129:
1094:
1077:
1067:
1049:
813:
715:
357:where he explained that genes alone have
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
4170:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
2945:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
1718:
1000:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
664:(1975). Gould proposed that there exist
428:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
202:? Where altruism reduces the fitness of
131:
1670:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1308:
1019:
900:
877:. Oxford University Press. p. 52.
862:
14:
4355:
871:"§3.2.3 Category III: Group selection"
842:"The evolution of animal intelligence"
3662:Psychological effects of Internet use
2987:
2708:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
1692:
1610:Evolution and the levels of Selection
726:Evolution and the levels of selection
285:Evolution and the Levels of Selection
221:
1562:The Structure of Evolutionary Theory
1545:. Oxford University Press, Oxford. (
1273:
963:
435:
58:adding citations to reliable sources
29:
3642:Digital media use and mental health
1638:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
167:(for example, an entity such as: a
24:
3273:Automatic and controlled processes
2113:Evolutionary developmental biology
1593:. The University of Chicago Press.
336:was one of the first to present a
256:The Major Transitions in Evolution
25:
4379:
3682:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
1625:
901:Bourrat, Pierrick (August 2021).
844:. In Hookway, Christopher (ed.).
4333:
4320:
4308:
4307:
3707:Mobile phones and driving safety
2967:
2958:
2957:
1667:"Units and Levels of Selection."
1602:. Oxford University Press, 1998.
1522:Adaptation and Natural Selection
1252:"Group selection | biology"
604:selection of individual traits.
439:
333:Adaptation and Natural Selection
34:
3610:Computer-mediated communication
2770:Extended evolutionary synthesis
1959:Gene-centered view of evolution
1417:
1361:
1244:
1195:
1146:
1110:Molecular Biology and Evolution
1043:
875:Game Theory and Animal Behavior
683:One issue with selection among
338:gene-centered view of evolution
317:Gene-centered view of evolution
310:
163:entity within the hierarchy of
45:needs additional citations for
3887:Empathising–systemising theory
3190:female intrasexual competition
3127:Evolutionarily stable strategy
2898:Hologenome theory of evolution
2765:History of molecular evolution
1991:Evolutionarily stable strategy
1880:Last universal common ancestor
1633:"Altruism and Group Selection"
1503:The Evolution of Individuality
997:1970. The Units of Selection.
988:
894:
765:
751:. Cambridge University Press.
689:last universal common ancestor
552:Hologenome theory of evolution
519:
489:The Evolution of Individuality
13:
1:
4247:Standard social science model
3300:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
2692:Renaissance and Enlightenment
1621:. Cambridge University Press.
1050:Bernhardt, Harold S. (2012).
846:Minds, Machines and Evolution
709:
505:and germ line sequestration.
4095:Missing heritability problem
3687:Social aspects of television
3310:Evolution of nervous systems
3278:Computational theory of mind
2903:Missing heritability problem
2530:Gamete differentiation/sexes
1487:. Cambridge MA: MIT Press. (
706:, beyond the species-level.
323:Missing heritability problem
264:ecosystems." (1970, pp. 1-2)
7:
4341:Evolutionary biology portal
1565:. Harvard University Press.
869:Dugatkin, Lee Alan (1998).
848:. CUP Archive. p. 64.
545:
414:of the same gene. However,
10:
4384:
4302:Evolutionary psychologists
4175:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
4090:Human–animal communication
3802:Ovulatory shift hypothesis
3652:Imprinted brain hypothesis
3620:Human–computer interaction
2535:Life cycles/nuclear phases
2087:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
1683:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
1612:. Oxford University Press.
1477:
728:. Oxford University Press.
625:
619:
588:
582:
549:
523:
492:proposes that much of the
425:
421:
320:
314:
287:, Pierrick Bourrat's book
4296:
4222:Environmental determinism
4193:Cultural selection theory
4185:
4080:Evolutionary epistemology
4067:
3994:evolutionary neuroscience
3956:
3949:
3847:
3722:
3667:Rank theory of depression
3590:
3514:
3416:
3222:
3215:
3169:Parent–offspring conflict
3078:
3021:
2953:
2853:
2778:
2682:
2609:
2565:
2420:
2324:
2141:
2100:
2033:Parent–offspring conflict
1969:
1838:Earliest known life forms
1759:
1726:
1680:"The objects of selection
1442:10.1016/j.tim.2014.02.006
1208:Evolutionary Applications
970:von Sydow, Momme (2012).
616:Species and higher levels
169:self-replicating molecule
4115:Cultural group selection
3999:Biocultural anthropology
3692:Societal impacts of cars
3625:Media naturalness theory
3315:Fight-or-flight response
2886:Cultural group selection
2750:The eclipse of Darwinism
2722:On the Origin of Species
2697:Transmutation of species
578:
575:must be also mentioned.
494:evolution of development
330:in his influential book
4315:Evolutionary psychology
4279:Sociocultural evolution
4120:Dual inheritance theory
3577:Personality development
3038:Theoretical foundations
3015:Evolutionary psychology
2891:Dual inheritance theory
2730:History of paleontology
534:Sociocultural evolution
530:Dual inheritance theory
516:as units of selection.
478:
303:Selection at each level
295:and Javier Suárez book
165:biological organization
4237:Social constructionism
4232:Psychological nativism
4207:Biological determinism
4155:Recent human evolution
4150:Punctuated equilibrium
3973:Behavioral epigenetics
3968:evolutionary economics
3937:Variability hypothesis
3882:Emotional intelligence
3615:Engineering psychology
3305:Evolution of the brain
2579:Punctuated equilibrium
1900:Non-adaptive radiation
1848:Evolutionary arms race
1430:Trends in Microbiology
1122:10.1093/molbev/msad073
1069:10.1186/1745-6150-7-23
1015:God's utility function
622:Punctuated equilibrium
374:segregation distortion
349:God's utility function
266:
242:The Units of Selection
152:
4264:Multilineal evolution
4227:Nature versus nurture
4186:Theoretical positions
4034:Functional psychology
4029:Evolutionary medicine
4004:Biological psychiatry
3712:Texting while driving
3702:Lead–crime hypothesis
3562:Cognitive development
3547:Caregiver deprivation
3058:Gene selection theory
2871:Evolutionary medicine
2745:Mendelian inheritance
2453:Biological complexity
2441:Programmed cell death
2133:Phenotypic plasticity
1853:Evolutionary pressure
1843:Evidence of evolution
1741:Timeline of evolution
1600:Evolutionary Genetics
1336:10.1073/pnas.72.2.646
1202:Greaves, Mel (2013).
1171:10.1038/embor.2009.18
913:10.1017/9781108885812
550:Further information:
524:Further information:
261:
253:'s co-authored book,
191:) that is subject to
135:
4363:Evolutionary biology
4217:Cultural determinism
4024:Evolutionary biology
4009:Cognitive psychology
3957:Academic disciplines
3605:Cognitive ergonomics
3572:Language acquisition
3552:Childhood attachment
3365:Wason selection task
3259:Behavioral modernity
3048:Cognitive revolution
3031:Evolutionary thought
2845:Teleology in biology
2740:Blending inheritance
2118:Genetic assimilation
1981:Artificial selection
1720:Evolutionary biology
1685:94 (March): 2091-94.
1383:(2 Suppl): 113–121.
1309:Stanley, SM (1975).
210:, for instance; see
54:improve this article
4368:Population genetics
4284:Unilineal evolution
4049:Population genetics
3834:Sexy son hypothesis
3772:Hormonal motivation
3752:Concealed ovulation
3293:Dual process theory
3164:Parental investment
2908:Molecular evolution
2866:Ecological genetics
2735:Transitional fossil
2525:Sexual reproduction
2365:endomembrane system
2294:pollinator-mediated
2250:dolphins and whales
2028:Parental investment
1655:Human Nature Review
1615:Bourrat, P. (2021)
1539:(1976; 1989; 2006)
1327:1975PNAS...72..646S
1153:Hunter, P. (2009).
838:Maynard Smith, John
798:10.1038/nature08809
790:2010Natur.463....8W
393:RNA-based evolution
143:'s 1994 Multilevel
69:"Unit of selection"
4242:Social determinism
4125:Fisher's principle
4085:Great ape language
4075:Cultural evolution
4044:Philosophy of mind
3877:Division of labour
3839:Westermarck effect
3787:Mating preferences
3697:Distracted driving
3431:Literary criticism
3288:Domain specificity
3268:modularity of mind
2881:Cultural evolution
1996:Fisher's principle
1925:Handicap principle
1915:Parallel evolution
1779:Adaptive radiation
1665:Lloyd, Elisabeth,
1557:Gould, Stephen Jay
1276:Systematic Zoology
724:Okasha, S. (2006)
672:mechanisms of the
595:Fisher's principle
591:Free-rider problem
569:extended phenotype
538:Cultural evolution
451:. You can help by
328:George C. Williams
297:Units of Selection
247:John Maynard-Smith
237:Richard Lewontin's
222:Fundamental theory
153:
137:David Sloan Wilson
4350:
4349:
4328:Psychology portal
4292:
4291:
4135:Hologenome theory
4105:Unit of selection
4100:Primate cognition
4014:Cognitive science
3945:
3944:
3816:Sexual attraction
3792:Mating strategies
3557:Cinderella effect
3487:Moral foundations
3391:Visual perception
3283:Domain generality
3252:Facial expression
3200:Sexual dimorphism
3159:Natural selection
3105:Hamiltonian spite
2981:
2980:
2597:Uniformitarianism
2550:Sex-determination
2055:Sexual dimorphism
2050:Natural selection
1954:Unit of selection
1920:Signalling theory
1597:Maynard Smith, J.
1493:978-0-262-02205-7
1220:10.1111/eva.12017
1026:River Out of Eden
995:Lewontin, Richard
670:microevolutionary
666:macroevolutionary
662:Steven M. Stanley
658:Stephen Jay Gould
514:cancer stem cells
469:
468:
386:According to the
359:utility functions
354:River Out of Eden
275:provides a basic
193:natural selection
157:unit of selection
130:
129:
122:
104:
18:Species selection
16:(Redirected from
4375:
4337:
4324:
4311:
4310:
3954:
3953:
3950:Related subjects
3737:Adult attachment
3264:Cognitive module
3220:
3219:
3207:Social selection
3181:Costly signaling
3176:Sexual selection
3063:Modern synthesis
3008:
3001:
2994:
2985:
2984:
2971:
2961:
2960:
2760:Modern synthesis
2520:Multicellularity
2515:Mosaic evolution
2400:auditory ossicle
2082:Social selection
2065:Flowering plants
2060:Sexual selection
1713:
1706:
1699:
1690:
1689:
1662:
1642:
1569:Lloyd, Elisabeth
1542:The Selfish Gene
1537:Dawkins, Richard
1472:
1471:
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1421:
1415:
1414:
1412:
1411:
1405:
1399:. Archived from
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1021:Dawkins, Richard
1012:See the chapter
1010:
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674:Modern Synthesis
650:Richard Lewontin
464:
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380:Retrotransposons
370:retrotransposons
149:matryoshka dolls
125:
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21:
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4288:
4274:Neoevolutionism
4181:
4165:Species complex
4130:Group selection
4068:Research topics
4063:
4039:Neuropsychology
3941:
3927:Substance abuse
3849:Sex differences
3843:
3757:Coolidge effect
3718:
3630:Neuroergonomics
3595:
3586:
3510:
3412:
3346:Folk psychology
3227:
3211:
3081:
3074:
3017:
3012:
2982:
2977:
2949:
2876:Group selection
2849:
2774:
2678:
2605:
2567:Tempo and modes
2561:
2416:
2320:
2137:
2096:
1972:
1965:
1942:Species complex
1755:
1746:History of life
1722:
1717:
1631:
1628:
1517:Williams, G. C.
1480:
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1029:. Basic Books.
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784:(7283): E8–E9.
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636:Species complex
632:Species problem
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585:Group selection
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449:needs expansion
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426:Main articles:
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344:Richard Dawkins
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269:Elisabeth Lloyd
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216:group selection
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3657:Mind-blindness
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3117:Baldwin effect
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2716:Charles Darwin
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1905:Origin of life
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1890:Microevolution
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1885:Macroevolution
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1823:Common descent
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1801:Baldwin effect
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1587:Sober, Elliott
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1436:(5): 235–247.
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1321:(2): 646–650.
1301:
1282:(3): 318–328.
1257:
1243:
1214:(1): 102–108.
1194:
1145:
1116:(4): msad073.
1093:
1056:Biology Direct
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981:978-3863950064
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953:|website=
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620:Main article:
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351:' in the book
315:Main article:
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251:Eörs Szathmáry
239:classic piece
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2796:Catastrophism
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2023:Kin selection
2021:
2019:
2018:Genetic drift
2016:
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1589:(1984; 1993)
1588:
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1582:
1581:0-691-00046-8
1578:
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1558:
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1552:
1551:0-19-286092-5
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1531:0-691-02615-7
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1406:on 2012-09-18
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922:9781108885812
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855:9780521338288
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758:9780521644051
754:
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694:
693:gene families
690:
686:
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655:
651:
647:
646:Sewall Wright
643:
637:
633:
629:
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613:
609:
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586:
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574:
573:superorganism
570:
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517:
515:
510:
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463:
454:
450:
447:This section
445:
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438:
437:
433:
429:
419:
417:
416:gene families
413:
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406:
402:
398:
394:
389:
384:
381:
377:
375:
371:
367:
366:meiotic drive
362:
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341:
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335:
334:
329:
324:
318:
308:
300:
298:
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290:
286:
282:
278:
277:philosophical
274:
270:
265:
260:
258:
257:
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248:
244:
243:
238:
234:
230:
219:
217:
213:
212:kin selection
209:
205:
201:
196:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
150:
146:
142:
141:Elliott Sober
138:
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124:
121:
113:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71: –
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
4339:
4326:
4313:
4300:
4104:
4059:Sociobiology
3917:Neuroscience
3897:Intelligence
3443:Anthropology
3396:Color vision
3381:Multitasking
3360:Flynn effect
3355:Intelligence
3337:Folk biology
3080:Evolutionary
2930:Polymorphism
2913:Astrobiology
2861:Biogeography
2816:Saltationism
2806:Orthogenesis
2791:Alternatives
2720:
2706:
2639:Cospeciation
2634:Cladogenesis
2583:Saltationism
2540:Mating types
2463:Color vision
2448:Avian flight
2370:mitochondria
2108:Canalisation
1986:Biodiversity
1953:
1731:Introduction
1682:
1669:
1658:
1654:
1636:
1616:
1609:
1599:
1590:
1572:
1560:
1540:
1520:
1502:
1499:Buss, Leo W.
1484:
1433:
1429:
1419:
1408:. Retrieved
1401:the original
1380:
1377:Paleobiology
1376:
1363:
1318:
1314:
1304:
1279:
1275:
1246:
1211:
1207:
1197:
1165:(3): 212–5.
1162:
1158:
1148:
1113:
1109:
1059:
1055:
1045:
1025:
1013:
1008:
999:
990:
971:
965:
934:. Retrieved
903:
896:
888:
874:
864:
845:
832:
781:
777:
767:
748:
725:
701:
682:
642:R. A. Fisher
639:
610:
606:
602:
598:
566:
562:
555:
541:
511:
507:
503:gastrulation
487:
486:in his book
482:
470:
457:
453:adding to it
448:
409:
385:
378:
363:
352:
342:
331:
326:
311:Nucleic acid
306:
296:
288:
284:
281:Samir Okasha
276:
272:
267:
262:
254:
240:
232:
228:
225:
203:
197:
156:
154:
116:
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
4198:Determinism
4110:Coevolution
4054:Primatology
3892:Gender role
3797:Orientation
3677:Screen time
3534:Affectional
3516:Development
3195:Mate choice
3122:By-products
3090:Adaptations
3053:Cognitivism
2940:Systematics
2811:Mutationism
2629:Catagenesis
2557:Snake venom
2490:Eusociality
2468:in primates
2458:Cooperation
2386:In animals
2206:butterflies
2179:Cephalopods
2169:Brachiopods
2101:Development
2075:Mate choice
1828:Convergence
1811:Coevolution
1769:Abiogenesis
1676:Mayr, Ernst
520:Behavioural
208:game theory
204:individuals
4357:Categories
4145:Population
4140:Lamarckism
3986:behavioral
3964:Behavioral
3912:Narcissism
3857:Aggression
3647:Hypophobia
3637:Depression
3524:Attachment
3506:Universals
3470:Psychology
3448:Biological
3436:Musicology
3426:Aesthetics
3325:Basophobia
3132:Exaptation
3110:Reciprocal
2801:Lamarckism
2779:Philosophy
2702:David Hume
2664:Peripatric
2659:Parapatric
2644:Ecological
2624:Anagenesis
2619:Allopatric
2611:Speciation
2575:Gradualism
2500:Metabolism
2360:chromosome
2350:Eukaryotes
2128:Modularity
2045:Population
1971:Population
1932:Speciation
1910:Panspermia
1863:Extinction
1858:Exaptation
1833:Divergence
1806:Cladistics
1794:Reciprocal
1774:Adaptation
1661:: 367–374.
1647:Dusek, Val
1606:Okasha, S.
1410:2012-07-08
936:2021-08-23
710:References
697:duplicated
628:Speciation
626:See also:
589:See also:
512:Some view
460:March 2018
321:See also:
161:biological
110:March 2018
80:newspapers
3990:cognitive
3982:Affective
3867:Cognition
3821:Sexuality
3807:Pair bond
3567:Education
3224:Cognition
3142:Inclusive
3082:processes
3070:Criticism
2935:Protocell
2786:Darwinism
2674:Sympatric
2423:processes
2311:Tetrapods
2260:Kangaroos
2186:Dinosaurs
2123:Inversion
2092:Variation
2013:Gene flow
2006:Inclusive
1816:Mutualism
1761:Evolution
1450:0966-842X
955:ignored (
945:cite book
931:238732212
806:1476-4687
558:Darwinism
405:do evolve
401:RNA-based
397:DNA-based
388:RNA world
145:Selection
4259:Memetics
4019:Ethology
3977:genetics
3812:Physical
3777:Jealousy
3732:Activity
3538:maternal
3494:Religion
3482:Morality
3460:Language
3341:taxonomy
3154:Mismatch
3100:Cheating
3095:Altruism
2963:Category
2838:Vitalism
2833:Theistic
2826:Spandrel
2510:Morality
2505:Monogamy
2380:plastids
2345:Flagella
2301:Reptiles
2282:sea cows
2265:primates
2174:Molluscs
2152:Bacteria
2040:Mutation
1973:genetics
1949:Taxonomy
1895:Mismatch
1875:Homology
1789:Cheating
1784:Altruism
1678:(1997).
1649:(2002).
1468:24630527
1397:14801676
1238:23396760
1189:19255576
1159:EMBO Rep
1140:36947137
1131:10089649
1088:22793875
1023:(1995).
1003:1: 1-18.
840:(1986).
824:20164866
660:(1972);
652:(1970);
648:(1956);
644:(1929);
546:Organism
526:Memetics
484:Leo Buss
473:epigenes
283:'s book
271:'s book
200:altruism
187:, or a
181:organism
4160:Species
3932:Suicide
3767:Fantasy
3747:Arousal
3529:Bonding
3418:Culture
3242:Display
3229:Emotion
3137:Fitness
3026:History
2854:Related
2684:History
2545:Meiosis
2480:Empathy
2475:Emotion
2375:nucleus
2316:Viruses
2306:Spiders
2218:Mammals
2201:Insects
2001:Fitness
1937:Species
1736:Outline
1608:(2006)
1571:(1988)
1559:(2002)
1519:(1966)
1501:(1988)
1478:Sources
1459:4103024
1355:1054846
1323:Bibcode
1296:2413077
1229:3567475
1180:2658563
1079:3495036
815:3151728
786:Bibcode
498:animals
422:Epigene
412:alleles
189:species
94:scholar
4338:
4325:
4312:
3902:Memory
3862:Autism
3829:female
3762:Desire
3499:Origin
3475:Speech
3465:Origin
3237:Affect
2973:Portal
2649:Hybrid
2485:Ethics
2327:organs
2289:Plants
2275:lemurs
2270:humans
2255:horses
2245:hyenas
2233:wolves
2228:canids
2162:origin
1579:
1549:
1529:
1509:
1491:
1466:
1456:
1448:
1395:
1353:
1346:432371
1343:
1294:
1236:
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1138:
1128:
1086:
1076:
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1033:
978:
929:
919:
881:
852:
822:
812:
804:
778:Nature
755:
704:guilds
685:clades
656:&
634:, and
536:, and
291:, and
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
3872:Crime
3455:Crime
3386:Sleep
3376:skill
3216:Areas
2436:Death
2431:Aging
2410:brain
2196:Fungi
2157:Birds
2070:Fungi
1868:Event
1751:Index
1404:(PDF)
1393:S2CID
1373:(PDF)
1292:JSTOR
927:S2CID
678:clade
579:Group
185:group
179:, an
159:is a
101:JSTOR
87:books
3825:male
3186:Male
2923:Tree
2395:hair
2335:Cell
2238:dogs
2223:cats
2213:Life
2191:Fish
2144:taxa
1577:ISBN
1547:ISBN
1527:ISBN
1507:ISBN
1489:ISBN
1464:PMID
1446:ISSN
1351:PMID
1234:PMID
1185:PMID
1136:PMID
1084:PMID
1031:ISBN
976:ISBN
957:help
917:ISBN
879:ISBN
850:ISBN
820:PMID
802:ISSN
753:ISBN
593:and
571:and
479:Cell
430:and
399:and
368:and
249:and
245:and
214:and
183:, a
177:cell
175:, a
173:gene
171:, a
139:and
73:news
3724:Sex
3401:Eye
2421:Of
2390:eye
2340:DNA
2325:Of
2142:Of
1505:. (
1454:PMC
1438:doi
1385:doi
1341:PMC
1331:doi
1284:doi
1224:PMC
1216:doi
1175:PMC
1167:doi
1126:PMC
1118:doi
1074:PMC
1064:doi
1018:in
909:doi
810:PMC
794:doi
782:463
496:in
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155:A
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