702:, became rare to absent at lower elevations, even in relatively intact native forest. Avian malaria has been identified as the primary driver of declines in abundance and distribution of ʻiʻiwi observed since 1900. They are one of the most susceptible Hawaiian honeycreepers, with more than 75% exposure to the bird after being bitten by a single mosquito and with 90% overall mortality. One of the main reasons the 'I'iwi get exposed to malaria is because the birds move down to lower elevations post breeding season in order to track more food from ˋŌhiˋa trees and were shown to be exposed to malaria much more often than those birds who were more sedentary and stayed in higher elevation zones. In another study, they were also shown to have the longest movement patterns out of any of three other native Hawaiian birds, which may also be spreading avian malaria amongst the 'I'iwi. In middle elevations, there is a growing number of mosquitoes in the fall that facilitate disease transmission and affect the birds at higher elevations that travel to lower elevations to forage for food. ‘I’iwi usually reside at high enough elevations that they are not exposed to the disease. However, with climate change, they are expected to be exposed to the disease even more as the climate warms and the disease is able to develop in mosquitoes at higher altitudes where the ‘I’iwi used to be somewhat safe. As for the current abundance of 'I'iwi in these areas, there were more 'I'iwi found above 1350 m in altitude when compared to a survey done in 1979. There were also no 'I'iwi found in mid-elevations, while back in 1979, 37% of the 'I'iwi found were located here, which gives further evidence that they are being pushed into higher elevations because of global warming. For these reasons, it has been projected that the 'I'iwi may be on the verge of extinction by 2100.
594:
649:
44:
225:
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and the most important tree in regards to ecology in Hawaii. However, in recent years many of the trees have begun to die out due to a disease called
Ceratocystis Wilt, also called Rapid ˋŌhiˋa Death, which causes rapid death of the leaves on a single branch that spreads to the rest of the tree incredibly quickly. There has been extensive death of these trees in untouched part of the forest, which has further contributed to the problem of the 'I'iwi having to leave higher elevations to find food and being exposed to malaria.
93:
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be extremely expensive. There have also been various other solutions proposed, like gene edited mosquitoes, feral pig control in order to reduce habitats for mosquito larvae, and 'I'iwi predator control in order to increase the population. Other solutions include getting rid of invasive species that produce nectar and increasing native flowering plants in higher elevations so that the 'I'iwi do not have to go into the lower elevation, mosquito infested areas to forage for food.
68:
351:
718:ʻIʻiwi habitat has been reduced and fragmented through various types of land development, including clearing native forest for food crops and grazing. Invasive plants also outcompete and displace native plants that ʻiʻiwi use for foraging and nesting. Invasive animals impact ʻiʻiwi in a variety of ways, for example feral ungulates may trample native plants and spread nonnative plants and invasive seeds, further degrading habitat.
412:
750:
Organizations throughout the islands have established nature reserves to protect native habitat. Fencing off sections of land to keep out feral ungulates, especially pigs, goats and axis deer enables native plants to recover from overgrazing and ungulate damage and helps restore native bird habitat.
746:
One way that has been studied to help mitigate the issue of 'I'iwi and avian malaria is through gene editing to make 'I'iwi that are resistant to malaria. However, a very large number of gene edited 'I'iwi would have to be released before the year 2050 in order for this strategy to work, which would
737:
Another problem aiding the extinction of the 'I'iwi is the death of the ˋŌhiˋa tree. The ˋŌhiˋa tree is known to act as shelter for various rare and endangered species and be a food source for many birds on the island, making it one of the most important sources of nectar for
Hawaiian Honeycreepers
426:. The contrast of the red and black plumage with surrounding green foliage makes the ʻiʻiwi one of Hawaiʻi's most easily seen native birds. Younger birds have golden plumage with more spots and ivory bills and were mistaken for a different species by early naturalists. Observations of young birds
639:
Island, likely make daily trips from lower elevations to feed on nectar. Seeking food at low elevation exposes them to low elevation disease organisms and high mortality. It has been theorized that the ʻiʻiwi can migrate between islands and it may be why the bird has not gone extinct on smaller
628:. Overall, ninety percent of the ʻiʻiwi population is confined to a narrow band of forest on East Maui and the windward slopes of the island of Hawaii, between 4,265 and 6,234 feet (1,300 and 1,900 meters) in elevation. They are most abundant in mesic to wet forests at higher elevations.
1146:
Atkinson, C.T.; Woods, K.L.; Dusek, R.J.; Sileo, L.S. (January 1995). "Wildlife disease and conservation in Hawaii: Pathogenicity of avian malaria (Plasmodium relictum) in experimentally infected Iiwi (Vestiaria coccinea)".
705:
There is a movement to begin an official eradication of mosquitos in Hawaii, as there are no native species on the islands, and their removal would not hurt the food web. Each week, 250,000 male mosquitoes who
1433:
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Although 'I'iwi are still relatively common in Hawaii, they have lost over 90% of their range and are being considered to be listed on the endangered species act. ʻIʻiwi was formerly classified as a
1128:
844:
Fancy, S. G. and C. J. Ralph (2020). Iiwi (Drepanis coccinea), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (A. F. Poole and F. B. Gill, Editors). Cornell Lab of
Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA.
888:
Smith, Thomas B.; Freed, Leonard A.; Lepson, Jaan
Kaimanu; Carothers, John H. (February 1995). "Evolutionary Consequences of Extinctions in Populations of a Hawaiian Honeycreeper".
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Similarly, the Iiwi was considered abundant throughout the island forest in the 1890s (Perkins 1903), still fairly common up to 1923, but extirpated by 1929 (Munro 1960).
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In recent years another threat has put native bird habitat at risk. Conservation groups are diligently working to reduce the risk of spreading a disease called
698:. ʻIʻiwi generally survive at higher elevations where temperatures are too cool for mosquitoes. Many disease-susceptible endemic birds, including ʻiʻiwi and
1229:
Knowlton, Jessie L.; Flaspohler, David J.; Paxton, Eben H.; Fukami, Tadashi; Giardina, Christian P.; Gruner, Daniel S.; Rankin, Erin E. Wilson (July 2017).
755:(ROD). This disease along with ʻōhiʻa dieback and ʻōhiʻa rust could lead to a rapid decline in ʻōhiʻa forests, an important nectar source for ʻiʻiwi.
565:
In the early winter in
January to June, the birds pair off and mate as the ʻōhiʻa plants reach their flowering maximum. The female lays two to three
990:
635:; they follow the progress of flowers as they develop at increasing altitudes throughout the year. It has also been noted that birds on Mauna Kea,
994:
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by knocking over vegetation and hollowing out areas that fill with rain water. These have the potential to become incubator sites for mosquito
952:"Abundance, distribution and population trends of the iconic Hawaiian honeycreeper, Iiwi (Vestiaria coccinea) throughout the Hawaiian islands"
478:
1009:
593:
547:. Starting in 1902 the lobelioid population declined dramatically, and the ʻiʻiwi shifted to nectar from the blossoms of ʻōhiʻa lehua (
1967:
682:ʻIʻiwi are listed as a threatened species because of small and declining populations in some of its range and its susceptibility to
1926:
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671:
598:
1388:
1522:"Facilitated adaptation for conservation – Can gene editing save Hawaii's endangered birds from climate driven avian malaria?"
872:
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1992:
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The adult ʻiʻiwi is mostly scarlet, with black wings and tail and a long, curved, salmon-colored bill used primarily for
1091:"Altitudinal migration and the future of an iconic H awaiian honeycreeper in response to climate change and management"
390:
1561:
Liao, Wei; Atkinson, Carter T.; LaPointe, Dennis A.; Samuel, Michael D. (6 January 2017). Sullivan, David J. (ed.).
1987:
1982:
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581:. These bluish eggs hatch in fourteen days. The chicks are yellowish-green marked with brownish-orange. The chicks
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1997:
1977:
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520:, the sound of balls dropping in water, the rubbing of balloons together, and the squeaking of a rusty hinge.
1944:
707:
666:, but recent research has proven that it is rarer than previously believed. Consequently, it was uplisted to
1479:
Keith, L. M.; Hughes, R. F.; Sugiyama, L. S.; Heller, W. P.; Bushe, B. C.; Friday, J. B. (September 2015).
1414:
1129:"Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Threatened Species Status for the Iiwi (Drepanis coccinea)"
368:
1766:
1761:
1726:
811:
752:
624:; very few ʻiʻiwi have been recorded on either island since the 1990s. They are no longer present on
323:
92:
1677:
1192:"Evening Roosting Flights of the Honeycreepers Himatione sanguinea and Vestiaria coccinea on Hawaii"
975:
Pacific
Islands Fish and Wildlife Office, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 1 (December 2016).
929:
1851:
1672:
976:
1521:
1024:
549:
361:
337:), a migratory bird. The long decurved bill of the curlew somewhat resembles that of the ʻiʻiwi.
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with local female mosquitoes are released from helicopters to suppress the mosquito population.
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864:
858:
330:
1838:
437:, ʻiʻiwi were used in the feather trade. The ʻiʻiwi's feathers were highly prized by Hawaiian
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1432:
Dyk, Kathryn N. van; Paxton, Kristina L.; Hart, Patrick J.; Paxton, Eben H. (12 April 2019).
632:
462:
303:
197:
508:. The Hawaiian song "Sweet Lei Mamo" includes the line "The ʻiʻiwi bird, too, is a friend".
1753:
1735:
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17:
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1071:
Forest Bird
Communities of the Hawaiian Islands: Their Dynamics, Ecology, and Conservation
43:
8:
1319:
951:
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540:
57:
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1633:
College of
Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources at the University of Hawaii at Manoa
1578:
1520:
Samuel, Michael D.; Liao, Wei; Atkinson, Carter T.; LaPointe, Dennis A. (January 2020).
1230:
1089:
Guillaumet, Alban; Kuntz, Wendy A.; Samuel, Michael D.; Paxton, Eben H. (3 April 2017).
1069:
Scott, J. Michael; Mountainspring, Stephen; Ramsey, Fred L.; Kepler, Cameron B. (1986).
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72:
1563:"Mitigating Future Avian Malaria Threats to Hawaiian Forest Birds from Climate Change"
403:
1972:
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1547:
1502:
1465:
1453:
1347:
1335:
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1284:
1265:"Introduced Avian Diseases, Climate Change, and the Future of Hawaiian Honeycreepers"
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1890:
1600:
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1492:
1445:
1434:"Seasonality and Prevalence of Pollen Collected from Hawaiian Nectarivorous Birds1"
1389:"Hawaii's birds are going extinct. Their last hope could be millions of mosquitoes"
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islands such as Molokaʻi. Altitudinal migration complicates population assessment.
261:
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because of the close relationship between the ʻiʻiwi and the two species of mamo;
1917:
1859:
1711:
1587:
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1231:"Movements of four native Hawaiian birds across a naturally fragmented landscape"
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with the greatest numbers in East Maui, and fewer than 1% of ʻiʻiwi remain on
1961:
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797:
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452:
214:
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1614:
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1362:"The 'I'iwi, a Besieged Hawaiian Forest Bird, Is Now Listed as Threatened"
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832:
1864:
1846:
1820:
1720:
1481:"First Report of Ceratocystis Wilt on ˋŌhiˋa ( Metrosideros polymorpha )"
529:
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1812:
1331:
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1215:
1191:
915:
375: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1825:
1320:"Current distribution and abundance of Kohala forest birds in Hawai'i"
1318:
Burnett, Keith; Camp, Richard J.; Hart, Patrick J. (7 December 2021).
1246:
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1674:'I'iwi Species Status Report by U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service 2016
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104:
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1911:
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461:(feathered helmets), and such uses gave the species its original
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1049:"'I'iwi Receives Protection under the Endangered Species Act"
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status in 2008. The species was listed as threatened by the
232:
The distribution of ʻIʻiwi (green) with extinct areas (red)
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765:
List of adaptive radiated
Hawaiian honeycreepers by form
1145:
411:
1073:. The Cooper Ornithological Society. pp. 157–163.
786:
1415:"How Invasive Feral Pigs Impact the Hawaiian Islands"
1263:
Atkinson, Carter T.; LaPointe, Dennis A. (May 2009).
937:
713:
273:
1431:
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U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File Report 2013-11150
516:The ʻiʻiwiʻs peculiar song consists of a couple of
267:
1190:MacMillen, Richard E.; Carpenter, F. Lynn (1980).
1189:
949:
812:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T22720844A179228794.en
950:Paxton, E.H.; Gorresen, P.M.; Camp, R.J. (2013).
1959:
1262:
306:. The ʻiʻiwi is a highly recognizable symbol of
1317:
977:Iiwi (Drepanis coccinea) Species Status Report
407:ʻIʻiwi in flight demonstrates its vivid colors
694:) is an introduced disease that is spread by
1387:Lauren Sommer; Ryan Kellman (12 June 2024).
989:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
430:into adult plumage resolved this confusion.
318:Linguists derive the Hawaiian language word
856:
643:
588:
329:, which in central Polynesia refers to the
993:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
742:Mitigating Threats and Conservation Issues
604:The largest populations of ʻiʻiwi inhabit
585:in 24 days and soon attain adult plumage.
528:The long bill of the ʻiʻiwi assists it to
223:
66:
42:
1604:
1586:
1537:
1496:
860:Ne Mele o Hawaiʻi Nei: 101 Hawaiian Songs
857:Elbert, Samuel H; Mahoe, Noelani (1970).
810:
501:, a reference to the shape of the beak.)
391:Learn how and when to remove this message
1064:
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672:United States Department of the Interior
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592:
477:meaning "scarlet-colored". (In 2015 the
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599:Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge
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1960:
863:. University of Hawaii Press. p.
616:. There may be remnant populations on
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1269:Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery
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939:. State of Hawaiʻi. 14 December 2016.
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1945:8557FF55-2011-4C9F-AA04-4BDC4DFCE8BE
1001:
835:. Polynesian Lexicon Project Online.
373:adding citations to reliable sources
344:
908:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1995.09010107.x
846:https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.iiwi.01
798:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
24:
1662:ʻIʻiwi videos, photos & sounds
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1077:
714:Land Conservation and ˋŌhiˋa Death
25:
2009:
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1968:IUCN Red List vulnerable species
1053:U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
900:Society for Conservation Biology
677:
349:
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1669:Extra information on the 'I'iwi
1664:on the Internet Bird Collection
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1513:
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1406:
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1354:
1311:
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1183:
1139:
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1010:"Native Birds of Lanai, Hawaii"
787:BirdLife International (2020).
553:) trees. ʻIʻiwi also eat small
504:The bird is often mentioned in
360:needs additional citations for
943:
922:
881:
850:
838:
340:
13:
1:
1679:DNLR factsheet for the I'iwi.
770:
1588:10.1371/journal.pone.0168880
1539:10.1016/j.biocon.2019.108390
1324:Journal of Field Ornithology
481:moved the ʻiʻiwi from genus
313:
7:
1993:Taxa named by Georg Forster
1657:BirdLife Species Factsheet.
1498:10.1094/PDIS-12-14-1293-PDN
1413:Heber, Emily (4 May 2017).
1008:Hirai, Lawrence T. (1978).
758:
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2014:
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1161:10.1017/S003118200007582X
805:: e.T22720844A179228794.
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88:Scientific classification
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1235:Journal of Avian Biology
708:cannot produce offspring
644:Threats and Conservation
589:Habitat and Distribution
511:
447:) for use in decorating
324:Proto-Nuclear-Polynesian
1988:Birds described in 1780
1983:Endemic birds of Hawaii
1526:Biological Conservation
1023:: 71–77. Archived from
730:, which in turn spread
573:made from tree fibers,
550:Metrosideros polymorpha
523:
469:, which comes from the
1998:ESA threatened species
1978:Hawaiian honeycreepers
655:
601:
543:, which have decurved
416:
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331:bristle-thighed curlew
1873:Paleobiology Database
1095:Ecological Monographs
651:
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414:
406:
304:Hawaiian honeycreeper
1629:"RAPID ʻŌHIʻA DEATH"
1030:on 22 January 2015.
891:Conservation Biology
674:on 20 October 2017.
633:altitudinal migrants
608:Island, followed by
473:for "clothing", and
369:improve this article
335:Numenius tahitiensis
296:scarlet honeycreeper
1579:2017PLoSO..1268880L
1419:Island Conservation
1368:. 20 September 2017
692:Plasmodium relictum
686:and avian malaria.
541:Hawaiian lobelioids
479:IOC World Bird List
58:Conservation status
1332:10.1111/jofo.12386
1281:10.1647/2008-059.1
833:Protoform: KIWI.1*
753:Rapid ˋŌhiˋa Death
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246:Vestiaria coccinea
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1891:Drepanis-coccinea
1727:Drepanis coccinea
1697:Drepanis coccinea
1689:Taxon identifiers
1247:10.1111/jav.00924
874:978-0-87022-219-1
791:Drepanis coccinea
653:Drepanis coccinea
506:Hawaiian folklore
401:
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291:Drepanis coccinea
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207:Drepanis coccinea
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463:scientific name
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381:November 2020
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1396:. Retrieved
1392:
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1370:. Retrieved
1365:
1356:
1323:
1313:
1275:(1): 53–63.
1272:
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1224:
1202:(1): 28–37.
1199:
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1185:
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1149:Parasitology
1148:
1141:
1132:
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1098:
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1025:the original
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435:Hawaiʻi Mamo
432:
418:
387:
378:
367:Please help
362:verification
359:
334:
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295:
290:
289:
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258:(pronounced
255:
253:
245:
244:
206:
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188:
187:
175:
155:Fringillidae
31:
26:
1847:NatureServe
1821:iNaturalist
1721:Wikispecies
1491:(9): 1276.
985:cite report
961:: 59 pages.
902:: 107–113.
818:12 November
569:in a small
341:Description
165:Carduelinae
161:Subfamily:
1962:Categories
1886:Xeno-canto
1532:: 108390.
1444:(2): 187.
771:References
720:Feral pigs
696:mosquitoes
668:vulnerable
597:ʻIʻiwi in
555:arthropods
73:Vulnerable
1918:Q28481703
1741:Vestiaria
1712:Q27075754
1638:3 January
1597:1932-6203
1548:214350963
1507:0191-2917
1466:145978605
1458:0030-8870
1372:1 January
1348:245042228
1340:0273-8570
1289:1082-6742
1208:0004-8038
1115:0012-9615
979:(Report).
535:from the
483:Vestiaria
467:Vestiaria
314:Etymology
286:ee-EE-vee
183:Species:
111:Kingdom:
105:Eukaryota
1973:Drepanis
1912:Wikidata
1852:2.106167
1839:22720844
1754:22720844
1749:BirdLife
1706:Wikidata
1615:28060848
1567:PLOS ONE
1305:46048652
1297:19530408
1177:13449298
930:"ʻIʻiwi"
759:See also
618:Molokaʻi
561:Breeding
545:corollas
518:whistles
491:Drepanis
487:Drepanis
475:coccinea
449:ʻahuʻula
445:nobility
428:moulting
421:drinking
238:Synonyms
176:Drepanis
151:Family:
125:Chordata
121:Phylum:
115:Animalia
101:Domain:
78:IUCN 3.1
1940:ZooBank
1932:9728667
1813:8070758
1606:5218566
1575:Bibcode
1398:26 June
1366:Audubon
1216:4085805
1196:The Auk
1169:8632925
1047:USFWS.
916:2386392
724:wallows
700:kiwikiu
684:fowlpox
637:Hawaiʻi
606:Hawaiʻi
539:of the
537:flowers
530:extract
458:mahiole
308:Hawaiʻi
300:species
217:, 1780)
215:Forster
171:Genus:
141:Order:
131:Class:
76: (
37:ʻIʻiwi
1878:368143
1826:512251
1797:ECOS:
1767:745521
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626:Lānaʻi
614:Kauaʻi
583:fledge
577:, and
575:petals
533:nectar
499:sickle
455:) and
424:nectar
320:ʻiʻiwi
256:ʻiʻiwi
1865:78379
1785:eBird
1774:BOW:
1544:S2CID
1462:S2CID
1344:S2CID
1301:S2CID
1212:JSTOR
1173:S2CID
1028:(PDF)
1013:(PDF)
955:(PDF)
933:(PDF)
912:JSTOR
898:(1).
622:Oʻahu
512:Songs
495:Greek
471:Latin
440:aliʻi
327:*kiwi
322:from
298:is a
294:) or
1927:GBIF
1834:IUCN
1808:GBIF
1800:9076
1790:iiwi
1777:iiwi
1762:BOLD
1640:2020
1611:PMID
1593:ISSN
1503:ISSN
1454:ISSN
1400:2024
1374:2022
1336:ISSN
1293:PMID
1285:ISSN
1204:ISSN
1165:PMID
1111:ISSN
995:link
991:link
869:ISBN
820:2021
803:2020
664:IUCN
620:and
610:Maui
567:eggs
524:Diet
497:for
415:Head
254:The
135:Aves
18:Iiwi
1736:ADW
1601:PMC
1583:doi
1534:doi
1530:241
1493:doi
1446:doi
1393:NPR
1328:doi
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