940:
341:
337:. This demonstrates an example of how cell surface receptors can affect the tropism of a viral pathogen. Since humans are the only organisms that have cells with these receptors, HIV only displays host tropism for humans. Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), a virus similar to HIV, is capable of infecting primates.
120:
from their environment. These nutrients can often be provided by host tissues, and that is why some bacteria need a host for survival. Once a bacterium recognizes the host cell receptors or nutrient-rich surroundings, it colonizes the cell surface. Bacteria have various mechanisms for colonizing host
109:
to enter a cell. Many viral membranes contain virion surface proteins that are specific to particular host cell surface receptors. If a host cell expresses the complementary surface receptor for the virus, then the virus can attach and enter the cell. If a cell does not express these receptors, then
300:
Viral host tropism is determined by a combination of susceptibility and permissiveness: a host cell must be both permissive (allow viral replication) and susceptible (possess the receptor complement needed for viral entry) for a virus to establish infection. Once a virus binds to a host cell, the
185:
Host organisms are equipped with a variety of different defense mechanisms used to protect the host from pathogenic infection. Humans in particular possess multiple lines of defense that affect pathogenesis from beginning to end. For a virus or bacterium to display tropism for a specific host, it
359:
gp41 undergoes significant conformational change; folding in half and forming coiled-coils. This process pulls the viral and cellular membranes together, fusing them. The diagram above suggests that it is a T helper cell, however the co-receptor on a T helper cell for this mechanism is CXCR4 not
252:
and organic acids, and a decrease in the infected tissue's oxygen tension in response to pathogen-induced cell damage. Coagulation of blood (clotting) also occurs in an inflamed area, providing a physical barrier against pathogenic infection. These changes ultimately create unfavorable living
483:
allow the bacteria to infect human lung tissue while providing an intrinsic resistance to pharmaceuticals. M. tuberculosis enters the lung alveoler passages through aerosol droplets, and it then becomes phagocytosed by macrophages. However, since the macrophages are unable to completely kill
397:. EBV enters the body through oral transfer of saliva, and it is thought to infect more than 90% of the world's adult population. EBV may also infect epithelial cells, T cells, and natural killer cells through mechanisms different than the CD21 receptor-mediated process in B cells.
83:
A pathogen displays tropism for a specific host if it can interact with the host cells in a way that supports pathogenic growth and infection. Various factors affect the ability of a pathogen to infect a particular cell, including: the structure of the cell's
549:, which involves the adherence of intimin to translocated intimin cell surface receptors presented on the surface of epithelial cells in the gut. Along with the Type III secretion system, temperature may also effect the secretion of intimin, which increases
223:. The epidermis of the skin provides a physical barrier against pathogens, but it can easily be compromised by insect bites, animal bites, scratches or other minor skin trauma. Sweat, saliva, and tears are all chemical barriers that contain enzymes, such as
516:
clonal complex CC121 is known to exhibit multi-host tropism for both humans and rabbits. This is thought to be due to a single nucleotide mutation that evolved the CC121 complex into ST121 clonal complex, the clone capable of infecting rabbits.
291:
In conclusion, if a pathogen is capable of overcoming various host defenses, recognizing a host cell for infection, and successfully replicating within a host tissue, then the pathogen is likely to possess tropism for that specific host.
301:
host cell must then provide the necessary transcription factors needed for viral replication to occur. When the virus is able to use the cell to replicate its genetic information, the virus can spread infection throughout the body.
92:
that can identify pathogenic DNA or RNA; the ability of the cells and tissue to support viral or bacterial replication; and the presence of physical or chemical barriers within the cells and throughout the surrounding tissue.
37:
Researchers can classify pathogenic organisms by the range of species and cell types that they exhibit host tropism for. For instance, pathogens that are able to infect a wide range of hosts and tissues are said to be
46:
pathogens, on the other hand, are only capable of infecting a narrow range of hosts and host tissue. Knowledge of a pathogen's host specificity allows professionals in the research and medical industries to model
235:. A human's microbiota, the other microorganisms living within and on the body, compete with pathogenic organisms and play a large role in pathogenic control. Lastly, a semi-permeable membrane known as the
164:
into different virulence factors in order to aid the bacterium in pathogenesis. Many different types of virulence factors exist within pathogens, including: adherence factors, invasion factors, capsules,
239:
is a lining of endothelial cells separating the blood from the tissues and organs. Without this lining, viruses and bacteria could easily infect vital human organs such as the brain, lungs, and placenta.
129:, are capable of proliferating the host cell or tissues. This then allows the bacterium to surround itself in a nutrient-rich environment that protects it from immune responses and other stressors.
248:
is one of the first immune responses to pathogenic infection that many host organisms possess. Inflammation involves an elevated temperature surrounding the site of infection, accumulation of CO
116:
infect hosts differently than viruses do. Unlike viruses, bacteria can replicate and divide on their own without entry into a host cell. Still, to grow and divide, bacteria require certain
101:
Pathogens frequently enter or adhere to host cells or tissues before causing infection. For this connection to occur, the pathogen must recognize the cell's surface and then bind to it.
149:
from their surroundings. Even if a virus is able to bind to a host cell and transfer its genetic material through the cell membrane, the cell may not contain the necessary
1463:
Viana, David; Comos, MarĂa; McAdam, Paul R; Ward, Melissa J.; Selva, Laura; Guinane, Caitriona M.; González-Muñoz, Beatriz M.; Tristan, Anne; Foster, Simon J (2017-04-29).
260:
takes over. This immune response is highly specific to pathogens and provides the host with long-lasting immunity against future infection by that specific pathogen. When
1161:
El Costa, Hicham; Gouilly, Jordi; Mansuy, Jean-Michel; Chen, Qian; Levy, Claude; Cartron, GĂ©raldine; Veas, Francisco; Al-Daccak, Reem; Izopet, Jacques (2016-10-19).
190:, is meant to prevent initial pathogenic entry and establishment. The innate immune system is only broadly specific to pathogens and includes: anatomical barriers,
125:
production allows bacteria to adhere to the host tissue surface, and it provides a protective environment ideal for bacterial growth. Some bacteria, such as
253:
conditions for the pathogen (i.e. pH changes, decrease in ATP, and changes in cellular metabolism) and prevent further replication and growth.
329:
proteins on its surface. HIV also requires a second co-receptor along with the CD4-gp120 complex to enter the target cells - either
110:
the virus cannot normally infect it. Therefore, if the virus cannot bind to the cell, it does not display tropism for that host.
75:
are currently being used by researchers to better understand the host range of a variety of different pathogenic organisms.
317:
related immune cells (e.g. T helper cells, macrophages or dendritic cells). These cells express a CD4 receptor, to which
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within their genomes. In particular, pathogenic bacteria are capable of translating virulence genes located within their
186:
must first have the means to break through the host organism's line of defense. The first line of defense, known as the
912:
838:
792:
662:
587:
Douam, Florian; Gaska, Jenna M.; Winer, Benjamin Y.; Ding, Qiang; von
Schaewen, Markus; Ploss, Alexander (2015-01-01).
538:
231:
and serves as a physical barrier that encases foreign pathogens and carries them back out of the body through snot and
1286:
Angala, Shiva Kumar; Belardinelli, Juan Manuel; Huc-Claustre, Emilie; Wheat, William H.; Jackson, Mary (2014-01-01).
998:"HIV and SIV infection - the role of cellular restriction and immune responses in viral replication and pathogenesis"
34:
and host tissues. This explains why most pathogens are only capable of infecting a limited range of host organisms.
443:
due to their increased capacity to support virion replication. In adults, infection by the Zika virus may lead to
541:
respectively) exhibit tropism for human gut epithelial cells, leading to food poisoning and digestive problems.
1403:
Tong, Steven Y. C.; Davis, Joshua S.; Eichenberger, Emily; Holland, Thomas L.; Fowler, Vance G. (2015-07-01).
280:. These cells target the pathogen itself, killing it or rendering it inactive. This process further produces
177:. All of these virulence factors either aid directly in host colonization or in host cell and tissue damage.
941:"HIV tropism: diagnostic tools and implications for disease progression and treatment with entry inhibitors"
207:
is any physical or chemical barrier that helps prevent entry of microorganisms into body. This includes the
310:
1405:"Staphylococcus aureus Infections: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, Clinical Manifestations, and Management"
447:; and if the infection occurs during the first trimester of pregnancy, neurological complications such as
1526:
542:
509:
467:
427:, and the umbilical cord. On the cellular level, the Zika virus targets decidual macrophages, decidual
562:
534:
378:
1107:
Amon, Wolfgang; Farrell, Paul J. (2005-05-01). "Reactivation of
Epstein-Barr virus from latency".
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are formed within the lungs, providing an ideal environment for continued bacterial colonization.
373:(EBV) is one of eight known herpesviruses. It displays host tropism for human B cells through the
236:
370:
257:
504:
440:
386:
382:
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106:
85:
60:
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187:
146:
89:
1163:"ZIKA virus reveals broad tissue and cell tropism during the first trimester of pregnancy"
8:
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Once a bacterium or virus overcomes the body's innate immune system, the host organism's
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and enzymes necessary for viral replication to occur and for pathogenesis to continue.
68:
1542:
1380:
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882:
Charles A Janeway, Jr; Travers, Paul; Walport, Mark; Shlomchik, Mark J. (2001-01-01).
865:
Charles A Janeway, Jr; Travers, Paul; Walport, Mark; Shlomchik, Mark J. (2001-01-01).
475:- the second most common cause of death due to an infectious agent. The cell envelope
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657:(4th ed.). Galveston, TX: The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston.
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529:
157:
64:
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1348:"Mycobacterium tuberculosis Pathogenesis and Molecular Determinants of Virulence"
1303:
1076:
907:(4th ed.). Galveston (TX): University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston.
833:(4th ed.). Galveston (TX): University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston.
787:(4th ed.). Galveston (TX): University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston.
707:
72:
883:
866:
567:
476:
132:
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Poveda, Eva; Briz, Veronica; Quinones-Mateu, Miguel; Soriano, Vincent (2006).
900:
826:
780:
650:
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1465:"A single natural nucleotide mutation alters bacterial pathogen host-tropism"
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1128:
1085:
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757:
612:
436:
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512:, and food poisoning due to its tropism for human skin and soft tissue. The
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Conformational change in gp120 allows for secondary interaction with CCR5.
195:
191:
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needed to grow and divide, they must first take in necessary nutrients and
48:
39:
1558:
360:
CCR5. If it contains a CCR5 receptor it is more likely to be a macrophage.
1420:
1243:
432:
216:
166:
126:
881:
864:
691:"How bacterial pathogens colonize their hosts and invade deeper tissues"
444:
428:
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406:
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261:
220:
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43:
1527:"Species specificity and tissue tropism of EPEC and related pathogens"
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489:
410:
23:
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is the main mode of pathogenesis for these two pathogenic forms of
502:
More than an estimated 30% of the world population is colonized by
424:
394:
269:
224:
174:
117:
113:
27:
589:"Genetic Dissection of the Host Tropism of Human-Tropic Pathogens"
355:
The distal tips of gp41 are inserted in to the cellular membrane.
1288:"The cell envelope glycoconjugates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis"
420:
265:
228:
161:
122:
52:
227:, that can kill bacteria and viruses. The mucus layer lines the
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212:
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133:
Transcription factors, nutrients, and pathogenic replication
330:
326:
208:
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318:
314:
649:
Baron, Samuel; Fons, Michael; Albrecht, Thomas (1996).
1292:
Critical
Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
1058:
Thompson, Matthew P.; Kurzrock, Razelle (2004-02-01).
508:, a microorganism capable of causing skin infections,
996:
Williams, Kenneth C.; Burdo, Tricia H. (2017-03-28).
377:-gp350/220 complex and is thought to be the cause of
304:
141:
within a host cell and for bacteria to carry out the
1462:
586:
825:Dianzani, Ferdinando; Baron, Samuel (1996-01-01).
730:Aparna, Madhu Sharma; Yadav, Sarita (2008-12-01).
648:
1570:
1057:
180:
1226:Musso, Didier; Gubler, Duane J. (2016-07-01).
995:
824:
553:infectivity and tropism for human gut cells.
459:
419:that exhibits tropism for the human maternal
688:
63:to fight against infection. Methods such as
1225:
1106:
729:
364:
347:Initial interaction between gp120 and CD4.
288:that allow long-lasting immunity to occur.
105:, for example, must often bind to specific
71:of host-adapted pathogens, and genome-wide
1524:
868:Principles of innate and adaptive immunity
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956:
747:
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620:
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736:Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases
527:Enteropathogenic and enterohaemorrhagic
495:
471:is a human-tropic bacterium that causes
339:
898:
689:Ribet, David; Pascale, Cossart (2015).
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268:on a pathogen's surface, they secrete
156:Many pathogens also contain important
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400:
272:that bind to the pathogen and alert
1513:
958:10.1097/01.aids.0000233569.74769.69
781:"Chapter 7: Bacterial Pathogenesis"
605:10.1146/annurev-genet-112414-054823
520:
13:
1453:
1336:
1276:
1151:
1048:
929:
827:"Chapter 49: Nonspecific Defenses"
779:Peterson, Johnny W. (1996-01-01).
305:Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
16:Infection specificity of pathogens
14:
1590:
855:
809:
679:
637:
1016:10.1111/j.1600-0463.2009.02450.x
732:"Biofilms: microbes and disease"
651:"Chapter 45: Viral Pathogenesis"
295:
1525:Rosenshine, Ilan (1998-10-01).
1396:
1219:
1100:
1060:"Epstein-Barr Virus and Cancer"
989:
899:Klimpel, Gary R. (1996-01-01).
749:10.1590/S1413-86702008000600016
892:
885:The front line of host defense
875:
772:
723:
580:
198:, and nonspecific inhibitors.
1:
1543:10.1016/S0966-842X(98)01355-9
1409:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
1364:10.1128/CMR.16.3.463-496.2003
1352:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
1232:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
901:"Chapter 50: Immune Defenses"
573:
78:
1304:10.3109/10409238.2014.925420
1077:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-0670-3
708:10.1016/j.micinf.2015.01.004
311:human immunodeficiency virus
181:Host cell defense mechanisms
7:
1346:Smith, Issar (2003-07-01).
1109:Reviews in Medical Virology
556:
10:
1595:
903:. In Baron, Samuel (ed.).
829:. In Baron, Samuel (ed.).
783:. In Baron, Samuel (ed.).
468:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
461:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
313:exhibits host tropism for
593:Annual Review of Genetics
67:, direct engineering and
1064:Clinical Cancer Research
563:Endothelial cell tropism
391:nasopharyngeal carcinoma
379:infectious mononucleosis
365:Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)
26:specificity of certain
1531:Trends in Microbiology
695:Microbes and Infection
441:mesenchymal stem cells
361:
321:can bind, through the
258:acquired immune system
215:layer, saliva, tears,
121:tissues. For example,
107:cell surface receptors
97:Cell surface receptors
88:; the availability of
510:nosocomial infections
505:Staphylococcus aureus
497:Staphylococcus aureus
343:
147:transcription factors
90:transcription factors
1421:10.1128/CMR.00134-14
1244:10.1128/CMR.00072-15
905:Medical Microbiology
831:Medical Microbiology
785:Medical Microbiology
655:Medical Microbiology
409:is a mosquito-borne
278:natural killer cells
219:, and natural human
188:innate immune system
1179:2016NatSR...635296E
237:blood-brain-barrier
143:metabolic processes
61:preventive measures
1167:Scientific Reports
888:. Garland Science.
871:. Garland Science.
543:Type III secretion
383:Burkitt's lymphoma
371:Epstein–Barr virus
362:
217:endothelial lining
204:anatomical barrier
69:assisted evolution
1187:10.1038/srep35296
985:– via Ovid.
951:(10): 1359–1367.
455:Bacterial tropism
401:Zika virus (ZIKV)
387:Hodgkin's disease
158:virulence factors
86:surface receptors
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1010:(5–6): 400–412.
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530:Escherichia coli
522:Escherichia coli
65:cell engineering
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1469:Nature Genetics
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486:M. tuberculosis
481:M. tuberculosis
477:glycoconjugates
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137:For viruses to
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73:genetic screens
17:
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1565:
1564:
1512:
1475:(4): 361–366.
1452:
1415:(3): 603–661.
1395:
1358:(3): 463–496.
1335:
1298:(5): 361–399.
1275:
1238:(3): 487–524.
1218:
1150:
1115:(3): 149–156.
1099:
1070:(3): 803–821.
1047:
988:
928:
914:978-0963117212
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840:978-0963117212
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794:978-0963117212
793:
771:
742:(6): 526–530.
722:
701:(3): 173–183.
678:
664:978-0963117212
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578:
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571:
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568:Tissue tropism
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437:Hofbauer cells
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286:memory T cells
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30:to particular
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1228:"Zika Virus"
1221:
1173:(1): 35296.
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479:surrounding
473:tuberculosis
466:
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449:microcephaly
433:trophoblasts
423:, the fetal
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308:
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245:Inflammation
244:
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200:
196:phagocytosis
192:inflammation
184:
167:siderophores
155:
136:
112:
100:
82:
51:and develop
49:pathogenesis
36:
20:Host tropism
19:
18:
1537:(10): 388.
451:may occur.
429:fibroblasts
274:macrophages
262:lymphocytes
229:nasopharynx
151:polymerases
127:spirochetes
40:amphotropic
574:References
490:granulomas
445:Zika fever
416:Flavivirus
407:Zika virus
270:antibodies
264:recognize
221:microbiota
171:endotoxins
79:Mechanisms
57:medication
1551:0966-842X
1489:1061-4036
1429:0893-8512
1372:0893-8512
1312:1040-9238
1252:0893-8512
1195:2045-2322
1129:1099-1654
1086:1078-0432
1024:0903-4641
967:0269-9370
758:1413-8670
613:0066-4197
599:: 21–45.
514:S. aureus
411:arbovirus
395:lymphomas
225:lysozymes
211:, sweat,
175:exotoxins
139:replicate
118:nutrients
44:Ecotropic
28:pathogens
24:infection
1579:Virology
1573:Category
1507:25685890
1447:26016486
1390:12857778
1330:24915502
1270:27029595
1213:27759009
1145:19433994
1137:15546128
1094:14871955
1042:19400864
983:11156435
975:16791010
923:21413332
849:21413325
803:21413346
766:19287843
717:25637951
673:21413306
631:26407032
557:See also
425:placenta
266:antigens
162:plasmids
114:Bacteria
53:vaccines
1559:9807781
1498:4824278
1438:4451395
1321:4436706
1261:4861986
1204:5069472
1175:Bibcode
1033:2739573
622:5075990
551:E. coli
547:E. coli
421:decidua
123:biofilm
103:Viruses
22:is the
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393:, and
233:phlegm
173:, and
59:, and
1141:S2CID
1003:APMIS
979:S2CID
335:CXCR4
323:gp120
213:mucus
32:hosts
1555:PMID
1547:ISSN
1503:PMID
1485:ISSN
1443:PMID
1425:ISSN
1386:PMID
1368:ISSN
1326:PMID
1308:ISSN
1266:PMID
1248:ISSN
1209:PMID
1191:ISSN
1133:PMID
1125:ISSN
1090:PMID
1082:ISSN
1038:PMID
1020:ISSN
971:PMID
963:ISSN
945:AIDS
919:PMID
909:ISBN
845:PMID
835:ISBN
799:PMID
789:ISBN
762:PMID
754:ISSN
713:PMID
669:PMID
659:ISBN
627:PMID
609:ISSN
539:EHEC
537:and
535:EPEC
405:The
375:CD21
369:The
331:CCR5
327:gp41
325:and
309:The
284:and
276:and
209:skin
1539:doi
1493:PMC
1477:doi
1433:PMC
1417:doi
1376:PMC
1360:doi
1316:PMC
1300:doi
1256:PMC
1240:doi
1199:PMC
1183:doi
1117:doi
1072:doi
1028:PMC
1012:doi
1008:117
953:doi
744:doi
703:doi
617:PMC
601:doi
333:or
319:HIV
315:CD4
201:An
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