IBM PC–compatible

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hardware manufacturers and several competing bus standards were developed by consortiums, with more agreeable license terms. Various attempts to standardize the interfaces were made, but in practice, many of these attempts were either flawed or ignored. Even so, there were many expansion options, and despite the confusion of its users, the PC compatible design advanced much faster than other competing designs of the time, even if only because of its market dominance.

1919:(MPC) standard was set during 1990. A PC that met the minimum MPC standard could be marketed with the MPC logo, giving consumers an easy-to-understand specification to look for. Software that could operate on the most minimally MPC-compliant PC would be guaranteed to operate on any MPC. The MPC level 2 and MPC level 3 standards were set later, but the term "MPC compliant" never became popular. After MPC level 3 during 1996, no further MPC standards were established. 1254: 582:. They also performed any machine-dependent trick the programmers could think of in order to gain speed. Though initially the major market for the PC was for business applications, games capability became an important factor motivating PC purchases as prices decreased. The availability and quality of games could mean the difference between the purchase of a PC compatible or a different platform with the ability to exchange data like the 402: 33: 1304:

it warned 200 attendees, from many American and foreign computer companies as well as IBM itself, to "Jump on the IBM PC-compatible bandwagon—quickly, and as compatibly as possible". Future Computing said in February 1984 that some computers were "press-release compatible", exaggerating their actual compatibility with the IBM PC. Many companies were reluctant to have their products' PC compatibility tested. When

1477:: "Who cares? If IBM does it, they will most likely just isolate themselves from the largest marketplace, in which they really can't compete anymore anyway". The magazine predicted that in 1987 the market "will complete its transition from an IBM standard to an Intel/MS-DOS/expansion bus standard ... Folks aren't so much concerned about IBM compatibility as they are about Lotus 1-2-3 compatibility". By 1992, 263: 460:, for example, as having a "'next generation' true 16-bit CPU", and with "More speed. More disk storage. More expansion" than the IBM PC or "other MS-DOS computers". While admitting in 1984 that many PC DOS programs did not work on the computer, the company stated that "the most popular, sophisticated software on the market" was available, either immediately or "over the next six months". 227:. Interoperability with the bus structure and peripherals of the original PC architecture may be limited or non-existent. Many modern computers are unable to use old software or hardware that depends on portions of the IBM PC compatible architecture which are missing or do not have equivalents in modern computers. For example, computers which boot using 507:. Had the bulk of commercially important software been of this nature, low-level hardware compatibility might not have mattered. However, in order to provide maximum performance and leverage hardware features (or work around hardware bugs), PC applications quickly developed beyond the simple terminal applications that MS-DOS supported directly. 1203:. Can run "the top selling" IBM PC software, use PC expansion boards, and read and write PC disks. Has "complementary features" like portability or lower price that distinguish computer from the PC, which is sold in the same store. Examples: (Best) Columbia Data Products, Compaq; (Better) Corona; (Good) Eagle. 535:). While the BIOS video interface routines were adequate for rudimentary output, they were necessarily less efficient than direct hardware addressing, as they added extra processing; they did not have "string" output, but only character-by-character teletype output, and they inserted delays to prevent 2914:

Columbia Data Products (301-992- 3400) turns out another split-personality computer, appropriately named the Multi-Personal Computer. Using only the Intel 8088 microprocessor, it manifests its duality in an ability to run both I.B.M.-oriented software and software requiring an operating system called

1489:

predicted in 1983 that "IBM will soon be as much a prisoner of its standards as its competitors are", because "Once enough IBM machines have been bought, IBM cannot make sudden changes in their basic design; what might be useful for shedding competitors would shake off even more customers". After IBM

526:

established new markets that exploited the PC's strengths, but required capabilities beyond what MS-DOS provided. Thus, from very early in the development of the MS-DOS software environment, many significant commercial software products were written directly to the hardware, for a variety of reasons:

2147:

now has near-native functionality at full speed (and is necessary for certain games which may run too fast on modern processors). Additionally, many modern PCs can still run DOS directly, although special options such as USB legacy mode and SATA-to-PATA emulation may need to be set in the BIOS setup

1644:

because IBM was committed to the 286's protected mode, which stunted OS/2's technical potential. Windows could take full advantage of the modern and increasingly affordable 386 / 386SX architecture. As well, there were cultural differences between the partners, and Windows was often bundled with new

494:

Microsoft's competing OS was intended initially to operate on a similar varied spectrum of hardware, although all based on the 8086 processor. Thus, MS-DOS was for several years sold only as an OEM product. There was no Microsoft-branded MS-DOS: MS-DOS could not be purchased directly from Microsoft,

329:

The dark side of an open system is its imitators. If the specs are clear enough for you to design peripherals, they are clear enough for you to design imitations. Apple ... has patents on two important components of its systems ... IBM, which reportedly has no special patents on the PC, is even more

301:

IBM at first asked developers to avoid writing software that addressed the computer's hardware directly and to instead make standard calls to BIOS functions that carried out hardware-dependent operations. This software would run on any machine using MS-DOS or PC DOS. Software that directly addressed

2044:

developed alternative x86 CPUs that were functionally compatible with Intel's. Towards the end of the 1990s, AMD was taking an increasing share of the CPU market for PCs. AMD even ended up playing a significant role in directing the development of the x86 platform when its Athlon line of processors

1959:

niche, from which it only emerged in the mid-2000s. By the mid-1990s the Mac's market share had dwindled to around 5% and introducing a new rival operating system had become too risky a commercial venture. Experience had shown that even if an operating system was technically superior to Windows, it

1303:

By December 1983 Future Computing stated that companies like Compaq, Columbia Data Products, and Corona that emphasized IBM PC compatibility had been successful, while non-compatible computers had hurt the reputations of others like TI and DEC despite superior technology. At a San Francisco meeting

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had to be performed by the application to achieve acceptable speed, which was usually done by bypassing the BIOS and accessing video memory directly. Software written to address IBM PC hardware directly would run on any IBM clone, but would have to be rewritten especially for each non-PC-compatible

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computer that overcame many of the technical limits of the XT/AT bus, but this was rarely used as the basis for IBM-compatible computers since it required license payments to IBM both for the PS/2 bus and any prior AT-bus designs produced by the company seeking a license. This was unpopular with

499:

of the given PC vendor. Malfunctions were to be reported to the OEM, not to Microsoft. However, as machines that were compatible with IBM hardware—thus supporting direct calls to the hardware—became widespread, it soon became clear that the OEM versions of MS-DOS were virtually identical, except

2028:

had become the dominant market player only to be virtually wiped out by Intel a year later. Intel has been the uncontested leader ever since. As the "Wintel" platform gained dominance Intel gradually abandoned the practice of licensing its technologies to other chipset makers; in 2010 Intel was

1410:

The main reason why an IBM standard is not worrying is that it can help competition to flourish. IBM will soon be as much a prisoner of its standards as its competitors are. Once enough IBM machines have been bought, IBM cannot make sudden changes in their basic design; what might be useful for

490:

which was in use both at the hobbyist level and by the more professional of those using microcomputers. To achieve such widespread use, and thus make the product viable economically, the OS had to operate across a range of machines from different vendors that had widely varying hardware. Those

1865:

OS can also be written for the 80286, but DOS application compatibility was more difficult than expected, not only because most DOS applications accessed the hardware directly, bypassing BIOS routines intended to ensure compatibility, but also that most BIOS requests were made by the first 32

1292:, or anything else we have around here". Columbia Data Products's November 1983 sales brochure stated that during tests with retail-purchased computers in October 1983, its own and Compaq's products were compatible with all tested PC software, while Corona and Eagle's were less compatible. 2160:

architecture has further distanced current computers' and operating systems' internal similarity with the original IBM PC by introducing yet another processor mode with an instruction set modified for 64-bit addressing, but x86-64 capable processors also retain standard x86 compatibility.

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stated that "clones are generally reliable and about 99 percent compatible", and a 1987 survey in the magazine of the clone industry did not mention software compatibility, stating that "PC by now has come to stand for a computer capable of running programs that are managed by MS-DOS".

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for graphics, and the BIOS only included the rudimentary graphics functions such as changing screen modes and plotting single points. To make a BIOS call for every point drawn or modified increased overhead considerably, making the BIOS interface notoriously slow. Because of this,

1801:

conferences provided a setting in which Microsoft could lobby for—and in some cases dictate—the pace and direction of the hardware of the PC industry. Microsoft and Intel had become so important to the ongoing development of PC hardware that industry writers began using the word

618:

schemes, in common use at the time, worked by reading nonstandard data patterns on the diskette to verify originality. These patterns were impossible to detect using standard DOS or BIOS calls, so direct access to the disk controller hardware was necessary for the protection to

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stated "Now that it has created the market, the market doesn't necessarily need IBM for the machines. It may depend on IBM to set standards and to develop higher-performance machines, but IBM had better conform to existing standards so as to not hurt users". In January 1987,

1342:

in 1985 stated, "we reiterate our standard line regarding the IBM PC compatibles: try the package you want to use before you buy the computer." Companies modified their computers' BIOS to work with newly discovered incompatible applications, and reviewers and users developed

1287:

and all", because he had "four cubic feet of unevaluated software, much of which won't run on anything but an IBM PC. Although a lot of machines claim to be 100 percent IBM PC compatible, I've yet to have one arrive ... Alas, a lot of stuff doesn't run with Eagle, Z-100,

1861:"Expanded" and "extended" memory have incompatible interfaces, so anyone writing software that used more than one megabyte had to provide for both systems for the greatest compatibility until MS-DOS began including EMM386, which simulated EMS memory using XMS memory. A 2068:. This would include both the rapid growth of the smartphones (using Android or iOS) as an alternative to the personal computer; and the increasing prevalence of Linux and Unix-like operating systems in the server farms of large corporations such as Google or Amazon. 2082:

The term "IBM PC compatible" is not commonly used presently because many current mainstream desktop and laptop computers are based on the PC architecture, and IBM no longer makes PCs. The competing hardware architectures have either been discontinued or, like the

1714:" systems assembled by myriad local systems builders. Despite advances of computer technology, the IBM PC compatibles remained very much compatible with the original IBM PC computers, although most of the components implement the compatibility in special 2152:

might need to be set at legacy BIOS mode to be able to boot DOS. However, the BIOS/UEFI options in most mass-produced consumer-grade computers are very limited and cannot be configured to truly handle OSes such as the original variants of DOS.

1326:, Corona representatives "hemmed and hawed a bit, but they finally led me ... off in the corner where no one would see it should it fail". The magazine reported that "Their hesitancy was unnecessary. The disk booted up without a problem". 1498:

estimated that the public purchased 1.5 clones for every IBM PC. By 1989 Compaq was so influential that industry executives spoke of "Compaq compatible", with observers stating that customers saw the company as IBM's equal or superior.

2138:

and yet backwards compatibility has been largely maintained – a 32-bit operating system released during the 2000s can still operate many of the simpler programs written for the OS of the early 1980s without needing an

302:

the hardware instead of making standard calls was faster, however; this was particularly relevant to games. Software addressing IBM PC hardware in this way would not run on MS-DOS machines with different hardware (for example, the

2023:

bus controller. Similar non-Intel chipsets appeared for the AT-compatibles, for example OPTi's 82C206 or 82C495XLC which were found in many 486 and early Pentium systems. The x86 chipset market was very volatile though. In 1993,

1910:

Because of the great number of third-party adapters and no standard for them, programming the PC could be difficult. Professional developers would operate a large test-suite of various known-to-be-popular hardware combinations.

348:" as "a computer accommodate the user who takes a disk home from an IBM PC, walks across the room, and plugs it into the 'foreign' machine". Because of a shortage of IBM PCs that year, many customers purchased clones instead. 611:, making it very portable but too slow to be truly usable on a PC. 1-2-3 was written in x86 assembly language and performed some machine-dependent tricks. It was so much faster that it quickly surpassed Context MBA's sales. 1914:

Meanwhile, consumers were overwhelmed by the competing, incompatible standards and many different combinations of hardware on offer. To give them some idea of what sort of PC they would need to operate their software, the

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of the time. However, as processor speed and memory width increased, the limits of the original XT/AT bus design were soon reached, particularly when driving graphics video cards. IBM did introduce an upgraded bus in the

1833:

Although the IBM PC was designed for expandability, the designers could not anticipate the hardware developments of the 1980s, nor the size of the industry they would engender. To make things worse, IBM's choice of the

557:

capability was not taken seriously in the original IBM design brief; graphics were considered only from the perspective of generating static business graphics such as charts and graphs. MS-DOS did not have an

1748:

One of the strengths of the PC-compatible design is its modular hardware design. End-users could readily upgrade peripherals and, to some degree, processor and memory without modifying the computer's

1210: 79:. The term "IBM PC compatible" is now a historical description only, since IBM no longer sells personal computers after it sold its personal computer division in 2005 to Chinese technology company 1884:

video memory arrangements to the same effect, but this did not easily extend to the greater color depths and higher resolutions offered by SVGA adapters. An attempt at creating a standard named

306:). The IBM PC was sold in high enough volumes to justify writing software specifically for it, and this encouraged other manufacturers to produce machines that could use the same programs, 3860: 1774:

PC" in 2000s. An IBM-brand PC became the exception rather than the rule. Instead of placing importance on compatibility with the IBM PC, vendors began to emphasize compatibility with

1502:

After 1987, IBM PC compatibles dominated both the home and business markets of commodity computers, with other notable alternative architectures being used in niche markets, like the

491:

customers who needed other applications than the starter programs could reasonably expect publishers to offer their products for a variety of computers, on suitable media for each.

1876:

graphics modes supported by later video cards. Each manufacturer developed their own methods of accessing the screen memory, including different mode numberings and different

231:-based firmware that lack a Compatibility Support Module, or CSM, required to emulate the old BIOS-based firmware interface, or have their CSMs disabled, cannot natively run 593:

serial port chip, because the MS-DOS API and the BIOS did not provide full support and was too slow to keep up with hardware which could transfer data at 19,200 bit/s.

1976:

system, "It will either be the last new hardware platform to succeed, or the first to fail." Four years later in 1993, NeXT announced it was ending production of the

1494:-oriented PS/2 line in early 1987, sales of existing DOS-compatible PC compatibles rose, in part because the proprietary operating system was not available. In 1988, 1854:"windows" inside the 20-bit addressing. Later, Intel CPUs had larger address spaces and could directly address 16 MB (80286) or more, causing Microsoft to develop 475:(OEM) version of MS-DOS, customized to its hardware. Any software written for MS-DOS would operate on any MS-DOS computer, despite variations in hardware design. 4602: 2201: 391: 216: 1943:

platform, they would still be able to reach the vast majority of computer users. The only major competitor to Windows with more than a few percentage points of

1300:

ran without modification on Compaq and Columbia Data Products clones, but not on those from Eagle or Seequa. Other MS-DOS computers also required custom code.

478:

This expectation seemed reasonable in the computer marketplace of the time. Until then Microsoft's business was based primarily on computer languages such as

318:

on "conventional" system memory available to MS-DOS is a legacy of that period; other non-clone machines, while subject to a limit, could exceed 640 KB.

2061:. During 2006 Intel began abandoning NetBurst with the release of their set of "Core" processors that represented a development of the earlier Pentium III. 1838:

for the CPU introduced several limitations for developing software for the PC compatible platform. For example, the 8088 processor only had a 20-bit memory

1368:, permitted computer makers to legally build essentially 100%-compatible clones without having to reverse-engineer the PC BIOS themselves. A September 1985 1209:. Runs own version of popular PC software. Cannot use PC expansion boards but can read and write PC disks. Cannot become Operationally Compatible. Example: 1534:

used by the music industry. However, IBM itself lost the main role in the market for IBM PC compatibles by 1990. A few events in retrospect are important:

2546: 2576: 1671:

set of laptop PC's, IBM finally relinquished its role as a consumer PC manufacturer during April 2005, when it sold its laptop and desktop PC divisions (

539:

hardware "snow" (a display artifact of CGA cards produced when writing directly to screen memory)——an especially bad artifact since they were called by

3317: 2191: 1955:. The Mac started out billed as "the computer for the rest of us", but high prices and closed architecture drove the Macintosh into an education and 543:, thus making multitasking very difficult. A program that wrote directly to video memory could achieve output rates 5 to 20 times faster than making 382:. Note this was over a year after Compaq released the Portable. The money and research put into reverse-engineering the BIOS was a calculated risk. 4580: 5797: 1356: 370: 2909: 4078: 3868: 2931: 1428:

wrote that "IBM's burgeoning influence in the PC community is stifling innovation because so many other companies are mimicking Big Blue", but

91:

computer capable of running the same software that a contemporary IBM or Lenovo PC could. The term was initially in contrast to the variety of

3151: 3073: 2883: 2274: 2064:

A major alternative to Wintel domination is the rise of alternative operating systems since the early 2000s, which marked as the start of the

4321: 1460:, and computers with some PC compatibility were another 25%. As the market and competition grew IBM's influence diminished. In November 1985 1645:

computers while OS/2 was only available for extra cost. The split left IBM the sole steward of OS/2 and it failed to keep pace with Windows.

118:

These "clones" duplicated almost all the significant features of the original IBM PC architectures. This was facilitated by IBM's choice of

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arrangements. The latter were used to address large images within a single 64 KB segment of memory. Previously, the VGA standard had used

590: 503:

MS-DOS provided adequate functionality for character-oriented applications such as those that could have been implemented on a text-only

3374: 3291: 2341: 1770:

During the 1990s, IBM's influence on PC architecture started to decline. "IBM PC compatible" becomes "Standard PC" in 1990s, and later "

1312:

specified that "Our systems run all software that conforms to IBM PC programming standards. And the most popular software does." When a

242:

had kept significant market share without having compatibility with the IBM PC, although that changed during the Intel Macs era running

1809:

This terminology itself is becoming a misnomer, as Intel has lost absolute control over the direction of x86 hardware development with

1771: 4699: 4694: 4662: 1797:

No mass-market personal computer hardware vendor dared to be incompatible with the latest version of Windows, and Microsoft's annual

1589:, reducing demand for IBM's models. It was possible to buy two of these "generic" systems for less than the cost of one IBM-branded 4150: 3947: 3752: 2612: 4024: 3662: 321:

Rumors of "lookalike," compatible computers, created without IBM's approval, began almost immediately after the IBM PC's release.

3042: 1798: 1786:

set. While it required that applications be recompiled, which most developers did not do, its hardware independence was used for

1649: 922: 192:(ISA) bus. Additional bus standards were subsequently adopted to improve compatibility between IBM PC compatibles, including the 181: 2029:

involved in litigation related to their refusal to license their processor bus and related technologies to other companies like

1219:. May not run top PC software. Can read and/or write PC disks. Can become Functionally Compatible. Examples: NCR Decision Mate, 1308:

requested samples from computer manufacturers that claimed to produce compatibles for an April 1984 review, 14 of 31 declined.

453:

introduced personal computers that supported MS-DOS, but were not completely software- or hardware-compatible with the IBM PC.

4267: 314:

computer marketplace rapidly excluded all machines which were not hardware-compatible or software-compatible with the PC. The

4496: 4432: 4407: 2451: 2107:

beginning in 2006. Until 2020 Macintosh computers shared the same system architecture as their Wintel counterparts and could

228: 1434:

stated in November 1983, "The main reason why an IBM standard is not worrying is that it can help competition to flourish".

4650: 4573: 3104: 1899:. Unfortunately programs could not switch directly between them, so eventually, some new memory-model APIs were developed, 2424: 3779: 2957: 540: 531:

MS-DOS itself did not provide any way to position the text cursor other than to advance it after displaying each letter (

2247: 2104: 1483:

stated that because of clones, "IBM lost control of its own market and became a minor player with its own technology".

5632: 4512: 2057:

set of server CPUs. AMD developed AMD64, the first major extension not created by Intel, which Intel later adopted as

5807: 559: 464: 197: 1615:

later said that it was "the first time people started to get a sense that it wasn't just IBM setting the standards".

274:

IBM decided in 1980 to market a low-cost single-user computer as quickly as possible. On August 12, 1981, the first

153:, and the Handwell Corporation were threatened with legal action by IBM, who settled with them. Soon after in 1982, 5673: 1545:

Microsoft included a clause in its contract with IBM which permitted the sale of the finished PC operating system (

3181: 1850:(EMS), a bank-switching scheme to allow more memory provided by add-in hardware, and accessed by a set of four 16- 4566: 2116: 472: 3208: 352:

produced the first computer more or less compatible with the IBM PC standard during June 1982, soon followed by

5724: 5658: 4901: 2554: 1597: 189: 17: 3698: 2584: 2811: 1711: 959: 430: 84: 2095:

platform, which used non-Intel processors from its inception. Although Macintosh was initially based on the

4672: 3974: 1904: 1570:

An Independent Business Unit (IBU) within IBM developed the IBM PC and XT. IBUs did not share in corporate

1354:

IBM believed that some companies such as Eagle, Corona, and Handwell infringed on its copyright, and after

1574:

expense. After the IBU became the Entry Systems Division it lost this benefit, greatly decreasing margins.

5802: 4916: 4911: 4906: 4294: 4351:

InfoWorld July 1986 ad: "Career Starter Kit: Everything you need to begin serious computing immediately"

2234:- successor released by IBM that did not succeed, but many of its elements have been adopted by industry 315: 5751: 5678: 4839: 2243: 1881: 1872:

suffered from their own incompatibilities. There was no standard interface for using higher-resolution

1791: 1263: 177: 4107: 3134: 2845: 1596:

By integrating more peripherals into the computer itself, compatibles like the Model D have more free

1183:

The first thing to think about when considering an IBM-compatible computer is, "How compatible is it?"

5668: 5266: 5261: 5256: 5251: 5246: 5241: 5236: 5231: 5223: 4963: 1866:

interrupt vectors, which were marked as "reserved" for protected mode processor exceptions by Intel.

1619: 1344: 1331: 596:

Even for standard business applications, speed of execution was a significant competitive advantage.

579: 294:, for non-IBM computers. The only component of the original PC architecture exclusive to IBM was the 201: 145:, the MPC 1600 by a clean-room reverse-engineered implementation of its BIOS. Other rival companies, 5637: 4689: 4657: 4640: 3159: 3016: 2087:, have been relegated to niche, enthusiast markets. In the past, the most successful exception was 1698:

had the largest shares of the PC market in North America. They were also successful overseas, with

1571: 119: 56: 52: 3081: 5693: 4732: 4722: 2694: 2638: 2120: 1518:

which was selling for $ 150 by this time and became the world's bestselling computer, the 32-bit

1394:

is even compatible with IBM proprietary diagnostic software, unlike the Compaq Portable. By 1986

1330:

was bolder, bragging that its Z-150 ran all applications people brought to test with at the 1984

686: 5133: 5128: 1437: 5756: 5663: 5566: 4956: 1992: 1810: 1715: 1557: 865: 564: 536: 523: 349: 138: 4488: 4382: 4005: 3725: 3603: 3512: 3439: 2987: 2869: 2314: 4951: 4645: 4539: 4397: 4365: 4349: 4241: 4051: 3920: 3833: 3806: 3629: 3576: 3299: 2720: 2676: 2657: 2520: 2490: 2394: 2135: 2096: 1935:

into near-extinction, and had ensured that the "IBM PC compatible" computer was the dominant

1758: 1627: 275: 267: 48: 4988: 4177: 4126: 3890: 3401: 2810: 2367: 2112: 1279:

with the IBM PC. At first, few clones other than Compaq's offered truly full compatibility.

622:

Some software was designed to run only on a true IBM PC, and checked for an actual IBM BIOS.

5683: 4869: 4864: 4777: 4772: 3273: 3250: 2788: 1885: 1391: 1361: 519: 468: 251: 3460: 161:, also with a clean-room reverse-engineered BIOS, and also not challenged legally by IBM. 8: 5599: 1365: 1327: 1309: 1293: 1139:

true IBM compatible, credited as first private-label clone sold by manufacturer's stores

739: 660: 597: 463:

Like IBM, Microsoft's apparent intention was that application writers would write to the

375: 146: 123: 5729: 4943: 3672: 2196: 2131: 1956: 1936: 1608: 1511: 1338: 3050: 1275:

described as "a bug in one of Intel's chips", forcing them to make their new computer

290:. In a crucial concession, IBM's agreement allowed Microsoft to sell its own version, 188:

by a consortium of IBM PC compatible vendors, redefining the 16-bit IBM AT bus as the

5771: 5719: 5550: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5502: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5424: 5378: 5310: 5300: 5295: 5290: 5282: 4834: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4782: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4545: 4492: 4481: 4447: 4428: 4403: 4215: 3550: 2964: 2820: 2728: 2702: 2459: 2211: 1928: 1896: 1775: 1539: 1297: 1276: 1149: 1057: 993: 927: 554: 504: 446: 438: 414: 379: 365: 224: 142: 134: 4983: 3431: 1895:

OS could be written for it. This time, DOS compatibility was much easier because of

467:

in MS-DOS or the firmware BIOS, and that this would form what would now be termed a

5744: 5739: 5472: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5163: 5143: 5138: 5123: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 4978: 4973: 4968: 3251:"Tava's Megaplus and Sprite Machines: PC Lookalikes Are Good Buys as 2nd Computers" 3139:(Rev 1.0 ed.). Sanyo Electric. November 1983 – via the Internet Archive. 2170: 1932: 1787: 1527: 1284: 1117: 487: 279: 220: 208: 173: 3542: 3209:"Frustrated by big guys' disinterest, Perry Lamba builds his own IBM PC act-alike" 5734: 5609: 4326: 4083: 3667: 3658: 3427: 2992: 2175: 2025: 1999:

XT Controller which integrated and replaced six of the original XT circuits: one

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which permitted clone makers to use freely available non-proprietary components.

4995: 3485: 2988:"The Texas Instruments Professional Computer – Daring to be somewhat different" 2927: 2237: 2077: 1987:

Very early on in PC history, some companies introduced their own XT-compatible

1892: 1877: 1862: 895: 830: 515: 353: 307: 239: 193: 150: 112: 64: 3227: 1725:. It was often more practical to run old software on a modern system using an 5791: 4844: 4549: 4219: 3554: 2824: 2762: 2732: 2706: 2463: 2124: 2045:

continued to develop the classic x86 architecture as Intel deviated with its

1916: 1839: 1753: 1495: 1466: 1430: 1272: 185: 176:

IBM AT bus with the release of the AT. IBM's introduction of the proprietary

92: 5642: 5627: 5368: 5363: 4854: 4516: 1996: 1944: 1765: 1733: 1515: 1242: 1224: 1220: 734: 697: 693: 548: 247: 104: 2996:. Vol. 8, no. 12. Peterborough NH: McGraw-Hill. pp. 286–324 5604: 5000: 4859: 4667: 4558: 2065: 1749: 1676: 1663:(XMS) standards of the late 1980s, both developed without input from IBM. 1641: 1638: 1604: 1549:) to other computer manufacturers. These IBM competitors licensed it, as 1351:

became the standard, with compatibles specifically designed to run them.

1347:

to measure compatibility; by 1984 the ability to operate Lotus 1-2-3 and

1246: 1238: 954: 608: 604: 600: 544: 532: 508: 496: 406: 340: 360:

announced its first product, an IBM PC compatible in November 1982, the

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of rumors that IBM would introduce proprietary personal computers with

1253: 1144: 1052: 575: 457: 418: 283: 270:(Model 5150) motivated the production of clones during the early 1980s. 108: 1648:

The 1988 introduction by the "Gang of Nine" companies of a rival bus,

5714: 4814: 4464: 2749: 2092: 1952: 1699: 1503: 1370: 1319: 1234: 1171:

redefinable character set, optional 640x400 8-color or mono graphics

1087: 287: 1196:

In May 1983, Future Computing defined four levels of compatibility:

626: 5766: 5709: 5688: 5010: 4896: 4891: 4829: 4824: 4819: 4727: 4717: 4684: 4635: 2910:"PERSONAL COMPUTERS; RIVALS STAY ONE STEP AHEAD OF I.B.M. PORTABLE" 2884:"Check The Chart Before You Choose Your New 16-Bit Computer System" 2275:"Check The Chart Before You Choose Your New 16-Bit Computer System" 2231: 2140: 2046: 1981: 1977: 1851: 1846:

s beyond one megabyte, Lotus, Intel, and Microsoft jointly created

1828: 1726: 1672: 1668: 1531: 1479: 1396: 1289: 1268: 702: 568: 450: 130: 96: 1939:. This meant that if a developer made their software only for the 1752:

or replacing the whole computer, as was the case with many of the

1452:

By 1983, IBM had about 25% of sales of personal computers between

607:

to market and included more functions. Context MBA was written in

401: 374:, was that BIOS code was protected by copyright law, but it could 32: 4242:"Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures" 2180: 2108: 2100: 2054: 1988: 1794:(HAL), they could operate NT (and its vast application library). 1722: 1707: 1442: 1360:

successfully forced the clone makers to stop using the BIOS. The

1020: 706: 512: 4385:(Interview). Interviewed by Michael J. Miller. pp. 230–235. 3577:"No Matter Who's Invited, Some Will Turn Out To Be Incompatible" 282:(OS) available for it. The least expensive and most popular was 4679: 3274:"Compu Shack Affiliate Tava Corp. Offering PC-Compatible Micro" 2221: 2157: 2144: 2130:

The processor speed and memory capacity of modern PCs are many

2058: 2030: 1940: 1814: 1803: 1703: 1680: 1550: 1546: 1446: 1323: 835: 803: 766: 368:

that was essentially 100% PC-compatible. The court decision in

357: 330:

vulnerable. Numerous PC-compatible machines—the grapevine says

291: 232: 212: 154: 100: 80: 4175: 3513:"The Prognosticators Pronounce: Future Compilations On The PC" 3238:(49). American City Business Journals: 1 – via ProQuest. 1233:. Cannot read PC disks. Can become Data Compatible. Examples: 396: 262: 180:(MCA) in its PS/2 series resulted in the establishment of the 5761: 3921:"Leading Edge: Superior Value in IBM-PC Clone Market Contest" 2084: 2050: 2041: 1822: 1818: 1782:

was released that could operate on processors other than the

1633:

The split of the IBM-Microsoft partnership in development of

1590: 1582: 1519: 1025: 761:

optional 8 color 640x255 graphics, external 8" floppy drives

583: 479: 434: 422: 303: 243: 122:, which were cheap, and by various manufacturers' ability to 87:, has not meant "personal computer" generally, but rather an 3298:. Tandy/Radio Shack. 1987. pp. 6, 7, 34. Archived from 2299:

Compaq Leads 'Gang of Nine' In Offering Alternative to MCA,

1618:

IBM's 1987 introduction of the incompatible and proprietary

4537: 2253: 2226: 2186: 2149: 1973: 1965: 1961: 1900: 1873: 1695: 1634: 1586: 1491: 1474: 1314: 483: 295: 127: 4208:"THE EXECUTIVE COMPUTER; The Race to Market a 486 Machine" 2518: 1109:

keyboard had palm rests, 16 function keys; built-in modem

4589: 3777: 3375:"Bruce Artwick / The Designer Behind Flight Simulator II" 2216: 2037: 1783: 1567:, providing portability unavailable from IBM at the time. 1411:

shedding competitors would shake off even more customers.

1154: 1122: 1092: 1062: 1030: 998: 982: 964: 932: 900: 870: 840: 808: 776: 744: 711: 668: 311: 88: 60: 3465:. Columbia Data Products (published November 1983). 1983 3215:. Tinley Park, Illinois: B-7 – via Newspapers.com. 1441:

The PowerPak 286, an IBM PC compatible computer running

3948:"The MS-DOS Invasion / IBM Compatibles Are Coming Home" 2677:"Commodore pact sparks talk of IBM PC-compatible micro" 2202:

Influence of the IBM PC on the personal computer market

1177: 392:

Influence of the IBM PC on the personal computer market

482:. The established small system operating software was 4176:

LaPlante, Alice; Furger, Roberta (January 23, 1989).

3402:"A public Windows pane to make compatibility clearer" 2127:, they are again the exception to IBM compatibility. 1825:

have established a presence on the x86 architecture.

887:

true IBM compatible, credited as first PC clone

729:

true IBM compatible; optional 640x400 color graphics

500:

perhaps for the provision of a few utility programs.

4513:"What does "Legacy" mean in the world of computers?" 4000: 3998: 3996: 3750: 3536: 3534: 3432:"Eagles, Text Editors, New Compilers, and Much More" 1607:-based computer, almost a year before IBM, with the 1560:

MPC 1600, the first 100% IBM PC compatible computer.

107:. Later, the term was primarily used in contrast to 40:

was one of the first nearly 100% IBM-compatible PCs.

4374: 4022: 3492:(Mailing list). Kermit Project, Columbia University 2392: 2360: 1888:(VBE) was made, but not all manufacturers used it. 1817:. Additionally, non-Windows operating systems like 1806:to refer to the combined hardware-software system. 1710:

also notable. Worldwide, a huge number of PCs are "

1553:, in order to offer PC compatibility for less cost. 27:

Computers similar to the IBM PC and its derivatives

4480: 3653: 3651: 2606: 2604: 2602: 1922: 1652:, intended to compete with, rather than copy, MCA. 1404: 1378:RAM, two disk drives, and monochrome monitors for 409:runs MS-DOS but is not compatible with the IBM PC. 325:wrote on the first anniversary of the IBM PC that 235:since MS-DOS depends on a BIOS interface to boot. 207:Descendants of the x86 IBM PC compatibles, namely 95:systems available in the early 1980s, such as the 47:computers are technically similar to the original 3993: 3914: 3912: 3699:"Zenith Z-151; choice of U.S. Air Force and Navy" 3692: 3690: 3601: 3574: 3531: 3292:"1987 Radio Shack Tandy Computer Catalog RSC-17B" 3065: 2765:. Business Desktops/Calcs: 100 Series Selection. 2519:Cook, Karen; Langdell, James (January 24, 1984). 2484: 2482: 2480: 1858:(XMS) which did not require additional hardware. 1257:MS-DOS version 1.12 for Compaq Personal Computers 627:First-generation PC workalikes by IBM competitors 5789: 4448:Intel vs. Nvidia: The tech behind the legal case 4422: 4201: 4199: 4043: 3945: 3825: 3744: 3657: 3595: 3568: 3034: 2610: 1829:Design limitations and more compatibility issues 1732:In 2014 Lenovo acquired IBM's x86-based server ( 1261:During development, Compaq engineers found that 364:. The Compaq was the first sewing machine-sized 334:or more—have begun to appear in the marketplace. 4538:InfoWorld Media Group, Inc. (August 21, 2000). 4319: 4144: 4142: 4140: 3858: 3834:"Phoenix Says Its BIOS May Foil IBM's Lawsuits" 3831: 3648: 3420: 3311: 3309: 2802: 2721:"AT&T joins PC compatible price cut parade" 2599: 2418: 2416: 1364:in 1984, however, and similar products such as 1357:Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp. 551:used this technique from its earliest versions. 378:the IBM BIOS and then write its own BIOS using 4427:(20th ed.). Que Publishing. p. 171. 4313: 4118: 4076: 4049: 3939: 3909: 3804: 3798: 3696: 3687: 3636:(advertisement). February 27, 1984. p. 41 3622: 3483: 3477: 3399: 3368: 3366: 3182:"TeleVideo TS 1603 Computer System - Computer" 2872:, By Bill Machrone, Page 451, Jun 1983, PC Mag 2755: 2491:"IBM PC clone makers shun total compatibility" 2477: 2443: 2422: 2386: 2071: 589:Communications software directly accessed the 168:as their IBM counterparts, switching from the 4574: 4478: 4196: 4148: 4127:"PC Vendors' Sales Rise Following PS/2 Debut" 4099: 4070: 3966: 3852: 3543:"Why the IBM PC spawned a mob of look-alikes" 3504: 3393: 2881: 2746:Zenith challenges IBM's share of micro market 2713: 2577:"Radio Shack Computer Catalog RSC-11, page 6" 2547:"Radio Shack Computer Catalog RSC-12, page 4" 2514: 2512: 2312: 2306: 2272: 2192:History of computing hardware (1960s–present) 1047:640x200 8 color graphics (R, G, B bitplanes) 413:At the same time, many manufacturers such as 63:, that are able to use the same software and 4178:"Compaq Vying To Become the IBM of the '90s" 4137: 4016: 3771: 3723: 3717: 3372: 3342: 3315: 3306: 3206: 2950: 2846:"Compaq Deskpro Model 1 - Computing History" 2695:"AT&T having trouble in computer market" 2452:"Corporate Triumph, Then Death in a Ferrari" 2413: 2049:architecture for the Pentium 4 CPUs and the 1585:compatibles, including early offerings from 219:on the market as of 2021, with the dominant 4416: 4395: 3918: 3778:Mace, Scott; Karen Sorensen (May 5, 1986). 3363: 3200: 2725:Computerworld: The Newspaper for IT Leaders 2699:Computerworld: The Newspaper for IT Leaders 2488: 1637:. Tensions caused by the market success of 495:and each OEM release was packaged with the 397:Non-compatible MS-DOS computers: Workalikes 83:. The designation "PC", as used in much of 4588: 4581: 4567: 4389: 4169: 3883: 3336: 2926: 2875: 2674: 2655: 2509: 2339: 2333: 217:comprise the majority of desktop computers 4268:"Why The IBM PC Had An Open Architecture" 3540: 3462:IBM PC Compatibles Competitive Evaluation 3453: 3426: 2958:"Texas Instruments Professional Computer" 2789:"Chronology of Personal Computers (1982)" 2639:"Commodore Launches PC-Compatible Abroad" 3753:"The Columbia Multipersonal Computer-VP" 3541:Salisbury, David F. (February 9, 1984). 2979: 2739: 2701:. Computerworld: 93, 100. May 13, 1985. 2134:greater than they were for the original 1907:, the latter becoming the most popular. 1436: 1252: 1079:800x400 mono graphics, 132x50 text mode 400: 261: 31: 4472: 4105: 3975:"IBM Compatibles: The Universe Expands" 3972: 3510: 3271: 3228:"Little is beautiful for Micro Express" 3017:"Texas Instruments' Personal Computers" 3008: 2975:– via Classic Computer Brochures. 2808: 2786: 2449: 2393:Zussman, John Unger (August 23, 1982). 2256:(Unified Extensible Firmware Interface) 1729:rather than relying on these features. 1650:Extended Industry Standard Architecture 385: 182:Extended Industry Standard Architecture 164:Early IBM PC compatibles used the same 14: 5798:Computer-related introductions in 1982 5790: 4239: 4233: 4124: 3807:"IBM wins disputes over PC copyrights" 3751:Callamaras, Peter V. (November 1984). 3261:(36). Ziff-Davis: 91 – via Gale. 3102: 3014: 2687: 1790:(SGI) x86 workstations–thanks to NT's 917:750×352 mono graphics, first 8086 CPU 67:. Such computers were referred to as 4562: 4402:(3rd ed.). Newness. p. 32. 4380: 4205: 4023:Curran, Lawrence J. (February 1984). 3284: 3248: 3242: 3143: 2727:. Computerworld: 18. April 27, 1987. 2656:Karen Cook (April 17 – May 1, 1984). 1891:When the 386 was introduced, again a 685:Canadian, licensed but never sold by 578:, even early ones, mostly required a 229:Unified Extensible Firmware Interface 4399:PC Based Instrumentation and Control 4240:Reimer, Jeremy (December 15, 2005). 4206:Lewis, Peter H. (October 22, 1989). 4052:"Compatibility Wars—Here and Abroad" 4050:Machrone, Bill (November 26, 1985). 3805:Caruso, Denise (February 27, 1984). 3604:"Putting PC Compatibles To the Test" 3575:Krasnoff, Barbara (March 20, 1984). 3225: 3219: 3015:Knight, Daniel (December 19, 2015). 2985: 1766:"IBM PC compatible" becomes "Wintel" 1374:chart listed seven compatibles with 714:(AT&T 6300 June 1984) 3602:Krasnoff, Barbara (April 3, 1984). 3484:da Cruz, Frank (January 23, 1984). 3400:Alsop, Stewart (January 31, 1994). 3280:(30). UBM LLC: 20 – via Gale. 3249:Rosch, W. L. (September 10, 1985). 3207:O'Reilly, Richard (June 28, 1994). 2583:. Tandy/Radio Shack. Archived from 2553:. Tandy/Radio Shack. Archived from 2368:"Lookalikes From Home & Abroad" 2011:parallel interface controller, one 1603:Compaq was the first to release an 1593:, and many companies did just that. 1386:, while the equivalent IBM PC cost 471:. Each computer would have its own 24: 5638:ThinkPad 240 with Transmeta Crusoe 4383:"Interview: Bill Gates, Microsoft" 4265: 3946:Halfhill, Tom R. (December 1986). 3226:Levy, Melissa (December 5, 1984). 3188:. The Centre for Computing History 2838: 2809:Pollack, Andrew (March 27, 1983). 2611:Pournelle, Jerry (November 1984). 2489:Mace, Scott (January 9–16, 1984). 2450:Barmash, Isadore (June 10, 1983). 2313:Norton, Peter (February 5, 1985). 2248:Common Hardware Reference Platform 2103:architecture, Macintosh computers 1960:would be a failure in the market ( 1927:By the late 1990s, the success of 1283:purchased an IBM PC in mid-1983, " 465:application programming interfaces 25: 5819: 4610:PC business acquisition by Lenovo 4541:InfoWorld: The Desktop Revolution 4322:"IBM Forecast / Market Dominance" 4295:"IBM Signs A Deal With The Devil" 4292: 4272:forwardthinking dot pcmag dot com 3919:Freeze, Ken (December 16, 1985). 3832:Langdell, James (July 10, 1984). 3780:"Amiga, Atari Ready PC Emulators" 3697:Lockwood, Russ (September 1985). 3040: 310:, and peripherals as the PC. The 198:Peripheral Component Interconnect 141:built the first clone of the IBM 5674:Professional Graphics Controller 3724:Poor, Alfred (October 2, 1984). 3511:Sandler, Corey (December 1983). 3272:Sheerin, M. (October 17, 1983). 3149: 3103:Elliot, John (January 3, 2012). 3071: 2658:"Commodore Adds Hyperion, Chips" 2374:. February–March 1982. p. 5 2250:- competing standard for PowerPC 2105:transitioned to Intel processors 1743: 1577:The availability by 1986 of sub- 4531: 4505: 4452: 4441: 4358: 4342: 4286: 4259: 4149:Scisco, Peter (December 1988). 4077:Webster, Bruce (January 1987). 3897:. September 30, 1985. p. 1 3316:Malloy, Rich (September 1983). 3265: 3174: 3127: 3096: 2920: 2902: 2863: 2780: 2748:, By Paul Freiberger, Page 35, 2668: 2649: 2631: 2569: 2539: 2395:"Let's keep those systems open" 1923:Challenges to Wintel domination 1405:The decreasing influence of IBM 857:sold as true IBM XT compatible 720:8 MHz (later 10 MHz) 473:Original Equipment Manufacturer 278:went on sale. There were three 5725:Industry Standard Architecture 4544:. InfoWorld Media Group, Inc. 4381:Gates, Bill (March 25, 1997). 4125:Parker, Rachel (May 4, 1987). 3630:"Pick Up Where IBM Leaves Off" 3343:Ward, Ronnie (November 1983). 3232:Orange County Business Journal 2882:Advertisement (October 1982). 2812:"Big I.B.M. Has Done It Again" 2293: 2273:Advertisement (October 1982). 2266: 1475:a proprietary operating system 1296:reported in January 1984 that 1267:would not run because of what 825:sold as a true IBM compatible 190:Industry Standard Architecture 13: 1: 4320:Killen, Michael (Fall 1984). 3859:Schmidt, Robert (July 1994). 3671:. p. 136. Archived from 3547:The Christian Science Monitor 3373:Yakal, Kathy (January 1985). 2819:. p. Section 3, Page 1. 2675:Kathy Chin (March 26, 1984). 2260: 2148:utility. Computers using the 1563:The 1983 introduction of the 1556:The 1982 introduction of the 1514:at the time, the aging 8-bit 960:Digital Equipment Corporation 431:Digital Equipment Corporation 298:(Basic Input/Output System). 157:released the very successful 120:commodity hardware components 4299:thisdayintechhistory dot com 3973:Ferrell, Keith (July 1987). 3345:"Levels of PC Compatibility" 3105:"Wang Professional Computer" 2986:Haas, Mark (December 1983). 2423:Sandler, Corey (June 1983). 2340:Libes, Sol (December 1981). 2119:to the internally developed 2111:Microsoft Windows without a 1931:had driven rival commercial 1538:IBM designed the PC with an 7: 4483:Upgrading and Repairing PCs 4425:Upgrading and Repairing PCs 4106:Borrell, Jerry (May 1992). 3136:MBC-550 Series User's Guide 2850:www.computinghistory.org.uk 2315:"Software for Once and All" 2164: 2099:, then transitioned to the 2072:The IBM PC compatible today 1044:360 KB (later 720 KB) 981:132x24 text mode, 8088 and 790:270 KB (later 710 KB) 726:360 KB (later 720 KB) 10: 5824: 5679:Multi-Color Graphics Array 5659:Monochrome Display Adapter 4603:Influence on the PC market 4487:. Que Publishing. p. 3296:radioshackcatalogs dot com 2581:radioshackcatalogs dot com 2551:radioshackcatalogs dot com 2244:PowerPC Reference Platform 2143:, though an emulator like 2075: 2015:interrupt controller, one 1792:Hardware abstraction layer 1667:Despite popularity of its 1264:Microsoft Flight Simulator 1178:"Operationally Compatible" 469:hardware abstraction layer 389: 257: 178:Micro Channel architecture 59:, all from computer giant 5702: 5669:Enhanced Graphics Adapter 5651: 5620: 5592: 5559: 5501: 5423: 5377: 5309: 5281: 5222: 5172: 5152: 5112: 5062: 5027: 5018: 5009: 4936: 4927: 4884: 4710: 4628: 4619: 4597: 4423:Scott M. Mueller (2011). 4025:"The Compatibility Craze" 4006:"Can Anybody Tackle IBM?" 2521:"PC-Compatible Portables" 2019:clock generator, and one 1718:modes used only during a 1642:ruptured the joint effort 1620:MicroChannel Architecture 1332:West Coast Computer Faire 1318:journalist asked to test 202:Accelerated Graphics Port 172:IBM PC and XT bus to the 85:personal computer history 5808:Computer hardware clones 3318:"The Corona Portable PC" 1778:. In 1993, a version of 1201:Operationally Compatible 923:TI Professional Computer 5694:Extended Graphics Array 4108:"Opening Pandora's Box" 3186:computinghistory.org.uk 1968:for example). In 1989, 1207:Functionally Compatible 949:720x300 color graphics 892:Eagle PC / 1600 series 5664:Color Graphics Adapter 4479:Scott Mueller (2003). 3726:"Zenith Strikes Twice" 3663:"The West Coast Faire" 2113:DOS Compatibility Card 1993:Chips and Technologies 1716:backward compatibility 1558:Columbia Data Products 1449: 1422: 1258: 1194: 1015:800x300 mono graphics 866:Columbia Data Products 793:primitive touchscreen 524:communication software 410: 350:Columbia Data Products 336: 271: 139:Columbia Data Products 41: 4964:PS/2 Note and PS/note 4519:on September 26, 2018 4151:"Bus, Bus, Magic Bus" 3109:Seasip.info/VintagePC 3074:"Digital Rainbow 100" 2425:"Getting To Know You" 2303:, September 19, 1988. 2097:Motorola 68000 series 2053:architecture for the 2007:interrupt timer, one 1984:to Intel processors. 1506:computers offered by 1440: 1408: 1256: 1181: 652:Floppy disk capacity 520:presentation software 404: 327: 265: 35: 5684:Video Graphics Array 4396:Mike Tooley (2005). 4012:. November 26, 1983. 3891:"Competing on Price" 3278:Computer Retail News 3047:The Vintage Computer 2240:- competing standard 2115:. However, with the 2003:DMA controller, one 1886:VESA BIOS Extensions 1690:As of October 2007, 1510:and used mainly for 1392:Leading Edge Model D 456:Tandy described the 386:Compatibility issues 211:computers based on " 4723:Industrial Computer 4367:InfoWorld July 1986 3861:"What Is The BIOS?" 3302:on January 3, 2021. 3162:on November 6, 2023 2933:Eagle 1600 Brochure 2870:Aboard the Columbia 2752:, 13 September 1982 2132:orders of magnitude 1328:Zenith Data Systems 1322:at the Spring 1983 1310:Corona Data Systems 1294:Columbia University 740:Zenith Data Systems 598:Integrated software 567:, arc-drawing, and 316:640 KB barrier 147:Corona Data Systems 5803:IBM PC compatibles 5757:Music Feature Card 4592:personal computers 4212:The New York Times 4079:"View and Reviews" 3703:Creative Computing 3610:. pp. 110–144 3519:. pp. 248–256 3490:Info-Kermit Digest 3430:(September 1983). 3379:Compute!'s Gazette 3351:. pp. 248–249 3324:. pp. 226–228 2817:The New York Times 2767:HP Computer Museum 2587:on October 3, 2014 2557:on October 3, 2014 2456:The New York Times 2348:. pp. 314–318 2197:Homebuilt computer 2156:The spread of the 2036:Companies such as 1957:desktop publishing 1937:computing platform 1609:Compaq Deskpro 386 1600:slots than the PC. 1512:desktop publishing 1450: 1390:. The inexpensive 1339:Creative Computing 1259: 698:AT&T 6300 580:true graphics mode 411: 344:defined "PC 'clone 272: 42: 5785: 5784: 5720:IBM PC compatible 5588: 5587: 5584: 5583: 5579: 5578: 5575: 5574: 5275: 5274: 4932: 4880: 4879: 4498:978-0-7897-2974-3 4434:978-0-13-268218-3 4409:978-1-136-37449-4 4266:Miller, Michael. 4133:. pp. 1, 85. 4114:. pp. 21–22. 3871:on March 10, 2012 3156:Old-Computers.com 3084:on April 28, 2023 3078:Old-Computers.com 3043:"DEC Rainbow 100" 2965:Texas Instruments 2763:"150 Touchscreen" 2613:"NCC Reflections" 2212:Personal computer 1995:introduced their 1933:operating systems 1929:Microsoft Windows 1897:virtual 8086 mode 1628:Personal System/2 1540:open architecture 1424:In February 1984 1175: 1174: 1150:Tandy Corporation 1058:Apricot Computers 994:Wang Laboratories 928:Texas Instruments 694:Olivetti M24 655:Notable features 439:Texas Instruments 380:clean room design 371:Apple v. Franklin 366:portable computer 280:operating systems 225:Microsoft Windows 143:personal computer 135:clean room design 45:IBM PC–compatible 16:(Redirected from 5815: 5633:Power Series 600 5279: 5278: 5025: 5024: 5021: 5020: 5016: 5015: 4934: 4933: 4931: 4626: 4625: 4612: 4605: 4583: 4576: 4569: 4560: 4559: 4554: 4553: 4535: 4529: 4528: 4526: 4524: 4515:. Archived from 4509: 4503: 4502: 4486: 4476: 4470: 4469: 4456: 4450: 4445: 4439: 4438: 4420: 4414: 4413: 4393: 4387: 4386: 4378: 4372: 4371: 4370:. July 28, 1986. 4362: 4356: 4355: 4346: 4340: 4339: 4337: 4335: 4330:. pp. 30–38 4317: 4311: 4310: 4308: 4306: 4290: 4284: 4283: 4281: 4279: 4263: 4257: 4256: 4254: 4252: 4237: 4231: 4230: 4228: 4226: 4203: 4194: 4193: 4191: 4189: 4173: 4167: 4166: 4164: 4162: 4146: 4135: 4134: 4122: 4116: 4115: 4103: 4097: 4096: 4094: 4092: 4074: 4068: 4067: 4065: 4063: 4047: 4041: 4040: 4038: 4036: 4020: 4014: 4013: 4002: 3991: 3990: 3988: 3986: 3970: 3964: 3963: 3961: 3959: 3943: 3937: 3936: 3934: 3932: 3916: 3907: 3906: 3904: 3902: 3887: 3881: 3880: 3878: 3876: 3867:. Archived from 3865:Computing Basics 3856: 3850: 3849: 3847: 3845: 3829: 3823: 3822: 3820: 3818: 3802: 3796: 3795: 3793: 3791: 3775: 3769: 3768: 3766: 3764: 3748: 3742: 3741: 3739: 3737: 3721: 3715: 3714: 3712: 3710: 3694: 3685: 3684: 3682: 3680: 3659:Pournelle, Jerry 3655: 3646: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3626: 3620: 3619: 3617: 3615: 3599: 3593: 3592: 3590: 3588: 3572: 3566: 3565: 3563: 3561: 3538: 3529: 3528: 3526: 3524: 3508: 3502: 3501: 3499: 3497: 3481: 3475: 3474: 3472: 3470: 3457: 3451: 3450: 3448: 3446: 3428:Pournelle, Jerry 3424: 3418: 3417: 3415: 3413: 3397: 3391: 3390: 3388: 3386: 3370: 3361: 3360: 3358: 3356: 3340: 3334: 3333: 3331: 3329: 3313: 3304: 3303: 3288: 3282: 3281: 3269: 3263: 3262: 3246: 3240: 3239: 3223: 3217: 3216: 3204: 3198: 3197: 3195: 3193: 3178: 3172: 3171: 3169: 3167: 3158:. Archived from 3147: 3141: 3140: 3131: 3125: 3124: 3122: 3120: 3115:on July 21, 2014 3111:. Archived from 3100: 3094: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3080:. Archived from 3069: 3063: 3062: 3060: 3058: 3049:. Archived from 3038: 3032: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3012: 3006: 3005: 3003: 3001: 2983: 2977: 2976: 2974: 2972: 2962: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2938: 2924: 2918: 2917: 2906: 2900: 2899: 2897: 2895: 2879: 2873: 2867: 2861: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2842: 2836: 2835: 2833: 2831: 2814: 2806: 2800: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2784: 2778: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2759: 2753: 2743: 2737: 2736: 2717: 2711: 2710: 2691: 2685: 2684: 2672: 2666: 2665: 2653: 2647: 2646: 2645:. June 12, 1984. 2635: 2629: 2628: 2626: 2624: 2608: 2597: 2596: 2594: 2592: 2573: 2567: 2566: 2564: 2562: 2543: 2537: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2516: 2507: 2506: 2504: 2502: 2497:. pp. 79–81 2486: 2475: 2474: 2472: 2470: 2447: 2441: 2440: 2438: 2436: 2420: 2411: 2410: 2408: 2406: 2390: 2384: 2383: 2381: 2379: 2364: 2358: 2357: 2355: 2353: 2337: 2331: 2330: 2328: 2326: 2310: 2304: 2297: 2291: 2290: 2288: 2286: 2270: 2171:AT (form factor) 1972:said of his new 1840:addressing space 1788:Silicon Graphics 1739: 1686: 1685:US$ 1.75 billion 1580: 1528:video production 1459: 1455: 1420: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1349:Flight Simulator 1192: 1191:, September 1983 1156: 1124: 1118:Tava Corporation 1094: 1064: 1032: 1000: 966: 934: 902: 872: 842: 810: 778: 746: 713: 670: 640:Date introduced 631: 630: 488:Digital Research 376:reverse-engineer 347: 221:operating system 124:reverse-engineer 21: 5823: 5822: 5818: 5817: 5816: 5814: 5813: 5812: 5788: 5787: 5786: 5781: 5698: 5647: 5616: 5600:Palm Top PC 110 5580: 5571: 5555: 5497: 5419: 5373: 5305: 5271: 5218: 5189:701 "Butterfly" 5168: 5148: 5108: 5058: 5005: 4923: 4876: 4706: 4621: 4615: 4608: 4601: 4593: 4587: 4557: 4536: 4532: 4522: 4520: 4511: 4510: 4506: 4499: 4477: 4473: 4460:"Microsoft.com" 4458: 4457: 4453: 4446: 4442: 4435: 4421: 4417: 4410: 4394: 4390: 4379: 4375: 4364: 4363: 4359: 4354:. July 7, 1986. 4348: 4347: 4343: 4333: 4331: 4318: 4314: 4304: 4302: 4293:Brown, Marcel. 4291: 4287: 4277: 4275: 4264: 4260: 4250: 4248: 4238: 4234: 4224: 4222: 4204: 4197: 4187: 4185: 4184:. pp. 1, 8 4174: 4170: 4160: 4158: 4147: 4138: 4123: 4119: 4104: 4100: 4090: 4088: 4075: 4071: 4061: 4059: 4048: 4044: 4034: 4032: 4021: 4017: 4004: 4003: 3994: 3984: 3982: 3971: 3967: 3957: 3955: 3944: 3940: 3930: 3928: 3917: 3910: 3900: 3898: 3889: 3888: 3884: 3874: 3872: 3857: 3853: 3843: 3841: 3830: 3826: 3816: 3814: 3803: 3799: 3789: 3787: 3776: 3772: 3762: 3760: 3749: 3745: 3735: 3733: 3722: 3718: 3708: 3706: 3695: 3688: 3678: 3676: 3675:on May 28, 2012 3656: 3649: 3639: 3637: 3628: 3627: 3623: 3613: 3611: 3600: 3596: 3586: 3584: 3573: 3569: 3559: 3557: 3539: 3532: 3522: 3520: 3509: 3505: 3495: 3493: 3486:"IBM PC Kermit" 3482: 3478: 3468: 3466: 3459: 3458: 3454: 3444: 3442: 3425: 3421: 3411: 3409: 3398: 3394: 3384: 3382: 3371: 3364: 3354: 3352: 3341: 3337: 3327: 3325: 3314: 3307: 3290: 3289: 3285: 3270: 3266: 3247: 3243: 3224: 3220: 3205: 3201: 3191: 3189: 3180: 3179: 3175: 3165: 3163: 3148: 3144: 3133: 3132: 3128: 3118: 3116: 3101: 3097: 3087: 3085: 3070: 3066: 3056: 3054: 3053:on July 3, 2016 3041:Klein, Erik S. 3039: 3035: 3025: 3023: 3013: 3009: 2999: 2997: 2984: 2980: 2970: 2968: 2960: 2956: 2955: 2951: 2941: 2939: 2936: 2925: 2921: 2908: 2907: 2903: 2893: 2891: 2880: 2876: 2868: 2864: 2854: 2852: 2844: 2843: 2839: 2829: 2827: 2807: 2803: 2793: 2791: 2785: 2781: 2771: 2769: 2761: 2760: 2756: 2744: 2740: 2719: 2718: 2714: 2693: 2692: 2688: 2673: 2669: 2654: 2650: 2637: 2636: 2632: 2622: 2620: 2609: 2600: 2590: 2588: 2575: 2574: 2570: 2560: 2558: 2545: 2544: 2540: 2530: 2528: 2517: 2510: 2500: 2498: 2487: 2478: 2468: 2466: 2448: 2444: 2434: 2432: 2421: 2414: 2404: 2402: 2391: 2387: 2377: 2375: 2366: 2365: 2361: 2351: 2349: 2338: 2334: 2324: 2322: 2311: 2307: 2298: 2294: 2284: 2282: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2176:ATX form factor 2167: 2080: 2074: 2026:VLSI Technology 1991:. For example, 1925: 1856:extended memory 1848:expanded memory 1831: 1768: 1746: 1738:US$ 2.1 billion 1737: 1736:) business for 1692:Hewlett-Packard 1684: 1661:extended memory 1657:expanded memory 1578: 1565:Compaq Portable 1530:and the 32-bit 1520:Commodore Amiga 1457: 1453: 1421: 1419:, November 1983 1415: 1407: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1285:rotten keyboard 1281:Jerry Pournelle 1239:DEC Rainbow 100 1217:Data Compatible 1211:TI Professional 1193: 1187: 1180: 799:Compaq Portable 772:Hewlett-Packard 629: 616:copy-protection 572:MS-DOS machine. 516:word processors 427:Hewlett-Packard 399: 394: 388: 362:Compaq Portable 345: 308:expansion cards 260: 200:(PCI), and the 159:Compaq Portable 65:expansion cards 38:Compaq Portable 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5821: 5811: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5748: 5747: 5742: 5732: 5730:IntelliStation 5727: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5706: 5704: 5700: 5699: 5697: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5655: 5653: 5652:Video hardware 5649: 5648: 5646: 5645: 5640: 5635: 5630: 5624: 5622: 5618: 5617: 5615: 5614: 5613: 5612: 5602: 5596: 5594: 5590: 5589: 5586: 5585: 5582: 5581: 5577: 5576: 5573: 5572: 5570: 5569: 5563: 5561: 5557: 5556: 5554: 5553: 5548: 5543: 5538: 5533: 5528: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5507: 5505: 5499: 5498: 5496: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5465: 5460: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5440: 5435: 5429: 5427: 5421: 5420: 5418: 5417: 5414: 5411: 5408: 5405: 5402: 5399: 5396: 5393: 5390: 5387: 5383: 5381: 5375: 5374: 5372: 5371: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5346: 5341: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5321: 5315: 5313: 5307: 5306: 5304: 5303: 5298: 5293: 5287: 5285: 5276: 5273: 5272: 5270: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5228: 5226: 5220: 5219: 5217: 5216: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5191: 5186: 5180: 5178: 5170: 5169: 5167: 5166: 5160: 5158: 5150: 5149: 5147: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5120: 5118: 5110: 5109: 5107: 5106: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5070: 5068: 5060: 5059: 5057: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5035: 5033: 5019: 5013: 5007: 5006: 5004: 5003: 4998: 4993: 4992: 4991: 4989:Model 425/425C 4986: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4961: 4960: 4959: 4954: 4946: 4940: 4938: 4929: 4925: 4924: 4922: 4921: 4920: 4919: 4914: 4907:PS/2 portables 4904: 4899: 4894: 4888: 4886: 4882: 4881: 4878: 4877: 4875: 4874: 4873: 4872: 4867: 4857: 4852: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4811: 4810: 4805: 4800: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4733:list of models 4725: 4720: 4714: 4712: 4708: 4707: 4705: 4704: 4703: 4702: 4697: 4687: 4682: 4677: 4676: 4675: 4670: 4665: 4655: 4654: 4653: 4651:list of models 4643: 4638: 4632: 4630: 4623: 4622:and all-in-one 4617: 4616: 4614: 4613: 4606: 4598: 4595: 4594: 4586: 4585: 4578: 4571: 4563: 4556: 4555: 4530: 4504: 4497: 4471: 4451: 4440: 4433: 4415: 4408: 4388: 4373: 4357: 4341: 4312: 4301:. MB Tech, Inc 4285: 4258: 4232: 4195: 4168: 4136: 4117: 4098: 4069: 4042: 4015: 3992: 3965: 3938: 3908: 3882: 3851: 3824: 3797: 3770: 3743: 3716: 3686: 3647: 3621: 3594: 3567: 3530: 3503: 3476: 3452: 3419: 3392: 3362: 3335: 3305: 3283: 3264: 3241: 3218: 3213:Southtown Star 3199: 3173: 3142: 3126: 3095: 3064: 3033: 3007: 2978: 2949: 2928:Eagle Computer 2919: 2901: 2874: 2862: 2837: 2801: 2779: 2754: 2738: 2712: 2686: 2667: 2648: 2630: 2598: 2568: 2538: 2508: 2476: 2458:. p. A1. 2442: 2412: 2385: 2359: 2332: 2305: 2292: 2264: 2262: 2259: 2258: 2257: 2251: 2241: 2238:PC-9800 series 2235: 2229: 2224: 2219: 2214: 2209: 2204: 2199: 2194: 2189: 2184: 2178: 2173: 2166: 2163: 2078:Legacy-free PC 2073: 2070: 1924: 1921: 1893:protected mode 1878:bank switching 1863:protected mode 1830: 1827: 1767: 1764: 1754:microcomputers 1745: 1742: 1665: 1664: 1653: 1646: 1631: 1616: 1601: 1594: 1575: 1568: 1561: 1554: 1543: 1522:line used for 1490:announced the 1413: 1406: 1403: 1277:bug compatible 1251: 1250: 1228: 1214: 1204: 1185: 1179: 1176: 1173: 1172: 1169: 1166: 1163: 1162:8 MHzw2q 1160: 1157: 1152: 1147: 1141: 1140: 1137: 1134: 1131: 1130:4.77 MHz 1128: 1125: 1120: 1115: 1111: 1110: 1107: 1104: 1101: 1100:4.77 MHz 1098: 1095: 1090: 1085: 1081: 1080: 1077: 1074: 1071: 1070:4.77 MHz 1068: 1065: 1060: 1055: 1049: 1048: 1045: 1042: 1039: 1036: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1017: 1016: 1013: 1010: 1007: 1004: 1001: 996: 991: 987: 986: 979: 976: 973: 972:4.81 MHz 970: 967: 962: 957: 951: 950: 947: 944: 941: 938: 935: 930: 925: 919: 918: 915: 912: 909: 908:4.77 MHz 906: 903: 898: 896:Eagle Computer 893: 889: 888: 885: 882: 879: 878:4.77 MHz 876: 873: 868: 863: 859: 858: 855: 852: 849: 846: 843: 838: 833: 831:Compaq Deskpro 827: 826: 823: 820: 817: 816:4.77 MHz 814: 811: 806: 801: 795: 794: 791: 788: 785: 782: 779: 774: 769: 763: 762: 759: 756: 753: 752:4.77 MHz 750: 747: 742: 737: 731: 730: 727: 724: 721: 718: 715: 709: 705:, marketed by 700: 690: 689: 683: 680: 677: 676:4.77 MHz 674: 671: 666: 663: 657: 656: 653: 650: 647: 644: 641: 638: 635: 634:Computer name 628: 625: 624: 623: 620: 612: 594: 587: 573: 552: 398: 395: 387: 384: 354:Eagle Computer 259: 256: 215:/AMD64" chips 194:VESA Local Bus 166:computer buses 151:Eagle Computer 77:IBM PC clones 26: 18:IBM Compatible 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5820: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5795: 5793: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5752:Micro Channel 5750: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5737: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5707: 5705: 5701: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5656: 5654: 5650: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5625: 5623: 5619: 5611: 5608: 5607: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5597: 5595: 5591: 5568: 5565: 5564: 5562: 5558: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5508: 5506: 5504: 5500: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5430: 5428: 5426: 5422: 5415: 5412: 5409: 5406: 5403: 5400: 5397: 5394: 5391: 5388: 5385: 5384: 5382: 5380: 5376: 5370: 5367: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5347: 5345: 5342: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5325: 5322: 5320: 5317: 5316: 5314: 5312: 5308: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5288: 5286: 5284: 5280: 5277: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5229: 5227: 5225: 5221: 5215: 5212: 5210: 5207: 5205: 5202: 5200: 5197: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5185: 5182: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5171: 5165: 5162: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5151: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5111: 5105: 5102: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5071: 5069: 5066: 5061: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5036: 5034: 5031: 5026: 5023: 5022: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5008: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4966: 4965: 4962: 4958: 4955: 4953: 4950: 4949: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4941: 4939: 4935: 4930: 4926: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4909: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4889: 4887: 4883: 4871: 4868: 4866: 4863: 4862: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4831: 4828: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4809: 4806: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4764: 4761: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4751: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4730: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4721: 4719: 4716: 4715: 4713: 4709: 4701: 4698: 4696: 4693: 4692: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4678: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4660: 4659: 4656: 4652: 4649: 4648: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4633: 4631: 4629:Single models 4627: 4624: 4618: 4611: 4607: 4604: 4600: 4599: 4596: 4591: 4584: 4579: 4577: 4572: 4570: 4565: 4564: 4561: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4542: 4534: 4518: 4514: 4508: 4500: 4494: 4490: 4485: 4484: 4475: 4467: 4466: 4461: 4455: 4449: 4444: 4436: 4430: 4426: 4419: 4411: 4405: 4401: 4400: 4392: 4384: 4377: 4369: 4368: 4361: 4353: 4352: 4345: 4329: 4328: 4323: 4316: 4300: 4296: 4289: 4273: 4269: 4262: 4251:September 13, 4247: 4243: 4236: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4202: 4200: 4183: 4179: 4172: 4156: 4152: 4145: 4143: 4141: 4132: 4128: 4121: 4113: 4109: 4102: 4087:. p. 367 4086: 4085: 4080: 4073: 4057: 4053: 4046: 4030: 4026: 4019: 4011: 4010:The Economist 4007: 4001: 3999: 3997: 3980: 3976: 3969: 3953: 3949: 3942: 3926: 3922: 3915: 3913: 3896: 3892: 3886: 3875:September 19, 3870: 3866: 3862: 3855: 3839: 3835: 3828: 3812: 3808: 3801: 3785: 3781: 3774: 3759:. p. 276 3758: 3754: 3747: 3732:. p. 206 3731: 3727: 3720: 3704: 3700: 3693: 3691: 3674: 3670: 3669: 3664: 3661:(July 1984). 3660: 3654: 3652: 3635: 3631: 3625: 3609: 3605: 3598: 3582: 3578: 3571: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3537: 3535: 3518: 3514: 3507: 3491: 3487: 3480: 3464: 3463: 3456: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3423: 3408:. p. 102 3407: 3403: 3396: 3380: 3376: 3369: 3367: 3350: 3346: 3339: 3323: 3319: 3312: 3310: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3287: 3279: 3275: 3268: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3245: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3222: 3214: 3210: 3203: 3187: 3183: 3177: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3150:Ryan, Chris. 3146: 3138: 3137: 3130: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3099: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3072:Ryan, Chris. 3068: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3037: 3022: 3018: 3011: 2995: 2994: 2989: 2982: 2966: 2959: 2953: 2935: 2934: 2929: 2923: 2916: 2911: 2905: 2889: 2885: 2878: 2871: 2866: 2851: 2847: 2841: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2813: 2805: 2790: 2787:Ken Polsson. 2783: 2768: 2764: 2758: 2751: 2747: 2742: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2716: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2690: 2682: 2678: 2671: 2663: 2659: 2652: 2644: 2640: 2634: 2619:. p. 361 2618: 2614: 2607: 2605: 2603: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2572: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2542: 2526: 2522: 2515: 2513: 2496: 2492: 2485: 2483: 2481: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2446: 2430: 2426: 2419: 2417: 2400: 2396: 2389: 2373: 2369: 2363: 2347: 2343: 2336: 2321:. p. 103 2320: 2316: 2309: 2302: 2296: 2280: 2276: 2269: 2265: 2255: 2252: 2249: 2245: 2242: 2239: 2236: 2233: 2230: 2228: 2225: 2223: 2220: 2218: 2215: 2213: 2210: 2208: 2205: 2203: 2200: 2198: 2195: 2193: 2190: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2179: 2177: 2174: 2172: 2169: 2168: 2162: 2159: 2154: 2151: 2146: 2142: 2137: 2133: 2128: 2126: 2125:Apple silicon 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2079: 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1472: 1468: 1467:Bruce Webster 1463: 1448: 1444: 1439: 1435: 1433: 1432: 1431:The Economist 1427: 1418: 1417:The Economist 1412: 1402: 1399: 1398: 1393: 1373: 1372: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1358: 1352: 1350: 1346: 1341: 1340: 1335: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1316: 1311: 1307: 1301: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1273:Bruce Artwick 1270: 1266: 1265: 1255: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1229: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1215: 1212: 1208: 1205: 1202: 1199: 1198: 1197: 1190: 1184: 1170: 1167: 1164: 1161: 1158: 1153: 1151: 1148: 1146: 1143: 1142: 1138: 1135: 1132: 1129: 1126: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1113: 1112: 1108: 1105: 1102: 1099: 1096: 1091: 1089: 1086: 1083: 1082: 1078: 1075: 1072: 1069: 1066: 1061: 1059: 1056: 1054: 1051: 1050: 1046: 1043: 1040: 1038:3.6 MHz 1037: 1034: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1022: 1019: 1018: 1014: 1011: 1008: 1005: 1002: 997: 995: 992: 989: 988: 984: 980: 977: 974: 971: 968: 963: 961: 958: 956: 953: 952: 948: 945: 942: 939: 936: 931: 929: 926: 924: 921: 920: 916: 913: 910: 907: 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