112:
1380:
4192:
4181:
1288:
1161:. Tozer's nomenclature was largely derived from Mojsisovics's work, but he redefined them using North American sites. He recommended the Lower Triassic series be divided into the: Griesbachian, Dienerian, Smithian, and Spathian. The former two roughly correspond with the Induan. Tozer's timescale became popular in the Americas. He named the Griesbachian after Griesbach Creek on
2672:
Dai, Xu; Davies, Joshua H.F.L.; Yuan, Zhiwei; Brayard, Arnaud; Ovtcharova, Maria; Xu, Guanghui; Liu, Xiaokang; Smith, Christopher P.A.; Schweitzer, Carrie E.; Li, Mingtao; Perrot, Morgann G.; Jiang, Shouyi; Miao, Luyi; Cao, Yiran; Yan, Jia; Bai, Ruoyu; Wang, Fengyu; Guo, Wei; Song, Huyue; Tian, Li;
1202:
In the 1970s, the ICS was founded to globally standardize stratigraphy. They erected the
Subcommission on Triassic Stratigraphy (STS), which published its first timescale to Triassic stratigraphy in 1985. They divided it into the Lower, Middle, and Upper series; the Lower Triassic divided into the
1109:. They divided the Triassic into four series (from lowest to highest): the Scythian, Dinaric, Tyrolean, and Bavarian. The Scythian was divided (from lowest to highest) into the Brahmanian and Jakutian stages. The Brahmanian's lower boundary was defined by the appearance of the
1148:
In the 1960s, English paleontologist Edward T. Tozer (sometimes collaborating with
American geologist Norman J. Silberling) crafted Triassic timescales based on North American ammonoid zones (further refining it in the following decades), based on the works of
1226:
and the Arctic territories of North
America have revealed the problematic interval of existence of this genus. By the same decade, most geologists had moved away from ammonite zones, preferring conodonts. Consequently, in 1996, the STS moved the Induan's
1254:
dating to the Early
Triassic, and only a few thin ones have been identified dating to the Middle Triassic. The apparent marginalization of peat-producing plants has variously been explained to be a consequence of: high global elevation, excess
2655:
Ware et al. (2015): High-resolution biochronology and diversity dynamics of the Early
Triassic ammonoid recovery: the Dienerian faunas of the Northern Indian Margin. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 440:363-373
2812:
Romano, Carlo; Koot, Martha B.; Kogan, Ilja; Brayard, Arnaud; Minikh, Alla V.; Brinkmann, Winand; Bucher, Hugo; Kriwet, Jürgen (2016). "Permian-Triassic
Osteichthyes (bony fishes): diversity dynamics and body size evolution".
1092:
There have been several propositions for the organization of the
Triassic timescale. Most of the Triassic stages and sub-stages, which are still used today, were coined in an 1895 publication by Austro-Hungarian geologist
1345:. Behind the burgeoning Neo-Tethys lay a major rift pushing India away from western Australia, which promulgated volcanoes across the area. During the Permian extinction, this volcanic activity created the
2939:
Romano, Carlo; López-Arbarello, Adriana; Ware, David; Jenks, James F.; Brinkmann, Winand (April 2019). "Marine Early
Triassic Actinopterygii from the Candelaria Hills (Esmeralda County, Nevada, USA)".
1137:
In 1956, Soviet paleontologists Lubov D. Kiparisova and Yurij N. Popov decided to divide the Lower
Triassic series into, what they coined, the Induan and Olenekian stages. The Induan honors the
1472:) in the Dienerian. This change reflects a shift in global climate from cool and dry in the Griesbachian to hot and humid in the Dienerian and points to an extinction event during the Induan,
3272:
Mutter, Raoul J.; Neuman, Andrew G. (2008). "New eugeneodontid sharks from the Lower
Triassic Sulphur Mountain Formation of Western Canada". In Cavin, L.; Longbottom, A.; Richter, M. (eds.).
1207:, they dropped several more of Tozer's considerations, and likewise did away with Induan substages entirely, though Tozer's original definition of them are still in use in ammonoid research.
3341:
The Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Ladinian Stage (Middle Triassic) at Bagolino (Southern Alps, Northern Italy) and its implications for the Triassic time scale
2618:
Veevers, J. J. (2004). "Gondwanaland from 650–500 Ma assembly through 320 Ma merger in Pangea to 185–100 Ma breakup: supercontinental tectonics via stratigraphy and radiometric dating".
2855:
Smithwick F.M., and Stubbs T.L. (2018): Phanerozoic survivors: Actinopterygian evolution through the Permo‐Triassic and Triassic‐Jurassic mass extinction events. Evolution 72:348-362.
1404:, and historically, it was thought recovery was delayed by as much as five million years to the Middle Triassic. The 21st century discoveries of diverse arrays of conodonts, ammonoids,
2502:
Kiparisova, L. D.; Popov, Y. N. (1956). "Raschlenenie nizhnego otdela triasovoy sistemy na yarusy" [Subdivision of the Lower series of the Triassic System into stages].
1105:. They were defined using ammonite research conducted in large part by Mojsisovics and Diener in primarily Austria, Italy, and Bosnia; as well as Waagen's work in the Pakistani
3064:
2787:
Hochuli et al. (2016): Severest crisis overlooked—Worst disruption of terrestrial environments postdates the Permian–Triassic mass extinction. Scientific Reports 6:28372
1628:
3155:
Tong, Jinnan; Zhou, Xiugao; Erwin, Douglas H.; Zuo, Jingxun; Zhao, Laishi (2006). "Fossil fishes from the Lower Triassic of Majiashan, Chaohu, Anhui Province, China".
2673:
Dal Corso, Jacopo; Liu, Yuting; Chu, Daoliang; Song, Haijun (2023). "A Mesozoic fossil lagerstätte from 250.8 million years ago shows a modern-type marine ecosystem".
3109:
and other fossil fishes from the late Smithian (Early Triassic) of Bear Lake County (Idaho, USA), with a discussion of saurichthyid palaeogeography and evolution"
2924:
Beltan, Laurence (1996). "Overview of systematics, paleobiology, and paleoecology of Triassic fishes of northwestern Madagascar". In G. Arratia; G. Viohl (eds.).
2580:
Retallack, G. J.; Veevers, J. J.; Morante, R. (1996). "Global coal gap between Permian–Triassic extinction and Middle Triassic recovery of peat-forming plants".
1861:
1684:
2799:
Foster et al. (2020): Suppressed competitive exclusion enabled the proliferation of Permian/Triassic boundary microbialites. The Depositional record 6. 1–13.
2775:
Schneebeli-Hermann et al. (2015): Vegetation history across the Permian–Triassic boundary in Pakistan (Amb section, Salt Range). Gondwana Research 27:911-924
2428:"Entwurf einer Gliederung der pelagischen Sediments des Trias-Systems" [Outline of a classification of the pelagic sediments of the Triassic system].
3561:
1850:
1517:, etc.) remained rare and terrestrial ecosystems did not recover for some 30 million years. Both the seas and much of the freshwater during the Induan were
1893:
1909:
2417:
1913:
1094:
1644:
1279:) which evolved more efficient eating strategies (though they were quite diverse before even the Permian), or mass die-off of peat-producing plants.
1071:
117:
3141:
2566:
897:
1150:
952:. The Induan is the first stage of the Lower Triassic, from 251.9 million to 251.2 million years ago, spanning the first 700,000 years after the
1181:
1250:, which is then buried and subjected to heat and pressure over a long time. Following the Permian extinction, there is a conspicuous lack of
1195:
2549:
1228:
964:
3316:
Hautmann et al. (2017): Geologically oldest oysters were epizoans on Early Triassic ammonoids. Journal of Molluscan Studies 83:253-260
2254:
1114:
3554:
3439:
1141:, as they also bounded it using the same criteria and sites as Mojsisovics' Brahmanian in the Indus region, though they resided in
960:
673:
623:
3411:
590:
4208:
2375:
2173:
1394:
1203:
Induan and Olenekian stages; and the Induan further divided into the Griesbachian and Dienerian substages. In a revised 1991
953:
480:
1165:, Canada, and further split it into the Gangetian and Ellesmarian substages; the former he defined by the ammonite zones of
1126:
had already proposed this ammonite demarcate the beginning of the Triassic in 1880), and its upper boundary by a section of
3547:
1950:
1660:
3377:Расчленение нижнего отдела триасовой системы на ярусы (Subdivision of the lower series of the Triassic System into stages)
3278:. Geological Society of London, Special Publications. Vol. 295. London: Geological Society of London. pp. 9–41.
3087:
2520:
1548:
982:
975:) identifying the lower boundary of the stage. The GSSP for the Induan is defined as the bottom of Bed 27c of the
4262:
111:
3405:
3168:
2601:
2089:
2902:
758:
3432:
1275:(the melting of the poles and surging global temperatures), excess plant predation by herbivores (insects or
1272:
1877:
1816:
1806:
1636:
608:
2066:"Global coal gap between Permian–Triassic extinctions and middle Triassic recovery of peat forming plants"
3570:
662:
3380:
3362:
3227:, gen. et sp. nov. (Actinistia, Rebellatricidae, fam. nov.), from the Lower Triassic of Western Canada"
1692:
498:
2065:
1560:
1497:
were the only groups of land animals to dominate during the Induan Stage. Other animals, such as the
1158:
121:
4257:
3425:
3304:
Scheyer et al. (2014): Early Triassic Marine Biotic Recovery: The Predators' Perspective. PLoS ONE
1664:
4252:
3843:
3838:
2522:
2421:
1518:
1102:
516:
2311:
2025:
McElwain, J. C.; Punyasena, S. W. (2007). "Mass extinction events and the plant fossil record".
1937:
1927:
1616:
725:
2521:
Kutygin R.V., Budnikov I.V., Biakov A.S., Davydov V.I., Kilyasov A.N., Silantiev V.V. (2019).
2110:
3400:
3135:
2560:
1123:
945:
862:
2258:
2109:
Payne, J. L.; Lehrmann, D. J.; Wei, J.; Orchard, M. J.; Schrag, D. P.; Knoll, A. H. (2004).
1986:"Dynamics of the Largest Carbon Isotope Excursion During the Early Triassic Biotic Recovery"
1031:(corresponding to the extinction event) as its secondary marker. Bed 27c comprises a medium-
3238:
2995:
2948:
2682:
2627:
2589:
2468:
2122:
2077:
1997:
1899:
1867:
1374:
1354:
1350:
949:
855:
707:
3104:
2210:
8:
4174:
2527:(Ceratitida) in the Kobyuma zone of the Southern Verkhoyansk region, Northeastern Russia"
2111:"Large Perturbations of the Carbon Cycle During Recovery from the End-Permian Extinction"
1963:
1721:, a mainly Palaeozoic group. Cartilaginous fishes were seemingly rare during the Induan.
1443:
1319:
1162:
968:
3242:
2999:
2952:
2686:
2631:
2593:
2472:
2126:
2081:
2001:
959:
Stages can be defined globally or regionally. For global stratigraphic correlation, the
3287:
3254:
3172:
2982:
Romano, Carlo; Ware, David; Brühwiler, Thomas; Bucher, Hugo; Brinkmann, Winand (2016).
2964:
2838:
2753:
2728:
2706:
2484:
2146:
1945:* Tentatively assigned to the Induan; age estimated primarily via terrestrial tetrapod
1836:
1420:
deposits are common especially in the Dienerian substage of the Induan. These point to
1362:
1342:
1204:
1075:
866:
851:
3102:
2873:"Triassic Fishes from East Greenland collected by the Danish expeditions in 1929-1931"
2545:
1337:, gradually pushing them apart. This action would eventually expand the newly forming
3972:
3936:
3291:
3176:
3083:
2968:
2884:
2830:
2758:
2710:
2698:
2488:
2371:
2169:
2138:
2042:
1886:
1843:
3258:
2639:
2150:
1379:
4066:
3941:
3910:
3707:
3279:
3246:
3203:
3164:
3123:
3003:
2956:
2842:
2822:
2748:
2740:
2690:
2635:
2597:
2541:
2476:
2456:
2291:
2205:
2130:
2085:
2034:
2005:
1919:
1648:
1401:
1186:
2190:
4247:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4035:
3931:
3869:
3764:
3733:
3702:
3466:
3414:
at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy.
3250:
3191:
2722:
2720:
2191:"The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Permian-Triassic Boundary"
1946:
1707:
1044:
1020:
937:
922:
847:
337:
32:
4191:
3041:
3023:
2868:
2108:
4185:
4004:
3874:
3769:
3738:
3461:
3305:
2905:(1936). "Some few preliminary remarks on Triassic fishes from East Greenland".
2657:
2189:
Hongfu, Yin; Kexin, Zhang; Jinnan, Tong; Zunyi, Yang; Shunbao, Wu (June 2001).
2038:
1826:
1715:
1703:
1652:
1586:
1544:
1476: 500,000 years after the end-Permian mass extinction event. It led to the
1432:
1358:
1326:
1300:
1260:
933:
859:
844:
358:
326:
3539:
3008:
2983:
2776:
2717:
4241:
4223:
4210:
3905:
3895:
3864:
3827:
3759:
3728:
3471:
3127:
2888:
2430:
Vienna Academy of Sciences, Mathematical and Scientific Class Meeting Reports
2010:
1985:
1676:
1672:
1591:
1569:
1494:
1425:
1330:
1154:
1032:
997:
984:
941:
929:
882:
840:
773:
760:
697:
369:
348:
63:
3408:
at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
2694:
2134:
1416:
serve to suggest that recovery instead took under 1.5 million years. Marine
4196:
4127:
3977:
3900:
2834:
2762:
2744:
2702:
2391:
2142:
2061:
2046:
1780:
1739:
1725:
1612:
1581:
1526:
1490:
1482:
1447:
1439:
1421:
1409:
1346:
1338:
1334:
1080:
873:
and 251.2 Ma (million years ago). The Induan is sometimes divided into the
823:
811:
569:
2872:
4122:
3991:
3967:
3812:
3607:
2425:
1776:
1752:
1733:
1718:
1711:
1668:
1601:
1552:
1428:
shows that at least some locations hosted reasonably complex ecosystems.
1417:
1299:
During the Induan, all major landmasses had already amalgamated into the
1138:
1098:
38:
3317:
2960:
2340:
4117:
4077:
4020:
3920:
3817:
3691:
3591:
1810:
1760:
1728:
1632:
1596:
1477:
1468:
1459:
1315:
1131:
1106:
1060:
972:
441:
83:
48:
4180:
3076:
Freiberger Forschungshefte C (Paläontologie, Stratigraphie, Fazies 23)
2826:
2459:(2010). "The Triassic chronostratigraphic scale: history and status".
2059:
4132:
4082:
4056:
4015:
3962:
3807:
3783:
3664:
3654:
3643:
3486:
2164:
Ogg, James G.; Ogg, Gabi M.; Gradstein, Felix M. (2016). "Triassic".
1794:
1748:
1744:
1680:
1624:
1620:
1564:
1540:
1522:
1510:
1502:
1413:
1307:
1251:
1175:
1127:
1119:
1067:
1051:
calcimicrite. Calcimicrite is a type of limestone that contains more
1048:
1036:
1028:
1024:
1015:
890:
733:
378:
317:
265:
88:
3283:
3207:
2856:
2788:
2480:
1145:
at the time. That is, the Induan is synonymous with the Brahmanian.
4092:
4087:
4051:
3951:
3884:
3853:
3748:
3717:
3678:
3628:
3602:
3578:
3523:
3502:
3448:
3222:
2296:
2283:
1903:
1871:
1854:
1789:
1756:
1575:
1556:
1530:
1506:
1498:
1451:
1361:
in what is now the South African coast, were being degraded by the
1311:
1276:
1223:
1110:
1056:
1011:
926:
918:
748:
729:
432:
405:
308:
296:
276:
78:
73:
58:
53:
43:
3417:
3273:
2800:
2534:
Uchenye Zapiski Kazanskogo Universiteta. Seriya Estestvennye Nauki
2232:
1318:
was near but not on Antarctica. Eastern Gondwana lay south of the
4106:
4046:
3796:
3633:
3617:
3513:
3497:
2984:"Marine Early Triassic Osteichthyes from Spiti, Indian Himalayas"
1923:
1830:
1771:
1767:
1656:
1607:
1514:
1463:
1405:
1398:
1385:
1219:
1142:
1052:
976:
886:
744:
414:
396:
286:
93:
68:
1157:
in Nevada who pieced together the ammonoid fossil record of the
4142:
4025:
3659:
3518:
3103:
Romano C., Kogan I., Jenks J., Jerjen I., Brinkmann W. (2012).
2024:
1984:
Widmann, Philipp; Bucher, Hugo; Leu, Marc; et al. (2020).
1820:
1793:) are known from the Induan. They grew on the shells of living
1784:
1696:
1640:
1435:
1303:
1292:
1268:
423:
2938:
1438:
remained almost lifeless, deserted, hot, and dry. Both global
2729:"Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time"
1931:
1688:
1455:
1287:
1215:
901:
870:
827:
752:
125:
3369:
Kiparisova, Lubov Dmitrievna & Popov, Yurij Nikolaivitch
1329:
zone existed on Madagascar, which was wedged in between the
3169:
10.1666/0022-3360(2006)080[0146:FFFTLT]2.0.CO;2
2602:
10.1130/0016-7606(1996)108<0195:gcgbpt>2.3.co;2
2284:"Lower Triassic stages and ammonoid zones of Arctic Canada"
2090:
10.1130/0016-7606(1996)108<0195:GCGBPT>2.3.CO;2
1533:
1256:
1247:
1243:
1040:
3192:"An Early Triassic fish assemblage from British Columbia"
2981:
1983:
1264:
1059:, and the diameter of any particle measures less than 20
1559:
diversity during the Early Triassic. Many genera show a
1357:
from this event, as well as the first phase of those at
1070:, whose GSSP is defined at the bottom of Bed A-2 of the
2733:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
2579:
1743:) were geographically widespread during the Induan and
2811:
2726:
2188:
1529:
were common, possibly due to lack of competition with
1353:
and related magmatic activity was shutting down. The
2671:
881:
subages or substages. The Induan is preceded by the
2416:
1966: – System that relates geologic strata to time
1691:, China), and several Early Triassic layers of the
1450:remained low through much of the Induan. In higher
140:
3333:Brack, P.; Rieber, H.; Nicora, A. & Mundil, R.
3196:Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History
1095:Johann August Georg Edmund Mojsisovics von Mojsvar
2928:. München: Dr. Friedrich Pfeil. pp. 479–500.
4239:
3154:
3046:Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Handlingar
2461:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
3569:
3351:Gradstein, F. M.; Ogg, J. G. & Smith, A. G.
3189:
2501:
2392:"Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Points"
2163:
1424:in the ocean. The discovery of the Induan aged
1189:, Canada, and defined it by the ammonite zones
1185:. He named the Dienerian after Diener Creek on
896:The Induan is roughly coeval with the regional
3220:
3044:(1925). "Triassic fishes from Spitzbergen 2".
3030:. Wien: Adolf Holzhausen. pp. xxviii+307.
2613:
2611:
2233:"Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point"
3555:
3433:
1235:. It was the first GSSP approved by the STS.
1078:, India, with the appearance of the conodont
1023:), and minimum zones (negative anomalies) of
622:Subdivision of the Triassic according to the
3306:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0088987
3271:
3140:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2926:Mesozoic Fishes—Systematics and Paleoecology
2658:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.09.013
2565:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2451:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2365:
2053:
965:Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
3062:
2895:
2861:
2608:
2514:
2504:Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences
2277:
2275:
2018:
629:Vertical axis scale: millions of years ago.
3562:
3548:
3440:
3426:
3221:Wendruff, A. J.; Wilson, M. V. H. (2012).
2777:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2013.11.007
2667:
2665:
2651:
2649:
2398:. International Commission on Stratigraphy
2347:. International Commission on Stratigraphy
2321:. International Commission on Stratigraphy
2235:. International Commission of Stratigraphy
1231:to Meishan, China, with the appearance of
3007:
2752:
2440:
2312:"International Chronostratigraphic Chart"
2295:
2209:
2009:
3190:Schaeffer, Bobb; Mangus, Marlyn (1976).
2370:. Anchor Press / Doubleday. p. 70.
2272:
2102:
1536:builders as a result of the extinction.
1378:
1286:
1271:(meteor) impact, the transition from an
1246:is formed when plant matter decays into
963:(ICS) ratifies global stages based on a
961:International Commission on Stratigraphy
819:Upper boundary GSSP candidate section(s)
3069:from the Early Triassic of Spitsbergen"
3040:
3022:
2901:
2867:
2662:
2646:
2617:
2225:
4240:
2923:
2582:Geological Society of America Bulletin
1306:, the northern portion referred to as
619:
3543:
3421:
3318:https://doi.org/10.1093/mollus/eyx018
2455:
2366:Bates, R. L.; Jackson, J. A. (1984).
2281:
1800:
16:First age of the Early Triassic epoch
2555:from the original on March 31, 2022.
1951:Triassic land vertebrate faunachrons
1663:(Olenekian) aged assemblages of the
948:, which are further subdivided into
806:Upper boundary definition candidates
598:
580:
558:
542:
524:
506:
488:
470:
4161:= kiloannum (thousands years ago);
3447:
3063:Kogan, Ilja; Romano, Carlo (2016).
2333:
2166:A Concise Geologic Time Scale: 2016
1611:). This is well exemplified in the
1547:remained largely unaffected by the
1130:in the Salt Range characterized by
13:
4165:= megaannum (millions years ago);
3275:Fishes and the Break-up of Pangaea
3231:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
3028:Triassic fishes from Spitzbergen 1
1210:In the 1990s, detailed studies of
869:. It spans the time between 251.9
591:Triassic–Jurassic extinction event
14:
4274:
4169:= gigaannum (billions years ago).
3394:
2857:https://doi.org/10.1111/evo.13421
2789:https://doi.org/10.1038/srep28372
2727:Sahney, S.; Benton, M.J. (2008).
2546:10.26907/2542-064X.2019.4.550-570
2288:Geological Survey of Canada Paper
2027:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1775:was widespread and common in the
1747:ages. Their fossils are found in
1549:Permian-Triassic extinction event
1282:
954:Permian–Triassic extinction event
481:Permian-Triassic extinction event
4190:
4179:
1783:oceans. The geologically oldest
1714:and a few surviving lineages of
1291:Paleoclimatic reconstruction of
499:Smithian–Spathian boundary event
110:
36:
3310:
3298:
3265:
3214:
3183:
3148:
3096:
3056:
3034:
3016:
2975:
2932:
2917:
2849:
2805:
2801:https://doi.org/10.1002/dep2.97
2793:
2781:
2769:
2640:10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.05.002
2573:
2495:
2410:
2384:
2359:
2304:
2211:10.18814/epiiugs/2001/v24i2/004
1066:The Induan is succeeded by the
1043:and a medium-bedded section of
912:
116:Induan aged rock layers of the
2988:Swiss Journal of Palaeontology
2368:Dictionary of Geological Terms
2247:
2182:
2168:. Elsevier. pp. 133–149.
2157:
1977:
1368:
1322:, and the western part north.
1273:icehouse to a greenhouse Earth
573:corals & calcified sponges
469:
1:
3608:Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma)
1970:
1615:aged fish assemblages of the
1473:
1314:. At this point in time, the
1010:, with the appearance of the
3251:10.1080/02724634.2012.657317
1458:during the Griesbachian was
1349:. In eastern Australia, the
932:. It is subdivided into the
535:Full recovery of woody trees
7:
3571:Geological history of Earth
3223:"A fork-tailed coelacanth,
1957:
1555:exhibit their highest post-
1521:, predominantly during the
1310:, and the southern portion
1238:
620:
260:
10:
4279:
3844:Mississippian (323–359 Ma)
3839:Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma)
3603:Holocene (present–11.7 ka)
3381:Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR
3363:Cambridge University Press
3359:A Geologic Time Scale 2004
3326:
2039:10.1016/j.tree.2007.09.003
1990:Frontiers in Earth Science
1693:Sulphur Mountain Formation
1372:
1087:
907:
4156:
4141:
4128:Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga)
4105:
4065:
4034:
4003:
3990:
3978:Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma)
3950:
3919:
3883:
3852:
3826:
3795:
3782:
3747:
3716:
3690:
3677:
3642:
3616:
3590:
3577:
3455:
3401:GeoWhen Database - Induan
3009:10.1007/s13358-015-0098-6
1724:Crocodile-shaped, marine
1629:Middle Sakamena Formation
1561:cosmopolitan distribution
1159:North American Cordillera
1122:(Austrian paleontologist
998:31.0798000°N 119.705806°E
889:) and is followed by the
818:
805:
798:Upper boundary definition
797:
789:
740:
722:Lower boundary definition
721:
713:
703:
693:
688:
680:
668:
658:
653:
645:
640:
138:
133:
122:Lahaul and Spiti district
109:
28:
21:
4123:Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga)
3968:Miaolingian (497–509 Ma)
3813:Guadalupian (260–272 Ma)
3665:Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma)
3655:Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma)
3412:Lower Triassic timescale
3406:Lower Triassic timescale
3128:10.3140/bull.geosci.1337
2255:"ICS - Chart/Time Scale"
2011:10.3389/feart.2020.00196
1627:aged assemblages of the
1393:The Induan followed the
1222:, Himalayas, Greenland,
1153:in British Columbia and
143:
4118:Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga)
4083:Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga)
4078:Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga)
4021:Cryogenian (635–720 Ma)
3911:Llandovery (433–444 Ma)
3818:Cisuralian (272–299 Ma)
3629:Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma)
3225:Rebellatrix divaricerca
3157:Journal of Paleontology
3116:Bulletin of Geosciences
2941:Journal of Paleontology
2907:Meddelelser om Grønland
2877:Meddelelser om Grønland
2695:10.1126/science.adf1622
2341:"GSSP for Induan Stage"
2135:10.1126/science.1097023
1103:Wilhelm Heinrich Waagen
1101:, and German geologist
1019:as its primary marker (
517:Carnian pluvial episode
256:−200 —
246:−205 —
236:−210 —
226:−215 —
216:−220 —
206:−225 —
196:−230 —
186:−235 —
176:−240 —
166:−245 —
156:−250 —
146:−255 —
31:251.9 ± 0.024 – 251.2
4263:Triassic geochronology
4088:Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga)
4057:Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga)
4016:Ediacaran (539–635 Ma)
3963:Furongian (485–497 Ma)
3808:Lopingian (252–260 Ma)
3634:Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma)
3065:"A new postcranium of
2745:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370
2064:; Morante, R. (1996).
1938:Wordie Creek Formation
1928:Bosnia and Herzegovina
1617:Wordie Creek Formation
1563:during the Induan and
1390:
1341:at the expense of the
1296:
1003:31.0798000; 119.705806
4093:Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga)
4052:Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga)
3973:Series 2 (509–521 Ma)
3660:Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma)
2620:Earth-Science Reviews
2282:Tozer, E. T. (1965).
1665:Vikinghøgda Formation
1462:dominated but became
1395:mass extinction event
1382:
1290:
1196:Vavilovites sverdrupi
1182:Proptychites striatus
1124:Carl Ludolf Griesbach
1097:, Austrian geologist
967:(GSSP) from a single
4224:31.0797°N 119.7058°E
4133:Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga)
4026:Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga)
3906:Wenlock (427–433 Ma)
3896:Pridoli (419–423 Ma)
3462:Lower/Early Triassic
2396:www.stratigraphy.org
2345:www.stratigraphy.org
2319:www.stratigraphy.org
1900:Vardebukta Formation
1868:Knocklofty Formation
1862:Jiucaiyuan Formation
1817:Candelaria Formation
1685:Helongshan Formation
1637:Candelaria Formation
1375:Category:Induan life
1351:Hunter-Bowen orogeny
1173:, and the latter by
1081:Neospathodus waageni
822:Mud (Muth) village,
812:Neospathodus waageni
809:FAD of the Conodont
801:Not formally defined
774:31.0798°N 119.7058°E
4220: /
4188: •
4177: •
4175:Geologic time scale
3937:Middle (458–470 Ma)
3901:Ludlow (423–427 Ma)
3870:Middle (383–393 Ma)
3765:Middle (237–247 Ma)
3734:Middle (164–174 Ma)
3472:Upper/Late Triassic
3347:, pp. 233–244.
3243:2012JVPal..32..499W
3000:2016SwJP..135..275R
2961:10.1017/jpa.2019.18
2953:2019JPal...93..971R
2687:2023Sci...379..567D
2632:2004ESRv...68....1V
2626:(1–2): 85, 99–101.
2594:1996GSAB..108..195R
2523:"First findings of
2473:2010GSLSP.334...17L
2127:2004Sci...305..506P
2082:1996GSAB..108..195R
2002:2020FrEaS...8..196W
1964:Geologic time scale
1851:Guodikeng Formation
1501:, insects, and the
1163:Axel Heiberg Island
994: /
790:Lower GSSP ratified
770: /
741:Lower boundary GSSP
714:Time span formality
4186:Geology portal
4047:Stenian (1–1.2 Ga)
3942:Early (470–485 Ma)
3875:Early (393–419 Ma)
3770:Early (247–252 Ma)
3739:Early (174–201 Ma)
3708:Early (100–145 Ma)
3703:Late (66.0–100 Ma)
2815:Biological Reviews
2060:Retallack, G. J.;
1894:Sakamena Formation
1837:Dinwoody Formation
1801:Notable formations
1643:, United States),
1397:at the end of the
1391:
1363:Gondwanide orogeny
1343:Paleo-Tethys Ocean
1297:
1115:Otoceras woodwardi
1076:Mud village, Spiti
867:chronostratigraphy
852:geologic timescale
704:Stratigraphic unit
694:Chronological unit
681:Time scale(s) used
609:Manicouagan impact
4229:31.0797; 119.7058
4203:
4202:
4101:
4100:
4067:Paleoproterozoic
3986:
3985:
3932:Late (444–458 Ma)
3865:Late (359–383 Ma)
3778:
3777:
3760:Late (201–237 Ma)
3729:Late (145–164 Ma)
3673:
3672:
3594:(present–2.58 Ma)
3582:(present–66.0 Ma)
3537:
3536:
3532:
3531:
2827:10.1111/brv.12161
2681:(6632): 567–572.
2377:978-0-385-18101-3
2175:978-0-444-63771-0
1954:
1910:Vokhmian Gorizont
1887:Panchet Formation
1864:(Xinjiang, China)
1844:Fremouw Formation
1807:Arcadia Formation
1545:ray-finned fishes
1295:during the Induan
1176:Ophiceras commune
833:
832:
779:31.0798; 119.7058
654:Usage information
635:
634:
615:
614:
597:
596:
579:
578:
557:
556:
541:
540:
523:
522:
505:
504:
487:
486:
4270:
4235:
4234:
4232:
4231:
4230:
4225:
4221:
4218:
4217:
4216:
4213:
4197:World portal
4195:
4194:
4184:
4183:
4146:
4110:
4070:
4039:
4036:Mesoproterozoic
4008:
4001:
4000:
3996:
3955:
3924:
3888:
3857:
3831:
3800:
3793:
3792:
3788:
3752:
3721:
3695:
3688:
3687:
3683:
3647:
3621:
3595:
3588:
3587:
3583:
3564:
3557:
3550:
3541:
3540:
3458:
3457:
3442:
3435:
3428:
3419:
3418:
3389:
3386:(4), pp 842–845
3370:
3352:
3334:
3320:
3314:
3308:
3302:
3296:
3295:
3269:
3263:
3262:
3218:
3212:
3211:
3187:
3181:
3180:
3152:
3146:
3145:
3139:
3131:
3113:
3100:
3094:
3093:
3073:
3060:
3054:
3053:
3038:
3032:
3031:
3020:
3014:
3013:
3011:
2979:
2973:
2972:
2936:
2930:
2929:
2921:
2915:
2914:
2899:
2893:
2892:
2865:
2859:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2809:
2803:
2797:
2791:
2785:
2779:
2773:
2767:
2766:
2756:
2739:(1636): 759–65.
2724:
2715:
2714:
2669:
2660:
2653:
2644:
2643:
2615:
2606:
2605:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2564:
2556:
2554:
2531:
2518:
2512:
2511:
2499:
2493:
2492:
2453:
2438:
2437:
2414:
2408:
2407:
2405:
2403:
2388:
2382:
2381:
2363:
2357:
2356:
2354:
2352:
2337:
2331:
2330:
2328:
2326:
2316:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2299:
2279:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2266:
2257:. Archived from
2251:
2245:
2244:
2242:
2240:
2229:
2223:
2222:
2220:
2218:
2213:
2195:
2186:
2180:
2179:
2161:
2155:
2154:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2096:
2057:
2051:
2050:
2022:
2016:
2015:
2013:
1981:
1944:
1920:Werfen Formation
1914:Kopanskaya Svita
1883:* (South Africa)
1649:Himachal Pradesh
1587:Parasemionotidae
1475:
1466:dominated (e.g.
1339:Neo-Tethys Ocean
1259:due to volcanic
1187:Ellesmere Island
1016:Hindeodus parvus
1009:
1008:
1006:
1005:
1004:
999:
995:
992:
991:
990:
987:
979:Section, China,
854:, or the lowest
785:
784:
782:
781:
780:
775:
771:
768:
767:
766:
763:
734:Hindeodus parvus
604:
599:
586:
581:
574:
564:
559:
548:
543:
536:
530:
525:
512:
507:
494:
489:
476:
471:
444:
435:
426:
417:
408:
399:
390:
381:
372:
363:
353:
351:
342:
340:
331:
329:
320:
301:
299:
279:
268:
257:
252:
247:
242:
237:
232:
227:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
162:
157:
152:
147:
141:
114:
105:
35:
24:
19:
18:
4278:
4277:
4273:
4272:
4271:
4269:
4268:
4267:
4258:Geological ages
4238:
4237:
4228:
4226:
4222:
4219:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4199:
4189:
4178:
4170:
4152:
4144:
4137:
4108:
4097:
4068:
4061:
4037:
4030:
4006:
4005:Neoproterozoic
3995:(539 Ma–2.5 Ga)
3994:
3993:
3992:Proterozoic Eon
3982:
3953:
3946:
3922:
3915:
3886:
3879:
3855:
3848:
3829:
3822:
3798:
3786:
3785:
3774:
3750:
3743:
3719:
3712:
3693:
3681:
3680:
3669:
3645:
3638:
3619:
3612:
3593:
3581:
3580:
3573:
3568:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3507:
3491:
3467:Middle Triassic
3451:
3449:Triassic Period
3446:
3397:
3387:
3368:
3350:
3332:
3329:
3324:
3323:
3315:
3311:
3303:
3299:
3284:10.1144/sp295.3
3270:
3266:
3219:
3215:
3188:
3184:
3153:
3149:
3133:
3132:
3111:
3101:
3097:
3090:
3071:
3061:
3057:
3039:
3035:
3021:
3017:
2980:
2976:
2947:(5): 971–1000.
2937:
2933:
2922:
2918:
2900:
2896:
2866:
2862:
2854:
2850:
2810:
2806:
2798:
2794:
2786:
2782:
2774:
2770:
2725:
2718:
2670:
2663:
2654:
2647:
2616:
2609:
2578:
2574:
2558:
2557:
2552:
2529:
2519:
2515:
2500:
2496:
2481:10.1144/sp334.2
2454:
2441:
2418:Mojsisovics, E.
2415:
2411:
2401:
2399:
2390:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2364:
2360:
2350:
2348:
2339:
2338:
2334:
2324:
2322:
2314:
2310:
2309:
2305:
2290:. 65–12: 1–14.
2280:
2273:
2264:
2262:
2253:
2252:
2248:
2238:
2236:
2231:
2230:
2226:
2216:
2214:
2193:
2187:
2183:
2176:
2162:
2158:
2121:(5683): 506–9.
2107:
2103:
2094:
2092:
2058:
2054:
2033:(10): 548–557.
2023:
2019:
1982:
1978:
1973:
1960:
1947:biostratigraphy
1881:Assemblage Zone
1803:
1706:fishes include
1671:, Norway), and
1645:Mikin Formation
1527:Microbial reefs
1480:of the Permian
1446:-level (alpha)
1422:low oxygenation
1377:
1371:
1285:
1241:
1090:
1072:Mikin Formation
1021:biostratigraphy
1002:
1000:
996:
993:
988:
985:
983:
981:
980:
915:
910:
778:
776:
772:
769:
764:
761:
759:
757:
756:
755:
636:
631:
630:
628:
611:
602:
593:
584:
575:
572:
568:
562:
553:
546:
537:
534:
528:
519:
510:
501:
492:
483:
474:
467:
466:
462:
461:
457:
456:
452:
451:
447:
446:
442:
438:
437:
433:
429:
428:
424:
420:
419:
415:
411:
410:
406:
402:
401:
397:
393:
392:
388:
384:
383:
379:
375:
374:
370:
366:
365:
361:
359:
355:
354:
349:
347:
344:
343:
338:
336:
333:
332:
327:
325:
322:
321:
316:
313:
312:
304:
303:
297:
295:
291:
290:
282:
281:
275:
271:
270:
264:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
233:
230:
228:
225:
223:
220:
218:
215:
213:
210:
208:
205:
203:
200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
163:
160:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
129:
118:Mikin Formation
104:
103:
102:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
51:
46:
41:
30:
29:
22:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4276:
4266:
4265:
4260:
4255:
4253:Early Triassic
4250:
4201:
4200:
4157:
4154:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4139:
4138:
4136:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4114:
4112:
4103:
4102:
4099:
4098:
4096:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4074:
4072:
4063:
4062:
4060:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4043:
4041:
4032:
4031:
4029:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4012:
4010:
3998:
3988:
3987:
3984:
3983:
3981:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3965:
3959:
3957:
3948:
3947:
3945:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3928:
3926:
3917:
3916:
3914:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3892:
3890:
3881:
3880:
3878:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3861:
3859:
3850:
3849:
3847:
3846:
3841:
3835:
3833:
3828:Carboniferous
3824:
3823:
3821:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3804:
3802:
3790:
3780:
3779:
3776:
3775:
3773:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3756:
3754:
3745:
3744:
3742:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3725:
3723:
3714:
3713:
3711:
3710:
3705:
3699:
3697:
3685:
3675:
3674:
3671:
3670:
3668:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3651:
3649:
3646:(23.0–66.0 Ma)
3640:
3639:
3637:
3636:
3631:
3625:
3623:
3620:(2.58–23.0 Ma)
3614:
3613:
3611:
3610:
3605:
3599:
3597:
3585:
3575:
3574:
3567:
3566:
3559:
3552:
3544:
3535:
3534:
3530:
3529:
3527:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3510:
3508:
3506:
3505:
3500:
3494:
3492:
3490:
3489:
3484:
3478:
3475:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3456:
3453:
3452:
3445:
3444:
3437:
3430:
3422:
3416:
3415:
3409:
3403:
3396:
3395:External links
3393:
3392:
3391:
3366:
3348:
3328:
3325:
3322:
3321:
3309:
3297:
3264:
3237:(3): 499–511.
3213:
3202:(5): 516–563.
3182:
3163:(1): 146–161.
3147:
3095:
3088:
3055:
3033:
3015:
2994:(2): 275–294.
2974:
2931:
2916:
2903:Nielsen, Eigil
2894:
2860:
2848:
2821:(1): 106–147.
2804:
2792:
2780:
2768:
2716:
2661:
2645:
2607:
2588:(2): 195–207.
2572:
2536:(in Russian).
2513:
2506:(in Russian).
2494:
2439:
2409:
2383:
2376:
2358:
2332:
2303:
2297:10.4095/100985
2271:
2246:
2224:
2204:(2): 102–114.
2181:
2174:
2156:
2101:
2076:(2): 195–207.
2052:
2017:
1975:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1968:
1967:
1959:
1956:
1942:
1941:
1935:
1917:
1907:
1897:
1890:
1884:
1875:
1865:
1858:
1847:
1846:* (Antarctica)
1840:
1834:
1827:Daye Formation
1824:
1814:
1802:
1799:
1719:holocephalians
1704:chondrichthyan
1659:, China), the
1653:Daye Formation
1651:, India), and
1495:proterosuchids
1433:supercontinent
1370:
1367:
1359:Cape Fold Belt
1301:supercontinent
1284:
1283:Paleogeography
1281:
1265:nitrous oxides
1261:sulfur dioxide
1240:
1237:
1089:
1086:
1084:and a C peak.
1039:, overlain by
914:
911:
909:
906:
898:Feixianguanian
860:Lower Triassic
845:Early Triassic
831:
830:
820:
816:
815:
807:
803:
802:
799:
795:
794:
791:
787:
786:
742:
738:
737:
723:
719:
718:
715:
711:
710:
705:
701:
700:
695:
691:
690:
686:
685:
684:ICS Time Scale
682:
678:
677:
670:
669:Regional usage
666:
665:
660:
659:Celestial body
656:
655:
651:
650:
647:
646:Name formality
643:
642:
638:
637:
633:
632:
617:
616:
613:
612:
607:
605:
595:
594:
589:
587:
577:
576:
567:
565:
555:
554:
551:
549:
539:
538:
533:
531:
521:
520:
515:
513:
503:
502:
497:
495:
485:
484:
479:
477:
468:
464:
463:
459:
458:
454:
453:
449:
448:
440:
439:
431:
430:
422:
421:
413:
412:
404:
403:
395:
394:
386:
385:
377:
376:
368:
367:
357:
356:
346:
345:
335:
334:
324:
323:
315:
314:
306:
305:
293:
292:
284:
283:
273:
272:
262:
261:
259:
254:
249:
244:
239:
234:
229:
224:
219:
214:
209:
204:
199:
194:
189:
184:
179:
174:
169:
164:
159:
154:
149:
144:
139:
136:
135:
131:
130:
115:
107:
106:
99:
98:
97:
92:
87:
82:
77:
72:
67:
62:
57:
52:
47:
42:
37:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4275:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4245:
4243:
4236:
4233:
4198:
4193:
4187:
4182:
4176:
4173:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4155:
4149:
4147:
4140:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4115:
4113:
4111:
4104:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4075:
4073:
4071:
4064:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4048:
4045:
4044:
4042:
4040:
4033:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4013:
4011:
4009:
4007:(539 Ma–1 Ga)
4002:
3999:
3997:
3989:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3960:
3958:
3956:
3949:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3929:
3927:
3925:
3918:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3893:
3891:
3889:
3882:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3862:
3860:
3858:
3851:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3836:
3834:
3832:
3825:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3805:
3803:
3801:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3784:Paleozoic Era
3781:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3757:
3755:
3753:
3746:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3726:
3724:
3722:
3715:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3700:
3698:
3696:
3694:(66.0–145 Ma)
3689:
3686:
3684:
3682:(66.0–252 Ma)
3676:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3652:
3650:
3648:
3641:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3626:
3624:
3622:
3615:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3600:
3598:
3596:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3576:
3572:
3565:
3560:
3558:
3553:
3551:
3546:
3545:
3542:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3511:
3509:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3495:
3493:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3479:
3477:
3476:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3459:
3454:
3450:
3443:
3438:
3436:
3431:
3429:
3424:
3423:
3420:
3413:
3410:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3398:
3385:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3367:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3349:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3331:
3330:
3319:
3313:
3307:
3301:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3276:
3268:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3228:
3226:
3217:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3186:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3151:
3143:
3137:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3110:
3108:
3099:
3091:
3089:9783860125526
3085:
3081:
3077:
3070:
3068:
3059:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3037:
3029:
3025:
3019:
3010:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2978:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2935:
2927:
2920:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2898:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2869:Stensiö, Erik
2864:
2858:
2852:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2808:
2802:
2796:
2790:
2784:
2778:
2772:
2764:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2723:
2721:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2668:
2666:
2659:
2652:
2650:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2614:
2612:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2576:
2568:
2562:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2528:
2526:
2517:
2509:
2505:
2498:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2452:
2450:
2448:
2446:
2444:
2435:
2432:(in German).
2431:
2427:
2423:
2422:Waagen, W. H.
2419:
2413:
2397:
2393:
2387:
2379:
2373:
2369:
2362:
2346:
2342:
2336:
2320:
2313:
2307:
2298:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2278:
2276:
2261:on 2014-05-30
2260:
2256:
2250:
2234:
2228:
2212:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2192:
2185:
2177:
2171:
2167:
2160:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2105:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2056:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2021:
2012:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1980:
1976:
1965:
1962:
1961:
1955:
1952:
1948:
1939:
1936:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1918:
1915:
1911:
1908:
1905:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1891:
1888:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1876:
1873:
1869:
1866:
1863:
1859:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1845:
1841:
1839:(western USA)
1838:
1835:
1832:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1818:
1815:
1812:
1808:
1805:
1804:
1798:
1796:
1792:
1791:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1773:
1769:
1764:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1741:
1736:
1735:
1730:
1727:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1716:eugeneodontid
1713:
1712:neoselachians
1709:
1705:
1700:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1677:United States
1674:
1673:Thaynes Group
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1609:
1604:
1603:
1598:
1597:Ptycholepidae
1594:
1593:
1592:Pteronisculus
1588:
1584:
1583:
1578:
1577:
1572:
1571:
1570:Australosomus
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1537:
1535:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1491:lystrosaurids
1487:
1485:
1484:
1479:
1471:
1470:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1434:
1429:
1427:
1426:Guiyang biota
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1400:
1396:
1389:
1387:
1381:
1376:
1366:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1323:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1302:
1294:
1289:
1280:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1263:emissions or
1262:
1258:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1236:
1234:
1230:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1208:
1206:
1200:
1198:
1197:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1183:
1178:
1177:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1155:Siemon Muller
1152:
1151:Frank McLearn
1146:
1144:
1140:
1135:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1085:
1083:
1082:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1064:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1017:
1013:
1007:
989:119°42′20.9″E
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
957:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
928:
924:
921:is the first
920:
905:
903:
899:
894:
892:
888:
884:
883:Changhsingian
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
861:
857:
853:
849:
846:
842:
839:is the first
838:
829:
825:
821:
817:
814:
813:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
783:
754:
750:
746:
743:
739:
736:
735:
731:
727:
724:
720:
716:
712:
709:
706:
702:
699:
696:
692:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
664:
661:
657:
652:
648:
644:
639:
627:
626:, as of 2021.
625:
618:
610:
606:
601:
600:
592:
588:
583:
582:
571:
570:Scleractinian
566:
561:
560:
550:
545:
544:
532:
527:
526:
518:
514:
509:
508:
500:
496:
491:
490:
482:
478:
473:
472:
445:
436:
427:
418:
409:
400:
391:
382:
373:
364:
352:
341:
330:
319:
311:
310:
302:
300:
289:
288:
280:
278:
269:
267:
142:
137:
132:
127:
123:
119:
113:
108:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
50:
45:
40:
34:
27:
20:
4205:
4171:
4107:Archean Eon
4069:(1.6–2.5 Ga)
3954:(485–539 Ma)
3923:(444–485 Ma)
3887:(419–444 Ma)
3856:(359–419 Ma)
3830:(299–359 Ma)
3799:(252–299 Ma)
3787:(252–539 Ma)
3751:(201–252 Ma)
3720:(145–201 Ma)
3679:Mesozoic Era
3579:Cenozoic Era
3481:
3388:(in Russian)
3383:
3376:
3372:
3358:
3354:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3312:
3300:
3274:
3267:
3234:
3230:
3224:
3216:
3199:
3195:
3185:
3160:
3156:
3150:
3136:cite journal
3119:
3115:
3106:
3098:
3079:
3075:
3066:
3058:
3049:
3045:
3036:
3027:
3018:
2991:
2987:
2977:
2944:
2940:
2934:
2925:
2919:
2910:
2906:
2897:
2883:(3): 1–305.
2880:
2876:
2863:
2851:
2818:
2814:
2807:
2795:
2783:
2771:
2736:
2732:
2678:
2674:
2623:
2619:
2585:
2581:
2575:
2561:cite journal
2537:
2533:
2524:
2516:
2507:
2503:
2497:
2467:(1): 17–39.
2464:
2460:
2457:Lucas, S. G.
2436:: 1279–1302.
2433:
2429:
2412:
2400:. Retrieved
2395:
2386:
2367:
2361:
2349:. Retrieved
2344:
2335:
2323:. Retrieved
2318:
2306:
2287:
2263:. Retrieved
2259:the original
2249:
2237:. Retrieved
2227:
2215:. Retrieved
2201:
2197:
2184:
2165:
2159:
2118:
2114:
2104:
2093:. Retrieved
2073:
2070:GSA Bulletin
2069:
2055:
2030:
2026:
2020:
1996:(196): 196.
1993:
1989:
1979:
1943:
1896:(Madagascar)
1879:Lystrosaurus
1878:
1874:, Australia)
1813:, Australia)
1788:
1770:
1765:
1740:Wantzosaurus
1738:
1732:
1726:temnospondyl
1723:
1701:
1613:Griesbachian
1606:
1600:
1590:
1582:Bobasatrania
1580:
1574:
1568:
1538:
1488:
1483:Glossopteris
1481:
1467:
1440:biodiversity
1431:Much of the
1430:
1412:, and other
1410:foraminifera
1392:
1384:
1347:Panjal Traps
1335:Indian Plate
1324:
1298:
1242:
1232:
1211:
1209:
1201:
1194:
1190:
1180:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1147:
1136:
1113:
1091:
1079:
1065:
1049:argillaceous
1014:
986:31°4′47.28″N
958:
916:
913:Stratigraphy
895:
878:
875:Griesbachian
874:
836:
834:
824:Spiti valley
810:
732:
621:
552:Coals return
387:
307:
294:
285:
274:
263:
4227: /
4215:119°42′21″E
4143:Hadean Eon
3921:Ordovician
3692:Cretaceous
3592:Quaternary
3343:, Episodes
3122:: 543–570.
3107:Saurichthys
3082:: 205–221.
3067:Saurichthys
3042:Stensiö, E.
3024:Stensiö, E.
2239:23 December
2062:Veevers, J.
1940:(Greenland)
1777:Panthalassa
1753:Spitsbergen
1734:Aphaneramma
1669:Spitsbergen
1602:Saurichthys
1553:coelacanths
1418:black shale
1383:Fossils of
1373:Main page:
1369:Induan life
1167:O. concavum
1139:Indus River
1134:ammonites.
1099:Carl Diener
1035:section of
1001: /
777: /
765:119°42′21″E
371:Changhsing.
4242:Categories
4212:31°04′47″N
4145:(4–4.6 Ga)
4109:(2.5–4 Ga)
4038:(1–1.6 Ga)
3644:Paleogene
2913:(3): 1–55.
2540:(4): 552.
2510:: 842–845.
2426:Diener, C.
2265:2017-09-28
2217:8 December
2095:2007-09-29
1971:References
1916:* (Russia)
1811:Queensland
1761:Madagascar
1729:amphibians
1633:Madagascar
1539:Regarding
1511:amphibians
1478:extinction
1469:Pleuromeia
1460:gymnosperm
1408:, benthic
1355:fold belts
1316:South Pole
1252:coal seams
1171:O. boreale
1107:Salt Range
973:stratotype
762:31°04′47″N
689:Definition
443:Hettangian
134:Chronology
4172:See also:
3952:Cambrian
3885:Silurian
3854:Devonian
3749:Triassic
3718:Jurassic
3487:Olenekian
3292:130268582
3177:131176315
2969:155564297
2889:938169014
2711:256697946
2489:129648527
2325:25 August
1906:, Norway)
1889:* (India)
1795:ammonoids
1749:Greenland
1745:Olenekian
1708:hybodonts
1695:(western
1675:(western
1625:Dienerian
1621:Greenland
1565:Olenekian
1541:bony fish
1523:Dienerian
1507:cynodonts
1503:tetrapods
1499:ammonoids
1452:latitudes
1448:diversity
1444:community
1414:ichnotaxa
1308:Laurentia
1277:tetrapods
1233:H. parvus
1214:sites in
1205:timescale
1191:P. candus
1128:sandstone
1120:Himalayas
1068:Olenekian
1045:dolomitic
1037:limestone
969:formation
944:Triassic
900:Stage of
891:Olenekian
879:Dienerian
641:Etymology
380:Olenekian
318:Lopingian
3797:Permian
3618:Neogene
3524:Rhaetian
3503:Ladinian
3259:85826893
3208:2246/619
3052:: 1–261.
3026:(1921).
2871:(1932).
2835:25431138
2763:18198148
2703:36758082
2550:Archived
2525:Otoceras
2198:Episodes
2151:35498132
2143:15273391
2047:17919771
1958:See also
1904:Svalbard
1872:Tasmania
1857:, China)
1855:Xinjiang
1833:, China)
1790:Liostrea
1757:Pakistan
1681:Spathian
1661:Smithian
1576:Birgeria
1557:Devonian
1531:metazoan
1525:subage.
1515:reptiles
1493:and the
1406:bivalves
1333:and the
1325:A major
1312:Gondwana
1239:Coal gap
1224:Svalbard
1212:Otoceras
1132:ceratite
1111:ammonite
1057:allochem
1012:conodont
927:Mesozoic
919:Triassic
885:(latest
877:and the
749:Zhejiang
730:Conodont
672:Global (
434:Rhaetian
407:Ladinian
298:Triassic
277:Mesozoic
3514:Carnian
3498:Anisian
3327:Sources
3239:Bibcode
2996:Bibcode
2949:Bibcode
2843:5332637
2754:2596898
2683:Bibcode
2675:Science
2628:Bibcode
2590:Bibcode
2469:Bibcode
2402:16 June
2351:16 June
2123:Bibcode
2115:Science
2078:Bibcode
1998:Bibcode
1924:Austria
1892:middle
1831:Guizhou
1785:oysters
1772:Claraia
1768:bivalve
1702:Induan
1679:), the
1657:Guizhou
1623:), the
1608:Whiteia
1486:flora.
1464:lycopod
1399:Permian
1386:Claraia
1331:African
1327:rifting
1257:acidity
1220:Kashmir
1143:Siberia
1118:in the
1088:History
1061:microns
1053:micrite
977:Meishan
925:of the
908:Geology
887:Permian
858:of the
850:in the
843:of the
745:Meishan
728:of the
603:←
585:←
563:←
547:←
529:←
511:←
493:←
475:←
416:Carnian
398:Anisian
251:–
241:–
231:–
221:–
211:–
201:–
191:–
181:–
171:–
161:–
151:–
100:↓
4248:Induan
4151:
3519:Norian
3482:Induan
3290:
3257:
3175:
3086:
2967:
2887:
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1860:lower
1849:upper
1842:lower
1823:, USA)
1821:Nevada
1781:Tethys
1731:(e.g.
1697:Canada
1641:Nevada
1619:(East
1567:(e.g.
1519:anoxic
1454:, the
1436:Pangea
1402:period
1388:clarai
1304:Pangea
1293:Pangea
1269:bolide
1033:bedded
950:stages
946:series
940:, and
938:Middle
923:period
863:series
837:Induan
717:Formal
649:Formal
465:
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450:
425:Norian
389:Induan
339:Middle
23:Induan
3345:28(4)
3288:S2CID
3255:S2CID
3173:S2CID
3112:(PDF)
3072:(PDF)
2965:S2CID
2839:S2CID
2707:S2CID
2553:(PDF)
2530:(PDF)
2485:S2CID
2315:(PDF)
2194:(PDF)
2147:S2CID
1949:(see
1932:Italy
1689:Anhui
1683:aged
1456:flora
1267:from
1216:Tibet
1074:near
1055:than
942:Upper
934:Lower
902:China
856:stage
848:epoch
828:India
753:China
708:Stage
663:Earth
126:India
3373:1956
3355:2004
3337:2005
3142:link
3084:ISBN
2885:OCLC
2831:PMID
2759:PMID
2699:PMID
2567:link
2404:2022
2372:ISBN
2353:2022
2327:2022
2241:2020
2219:2020
2170:ISBN
2139:PMID
2043:PMID
1779:and
1766:The
1759:and
1551:and
1534:reef
1489:The
1442:and
1320:60°S
1248:peat
1244:Coal
1229:GSSP
1193:and
1179:and
1169:and
1041:clay
1027:and
917:The
835:The
793:2001
350:Late
39:PreꞒ
3384:109
3280:doi
3247:doi
3204:hdl
3200:156
3165:doi
3124:doi
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3004:doi
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2957:doi
2911:112
2823:doi
2749:PMC
2741:doi
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