2703:, not interaction energy. In other words, miscible materials usually form a solution not because their interaction with each other is more favorable than their self-interaction, but because of an increase in entropy and hence free energy associated with increasing the amount of volume available to each component. This increase in entropy scales with the number of particles (or moles) being mixed. Since polymeric molecules are much larger and hence generally have much higher specific volumes than small molecules, the number of molecules involved in a polymeric mixture is far smaller than the number in a small molecule mixture of equal volume. The energetics of mixing, on the other hand, is comparable on a per volume basis for polymeric and small molecule mixtures. This tends to increase the free energy of mixing for polymer solutions and thereby making solvation less favorable, and thereby making the availability of concentrated solutions of polymers far rarer than those of small molecules.
2404:
crystalline and amorphous regions; the degree of crystallinity may be expressed in terms of a weight fraction or volume fraction of crystalline material. Few synthetic polymers are entirely crystalline. The crystallinity of polymers is characterized by their degree of crystallinity, ranging from zero for a completely non-crystalline polymer to one for a theoretical completely crystalline polymer. Polymers with microcrystalline regions are generally tougher (can be bent more without breaking) and more impact-resistant than totally amorphous polymers. Polymers with a degree of crystallinity approaching zero or one will tend to be transparent, while polymers with intermediate degrees of crystallinity will tend to be opaque due to light scattering by crystalline or glassy regions. For many polymers, crystallinity may also be associated with decreased transparency.
2549:
2194:
2339:
2367:
6549:
2330:
1574:
1591:
1049:
2352:
1565:
1949:
1918:
3816:
1556:
1434:
1416:
1927:
3332:
49:
2243:
576:
858:
6033:
2103:
1547:
1936:
1958:
2094:
6537:
6525:
1407:
3622:
2138:
6461:
2229:
2112:
6485:
6585:
797:
6561:
2450:
6573:
3579:
2676:
1619:
2751:
interchain interactions. A good example of the action of plasticizers is related to polyvinylchlorides or PVCs. A uPVC, or unplasticized polyvinylchloride, is used for things such as pipes. A pipe has no plasticizers in it, because it needs to remain strong and heat-resistant. Plasticized PVC is used in clothing for a flexible quality. Plasticizers are also put in some types of cling film to make the polymer more flexible.
2212:
6497:
3462:
2147:
6473:
2203:
5838:
2898:. Their application allows to save energy (lighter cars and planes, thermally insulated buildings), protect food and drinking water (packaging), save land and lower use of fertilizers (synthetic fibres), preserve other materials (coatings), protect and save lives (hygiene, medical applications). A representative, non-exhaustive list of applications is given below.
1425:
2268:
10 nm). They are formed by more or less regular folding of one or more molecular chains. Amorphous structures exist between the lamellae. Individual molecules can lead to entanglements between the lamellae and can also be involved in the formation of two (or more) lamellae (chains than called tie molecules). Several lamellae form a superstructure, a
2321:, on the other hand, are reversibly "physically crosslinked" and can be molten. Block copolymers in which a hard segment of the polymer has a tendency to crystallize and a soft segment has an amorphous structure are one type of thermoplastic elastomers: the hard segments ensure wide-meshed, physical crosslinking.
1307:
The structure of a polymeric material can be described at different length scales, from the sub-nm length scale up to the macroscopic one. There is in fact a hierarchy of structures, in which each stage provides the foundations for the next one. The starting point for the description of the structure
3807:
published his seminal work "Ăber
Polymerisation", in which he proposed that polymers were in fact long chains of atoms linked by covalent bonds. His work was debated at length, but eventually it was accepted by the scientific community. Because of this work, Staudinger was awarded the Nobel Prize in
3811:
After the 1930s polymers entered a golden age during which new types were discovered and quickly given commercial applications, replacing naturally-sourced materials. This development was fuelled by an industrial sector with a strong economic drive and it was supported by a broad academic community
3241:
There are multiple conventions for naming polymer substances. Many commonly used polymers, such as those found in consumer products, are referred to by a common or trivial name. The trivial name is assigned based on historical precedent or popular usage rather than a standardized naming convention.
2856:
which is useful for spectroscopy and analytical applications. An important optical parameter in the polymer used in laser applications is the change in refractive index with temperature also known as dn/dT. For the polymers mentioned here the (dn/dT) ~ â1.4 Ă 10 in units of K in the 297 †T †337 K
2787:
between adjacent chains; the partially positively charged hydrogen atoms in N-H groups of one chain are strongly attracted to the partially negatively charged oxygen atoms in C=O groups on another. These strong hydrogen bonds, for example, result in the high tensile strength and melting point of
2759:
The attractive forces between polymer chains play a large part in determining the polymer's properties. Because polymer chains are so long, they have many such interchain interactions per molecule, amplifying the effect of these interactions on the polymer properties in comparison to attractions
2473:
of a material quantifies how much elongating stress the material will endure before failure. This is very important in applications that rely upon a polymer's physical strength or durability. For example, a rubber band with a higher tensile strength will hold a greater weight before snapping. In
1517:
The microstructure of a polymer (sometimes called configuration) relates to the physical arrangement of monomer residues along the backbone of the chain. These are the elements of polymer structure that require the breaking of a covalent bond in order to change. Various polymer structures can be
2717:
In dilute solutions, the properties of the polymer are characterized by the interaction between the solvent and the polymer. In a good solvent, the polymer appears swollen and occupies a large volume. In this scenario, intermolecular forces between the solvent and monomer subunits dominate over
2277:
The type and arrangement of (functional) residues of the repeat units effects or determines the crystallinity and strength of the secondary valence bonds. In isotactic polypropylene, the molecules form a helix. Like the zigzag conformation, such helices allow a dense chain packing. Particularly
2031:
have long sequences of different monomer units. Polymers with two or three blocks of two distinct chemical species (e.g., A and B) are called diblock copolymers and triblock copolymers, respectively. Polymers with three blocks, each of a different chemical species (e.g., A, B, and C) are termed
2750:
on the cooling rate. The mobility of the chain can further change if the molecules of plasticizer give rise to hydrogen bonding formation. Plasticizers are generally small molecules that are chemically similar to the polymer and create gaps between polymer chains for greater mobility and fewer
2893:
Nowadays, synthetic polymers are used in almost all walks of life. Modern society would look very different without them. The spreading of polymer use is connected to their unique properties: low density, low cost, good thermal/electrical insulation properties, high resistance to corrosion,
2403:
or more. A synthetic polymer may be loosely described as crystalline if it contains regions of three-dimensional ordering on atomic (rather than macromolecular) length scales, usually arising from intramolecular folding or stacking of adjacent chains. Synthetic polymers may consist of both
2267:
structure in the solid state. In simple polymers (such as polyethylene), the chains are present in the crystal in zigzag conformation. Several zigzag conformations form dense chain packs, called crystallites or lamellae. The lamellae are much thinner than the polymers are long (often about
2012:
have monomer residues arranged according to a statistical rule. A statistical copolymer in which the probability of finding a particular type of monomer residue at a particular point in the chain is independent of the types of surrounding monomer residue may be referred to as a truly
1333:
The identity of the repeat units (monomer residues, also known as "mers") comprising a polymer is its first and most important attribute. Polymer nomenclature is generally based upon the type of monomer residues comprising the polymer. A polymer which contains only a single type of
599:
A polymer is a substance composed of macromolecules. A macromolecule is a molecule of high relative molecular mass, the structure of which essentially comprises the multiple repetition of units derived, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low relative molecular mass.
3311:
In both standardized conventions, the polymers' names are intended to reflect the monomer(s) from which they are synthesized (source based nomenclature) rather than the precise nature of the repeating subunit. For example, the polymer synthesized from the simple alkene
2605:, whereas amorphous polymers do not. In polymers, crystallization and melting do not suggest solid-liquid phase transitions, as in the case of water or other molecular fluids. Instead, crystallization and melting refer to the phase transitions between two solid states (
2432:
Polymer properties depend of their structure and they are divided into classes according to their physical bases. Many physical and chemical properties describe how a polymer behaves as a continuous macroscopic material. They are classified as bulk properties, or
1869:. In the latter case, increasing the polymer chain length 10-fold would increase the viscosity over 1000 times. Increasing chain length furthermore tends to decrease chain mobility, increase strength and toughness, and increase the glass-transition temperature (T
2667:, the glass transition is not. The glass transition shares features of second-order phase transitions (such as discontinuity in the heat capacity, as shown in the figure), but it is generally not considered a thermodynamic transition between equilibrium states.
2722:, or the state of the polymer solution where the value of the second virial coefficient becomes 0, the intermolecular polymer-solvent repulsion balances exactly the intramolecular monomer-monomer attraction. Under the theta condition (also called the
2497:, as the ratio of rate of change of stress to strain. Like tensile strength, this is highly relevant in polymer applications involving the physical properties of polymers, such as rubber bands. The modulus is strongly dependent on temperature.
1312:
essentially describes the arrangement of these monomers within the polymer at the scale of a single chain. The microstructure determines the possibility for the polymer to form phases with different arrangements, for example through
3752:
The chemical manipulation of polymers dates back to the 19th century, although at the time the nature of these species was not understood. The behaviour of polymers was initially rationalised according to the theory proposed by
1729:
The physical properties of polymer strongly depend on the length (or equivalently, the molecular weight) of the polymer chain. One important example of the physical consequences of the molecular weight is the scaling of the
3812:
that contributed innovative syntheses of monomers from cheaper raw material, more efficient polymerisation processes, improved techniques for polymer characterisation and advanced, theoretical understanding of polymers.
3554:
of the polymer together. When heated above 450 °C, polyethylene degrades to form a mixture of hydrocarbons. In the case of chain-end scission, monomers are released and this process is referred to as unzipping or
1518:
produced depending on the monomers and reaction conditions: A polymer may consist of linear macromolecules containing each only one unbranched chain. In the case of unbranched polyethylene, this chain is a long-chain
3446:, and other rheological properties. Rheology is also often used to determine the molecular architecture (molecular weight, molecular weight distribution, branching) and to understand how the polymer can be processed.
2129:
Polymer morphology generally describes the arrangement and microscale ordering of polymer chains in space. The macroscopic physical properties of a polymer are related to the interactions between the polymer chains.
3421:
is used to characterize the thermal properties of polymers, such as the glass-transition temperature, crystallization temperature, and melting temperature. The glass-transition temperature can also be determined by
2819:
When a polymer is dispersed or dissolved in a liquid, such as in commercial products like paints and glues, the chemical properties and molecular interactions influence how the solution flows and can even lead to
2656:, molecular motions are activated and polymers are rubbery and viscous. The glass-transition temperature may be engineered by altering the degree of branching or crosslinking in the polymer or by the addition of
1881:
that come with increased chain length. These interactions tend to fix the individual chains more strongly in position and resist deformations and matrix breakup, both at higher stresses and higher temperatures.
1139:
1658:(2DP) which are composed of topologically planar repeat units. A polymer's architecture affects many of its physical properties including solution viscosity, melt viscosity, solubility in various solvents,
3250:
have proposed standardized naming conventions; the ACS and IUPAC conventions are similar but not identical. Examples of the differences between the various naming conventions are given in the table below:
2894:
low-energy demanding polymer manufacture and facile processing into final products. For a given application, the properties of a polymer can be tuned or enhanced by combination with other materials, as in
2824:
of the polymer into complex structures. When a polymer is applied as a coating, the chemical properties will influence the adhesion of the coating and how it interacts with external materials, such as
3559:. Which mechanism dominates will depend on the type of polymer and temperature; in general, polymers with no or a single small substituent in the repeat unit will decompose via random-chain scission.
5424:
Hiorns, R. C.; Boucher, R. J.; Duhlev, R.; Hellwich, Karl-Heinz; Hodge, Philip; Jenkins, Aubrey D.; Jones, Richard G.; Kahovec, Jaroslav; Moad, Graeme; Ober, C. K.; Smith, D. W. (3 October 2012).
2000:
can also be considered a strictly alternating copolymer of diamine and diacid residues, but is often described as a homopolymer with the dimeric residue of one amine and one acid as a repeat unit.
3356:
Polymer characterization spans many techniques for determining the chemical composition, molecular weight distribution, and physical properties. Select common techniques include the following:
3835:
summarised in 1980, "I am inclined to think that the development of polymerization is perhaps the biggest thing that chemistry has done, where it has had the biggest effect on everyday life".
1662:
temperature and the size of individual polymer coils in solution. A variety of techniques may be employed for the synthesis of a polymeric material with a range of architectures, for example
2804:
between the oxygen atoms in C=O groups and the hydrogen atoms in H-C groups. Dipole bonding is not as strong as hydrogen bonding, so a polyester's melting point and strength are lower than
5860:
3326:
1104:âOâ, which corresponds to the combination of the two monomers with the loss of two water molecules. The distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a
2185:
and intramolecular attractive forces only occur at sites where molecule segments are close enough to each other. The irregular structures of the molecules prevent a narrower arrangement.
1382:
contains more than one variety of repeat unit and is a copolymer. Some biological polymers are composed of a variety of different but structurally related monomer residues; for example,
1060:
known as monomers into a covalently bonded chain or network. During the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This happens in the polymerization of
2420:, which is the volume spanned by the polymer chain and scales with the cube of the radius of gyration. The simplest theoretical models for polymers in the molten, amorphous state are
2038:
contain side chains or branches whose repeat units have a different composition or configuration than the main chain. The branches are added on to a preformed main chain macromolecule.
1142:
Example of chain polymerization: Radical polymerization of styrene, R. is initiating radical, P. is another polymer chain radical terminating the formed chain by radical recombination.
4198:
mehrere) vorschlagen." (In order to be able to denote this type of similarity in composition by differences in properties, I would like to propose the designation "polymeric" (from
2531:
in which each chain molecule is constrained by entanglements with neighboring chains to move within a virtual tube. The theory of reptation can explain polymer molecule dynamics and
1867:
3760:
Notwithstanding the lack of theoretical knowledge, the potential of polymers to provide innovative, accessible and cheap materials was immediately grasped. The work carried out by
1825:
2844:, also known as solid-state dye-doped polymer lasers. These polymers have a high surface quality and are also highly transparent so that the laser properties are dominated by the
1173:
1264:
appeared on the market. Many commercially important polymers are synthesized by chemical modification of naturally occurring polymers. Prominent examples include the reaction of
2706:
Furthermore, the phase behavior of polymer solutions and mixtures is more complex than that of small molecule mixtures. Whereas most small molecule solutions exhibit only an
1896:
Copolymers are classified either as statistical copolymers, alternating copolymers, block copolymers, graft copolymers or gradient copolymers. In the schematic figure below,
1682:. Since synthetic polymerization techniques typically yield a statistical distribution of chain lengths, the molecular weight is expressed in terms of weighted averages. The
2461:
The bulk properties of a polymer are those most often of end-use interest. These are the properties that dictate how the polymer actually behaves on a macroscopic scale.
1626:
An important microstructural feature of a polymer is its architecture and shape, which relates to the way branch points lead to a deviation from a simple linear chain. A
3772:
and many others on the modification of natural polymers determined many significant advances in the field. Their contributions led to the discovery of materials such as
5947:
1779:
1759:
661:. Due to their broad spectrum of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play essential and ubiquitous roles in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar
3940:
Roiter, Y.; Minko, S. (2005). "AFM Single
Molecule Experiments at the Solid-Liquid Interface: In Situ Conformation of Adsorbed Flexible Polyelectrolyte Chains".
2828:
polymer coatings leading to water resistance. Overall the chemical properties of a polymer are important elements for designing new polymeric material products.
3653:. Cracks in fuel lines can penetrate the bore of the tube and cause fuel leakage. If cracking occurs in the engine compartment, electric sparks can ignite the
4190:: "Um diese Art von Gleichheit in der Zusammensetzung, bei Ungleichheit in den Eigenschaften, bezeichnen zu können, möchte ich fĂŒr diese Körper die Benennung
3523:
The susceptibility of a polymer to degradation depends on its structure. Epoxies and chains containing aromatic functionalities are especially susceptible to
2042:
Monomers within a copolymer may be organized along the backbone in a variety of ways. A copolymer containing a controlled arrangement of monomers is called a
5473:
Iakovlev, V.; Guelcher, S.; Bendavid, R. (28 August 2015). "Degradation of polypropylene in vivo: A microscopic analysis of meshes explanted from patients".
2297:. Compared to amorphous structures, semi-crystalline structures lead to a higher stiffness, density, melting temperature and higher resistance of a polymer.
5900:
3860:
3657:
and can cause a serious fire. In medical use degradation of polymers can lead to changes of physical and chemical characteristics of implantable devices.
1537:. Cross-links and branches are shown as red dots in the figures. Highly branched polymers are amorphous and the molecules in the solid interact randomly.
4226:
3390:) of macromolecules in solution or in the melt. These techniques are also used to characterize the three-dimensional structure of microphase-separated
4468:
1526:. In particular unbranched macromolecules can be in the solid state semi-crystalline, crystalline chain sections highlighted red in the figure below.
4003:
3974:
592:
2524:
describe how rapidly molecules move through the polymer matrix. These are very important in many applications of polymers for films and membranes.
1678:, which quantifies the number of monomers incorporated into the chain. As with other molecules, a polymer's size may also be expressed in terms of
5103:
5940:
2434:
1119:. The essential difference between the two is that in chain polymerization, monomers are added to the chain one at a time only, such as in
2416:, which is an average distance from the center of mass of the chain to the chain itself. Alternatively, it may be expressed in terms of
1522:-alkane. There are also branched macromolecules with a main chain and side chains, in the case of polyethylene the side chains would be
562:
4204:
Originally published in 1832 in
Swedish as: Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1832) "Isomeri, dess distinktion frÄn dermed analoga förhÄllanden,"
6477:
5192:
3614:. Attack of the acetal joint occurred because of faulty molding, leading to cracking along the threads of the fitting where there is
3477:, shape, or molecular weightâof a polymer or polymer-based product under the influence of one or more environmental factors, such as
157:
2601:
Depending on their chemical structures, polymers may be either semi-crystalline or amorphous. Semi-crystalline polymers can undergo
2399:, may be defined in terms of a conventional unit cell composed of one or more polymer molecules with cell dimensions of hundreds of
5933:
3815:
3729:
are just a few examples of how ancient societies exploited polymer-containing raw materials to obtain artefacts. The latex sap of
3606:
in the water supply attacked polymers present in the plumbing, a problem which occurs faster if any of the parts have been poorly
1006:. Many other structures do exist; for example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being
3412:
2768:
between its own chains. These stronger forces typically result in higher tensile strength and higher crystalline melting points.
2746:
and increase polymer flexibility. Addition of the plasticizer will also modify dependence of the glass-transition temperature T
2718:
intramolecular interactions. In a bad solvent or poor solvent, intramolecular forces dominate and the chain contracts. In the
2289:. The formation of strong intramolecular associations may produce diverse folded states of single linear chains with distinct
1630:
molecule is composed of a main chain with one or more substituent side chains or branches. Types of branched polymers include
5817:
5798:
5775:
5751:
5175:
5113:
5086:
5041:
4784:
4679:
4609:
4494:
4322:
4133:
4108:
1483:
form two repeating units, which can alternate in any order in the macromolecule, making the polymer thus a random copolymer.
3683:
from the composite material, this resulting in the degradation of the asphalt surface and structural integrity of the road.
2812:), but polyesters have greater flexibility. Polymers with non-polar units such as polyethylene interact only through weak
3824:
3532:
2711:
2707:
2181:
of the molecules are frozen. Hooking and entanglement of chain molecules lead to a "mechanical bond" between the chains.
100:
95:
3400:(also called wide-angle X-ray diffraction) is used to determine the crystalline structure of polymers (or lack thereof).
5905:
5762:
5347:
4344:
3796:: all materials that quickly entered industrial manufacturing processes and reached households as garments components (
3465:
A plastic item with thirty years of exposure to heat and cold, brake fluid, and sunlight. Notice the discoloration and
2509:
or DMA measures this complex modulus by oscillating the load and measuring the resulting strain as a function of time.
2169:(i.e. glassy structures). In melt and solution, polymers tend to form a constantly changing "statistical cluster", see
5920:
2801:
6465:
5886:
5406:
5150:
4927:
Lutz, Jean-François; Ouchi, Makoto; Liu, David R.; Sawamoto, Mitsuo (9 August 2013). "Sequence-Controlled
Polymers".
4546:
3418:
2561:
1224:
following translation in order to provide appropriate structure and functioning. There are other biopolymers such as
998:
Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a polymer used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of
327:
142:
105:
5915:
3671:
leaks onto the road, accidents to following cars can be caused by the slippery nature of the deposit, which is like
3875:
3567:
1533:
have a wide-meshed cross-linking between the "main chains". Close-meshed crosslinking, on the other hand, leads to
1196:. In living cells, they may be synthesized by enzyme-mediated processes, such as the formation of DNA catalyzed by
852:
832:
189:
839:
definition. The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in 1920 by
1694:
1683:
681:
that are fundamental to biological structure and function. Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via
2548:
1150:
do not fit neatly into either category. Synthetic polymerization reactions may be carried out with or without a
4148:
If two substances had molecular formulae such that one was an integer multiple of the other â e.g., acetylene (
3383:
1221:
555:
6501:
6446:
6057:
4722:
O'Driscoll, K.; Amin
Sanayei, R. (July 1991). "Chain-length dependence of the glass transition temperature".
3364:
3360:
3181:
2162:
1830:
1627:
1123:, whereas in step-growth polymerization chains of monomers may combine with one another directly, such as in
312:
4257:
2710:
phase transition (UCST), at which phase separation occurs with cooling, polymer mixtures commonly exhibit a
1948:
5992:
3282:
2269:
2216:
1917:
1788:
3602:
pipes has caused many serious floods in domestic properties, especially in the US in the 1990s. Traces of
1002:
atoms. A simple example is polyethylene ('polythene' in
British English), whose repeat unit or monomer is
5292:
Duarte, F. J. (1999). "Multiple-prism grating solid-state dye laser oscillator: optimized architecture".
4996:
3895:
3590:
polymer components can cause serious accidents, such as fire in the case of cracked and degraded polymer
3423:
3397:
3204:
2923:
2731:
2602:
2506:
2294:
2278:
strong intermolecular interactions occur when the residues of the repeating units allow the formation of
2047:
2043:
1314:
721:
342:
137:
132:
110:
17:
4283:
2494:
2293:. Crystallinity and superstructure are always dependent on the conditions of their formation, see also:
2193:
6625:
6615:
6515:
6237:
6146:
3890:
3550:
The degradation of polyethylene occurs by random scissionâa random breakage of the bonds that hold the
2395:. For example, the structure of a crystalline protein or polynucleotide, such as a sample prepared for
1461:
1363:
1112:
1061:
944:
337:
166:
6605:
6186:
6161:
3697:
Polymers have been essential components of commodities since the early days of humankind. The use of
3563:
3243:
2939:
2837:
1325:. These features play a major role in determining the physical and chemical properties of a polymer.
968:
548:
90:
5119:
2072:
centers in neighboring structural units within a macromolecule. There are three types of tacticity:
6356:
6110:
6100:
5956:
5868:
5864:
5848:
3351:
2895:
1675:
1472:
1205:
305:
31:
3757:
which considered them as colloidal aggregates of small molecules held together by unknown forces.
3371:, can used to determine the number-average molecular weight, weight-average molecular weight, and
2609:, semi-crystalline and amorphous). Crystallization occurs above the glass-transition temperature (
1926:
6202:
4441:
4187:
3754:
3379:
3368:
3008:
2866:
2360:
2338:
2318:
1655:
1116:
580:
407:
402:
176:
4601:
828:
5078:
3910:
3158:
2366:
1379:
759:
288:
2679:
Phase diagram of the typical mixing behavior of weakly interacting polymer solutions, showing
6253:
6232:
6166:
4209:
4037:
3920:
3054:
2841:
2760:
between conventional molecules. Different side groups on the polymer can lend the polymer to
2454:
2396:
2314:
2069:
1935:
1663:
1596:
1213:
1147:
502:
322:
317:
5634:
5240:
Capponi, S.; Alvarez, F.; Racko, D. (2020), "Free Volume in a PVME PolymerâWater
Solution",
5070:
4593:
4357:
3520:
is employed in hydrolysable stitches that slowly degrade after they are applied to a wound.
1957:
6620:
6222:
5997:
5301:
5249:
4809:
4764:
4731:
4353:
4241:
3900:
3667:, and in one accident, a fractured fuel line led to a spillage of diesel into the road. If
3615:
3544:
3438:
is used to characterize the flow and deformation behavior. It can be used to determine the
3268:
2903:
2564:. As the temperature increases, both amorphous and semicrystalline polymers go through the
2490:
2182:
2178:
2170:
1764:
1737:
1613:
1450:
1322:
1201:
778:
697:
171:
65:
3493:. This change in properties is often the result of bond breaking in the polymer backbone (
3058:
2699:
materials. This effect results from the fact that the driving force for mixing is usually
995:, and many more. More than 330 million tons of these polymers are made every year (2015).
758:
have been the primary focus of polymer science. An emerging important area now focuses on
8:
6176:
6156:
6141:
6090:
4712:
Introduction to
Polymer Science and Chemistry: A Problem-Solving Approach By Manas Chanda
4391:"Chiral 480nm absorption in the hemoglycin space polymer: a possible link to replication"
4170:) â Berzelius called the multiple formula "polymeric". See: Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1833) "
3905:
3880:
3562:
The sorting of polymer waste for recycling purposes may be facilitated by the use of the
3456:
2962:
2958:
2882:
2813:
2517:
1874:
1643:
1031:
1015:
781:
is an example of a synthetic polymer. In biological contexts, essentially all biological
512:
80:
5305:
5253:
5014:
4813:
4768:
4735:
4245:
3633:. One of the oldest known failure modes is ozone cracking caused by chain scission when
2848:
used to dope the polymer matrix. These type of lasers, that also belong to the class of
2642:) is a crucial physical parameter for polymer manufacturing, processing, and use. Below
1734:(resistance to flow) in the melt. The influence of the weight-average molecular weight (
1378:), is usually regarded as a homopolymer because only one type of repeat unit is formed.
6565:
6553:
6323:
6313:
6151:
6062:
5787:
5740:
5682:
5577:
5455:
5275:
5215:
4960:
4594:
4417:
4395:
4390:
4371:
3870:
3804:
3730:
3408:
3387:
3212:
3200:
3027:
3012:
2966:
2486:
2413:
2329:
2263:
with periodic structure, low branching and stereoregularity (e. g. not atactic) have a
1573:
1138:
960:
840:
642:
475:
458:
417:
241:
3749:
had started using it as a material to make balls, waterproof textiles and containers.
1590:
1048:
6610:
6484:
6431:
6396:
6303:
6227:
5813:
5794:
5771:
5747:
5717:
5686:
5616:
5581:
5569:
5525:
5490:
5447:
5343:
5317:
5279:
5171:
5146:
5109:
5082:
5071:
5037:
4964:
4952:
4944:
4821:
4780:
4675:
4605:
4542:
4490:
4422:
4318:
4222:
4129:
4104:
3957:
3885:
3855:
3832:
3789:
3769:
3742:
3611:
3540:
3517:
3512:. Degradation can also be useful in biomedical settings. For example, a copolymer of
3119:
3062:
3031:
2927:
2870:
2351:
1726:), which is commonly used to express the width of the molecular weight distribution.
1375:
1277:
1155:
1065:
988:
984:
862:
748:
736:
709:
701:
662:
468:
432:
251:
246:
5459:
5219:
5193:"Definitions of terms relating to crystalline polymers (IUPAC Recommendations 2011)"
4375:
4013:
3984:
1996:
formed by free-radical chain-growth polymerization. A step-growth copolymer such as
6541:
6401:
6293:
6273:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6115:
6095:
6052:
6017:
5987:
5709:
5672:
5608:
5559:
5517:
5482:
5437:
5385:
5309:
5265:
5257:
5207:
4936:
4882:
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4772:
4739:
4412:
4404:
4361:
4295:
4249:
4017:
4008:
3988:
3979:
3949:
3676:
3556:
3429:
3219:
3185:
3108:
3085:
3035:
3023:
2825:
2816:. As a result, they typically have lower melting temperatures than other polymers.
2765:
2664:
2632:
2565:
2521:
2470:
2290:
2264:
1993:
1679:
1659:
1318:
1209:
1128:
964:
612:
422:
392:
332:
147:
3827:
have been awarded in the area of polymer science, excluding those for research on
6426:
6381:
6047:
5964:
5856:
5261:
3761:
3718:
3692:
3664:
3587:
3513:
3443:
3320:
suffix even though the double bond is removed during the polymerization process:
3131:
3112:
2853:
2532:
2498:
2417:
2392:
2166:
2065:
1962:
1940:
1564:
1496:
1492:
1371:
1256:, and rubber were familiar materials for years before synthetic polymers such as
1077:
1023:
908:
have been used for centuries. A variety of other natural polymers exist, such as
881:
740:
732:
717:
713:
495:
437:
387:
214:
3338:
However, IUPAC structure based nomenclature is based on naming of the preferred
6529:
6489:
6436:
6318:
6207:
4874:
4446:
4408:
4063:
3734:
3646:
3642:
3630:
3536:
3524:
3501:
3494:
3372:
2997:
2993:
2970:
2696:
2438:
2345:
2018:
1647:
1512:
1383:
1309:
1273:
1197:
1193:
1185:
1057:
1043:
1019:
843:, who spent the next decade finding experimental evidence for this hypothesis.
810:
790:
694:
690:
682:
584:
529:
382:
125:
5713:
5521:
4776:
3679:
road surface will suffer damage as a result of the diesel fuel dissolving the
793:âare purely polymeric, or are composed in large part of polymeric components.
6599:
6361:
6343:
6328:
6308:
6212:
6181:
6012:
5721:
5677:
5660:
5620:
5612:
5573:
5564:
5547:
5529:
5451:
5442:
5425:
5211:
4948:
4299:
4085:
4012:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
3983:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
3915:
3391:
3147:
2878:
2874:
2849:
2821:
2784:
2761:
2723:
2719:
2310:
2279:
2233:
2022:
1639:
1635:
1480:
1342:, while a polymer containing two or more types of repeat units is known as a
952:
782:
755:
650:
427:
236:
231:
209:
5390:
5373:
4940:
4887:
4800:
Edwards, S. F. (1967). "The statistical mechanics of polymerized material".
4058:
4033:
4021:
3992:
3831:. This further testifies to its impact on modern science and technology. As
2412:
The space occupied by a polymer molecule is generally expressed in terms of
1555:
1433:
575:
6589:
6577:
6298:
6120:
6022:
5925:
5494:
5335:
5321:
4956:
4426:
3961:
3649:. They possess double bonds in their repeat units which are cleaved during
3599:
3595:
3331:
3223:
3143:
3135:
3127:
3077:
2989:
2974:
2907:
2102:
2081:
1631:
1523:
1177:
1132:
1131:, in which low-molar-mass by-product is formed in every reaction step, and
948:
857:
786:
763:
519:
463:
412:
397:
221:
204:
5410:
2649:, molecular motions are frozen and polymers are brittle and glassy. Above
2242:
2093:
6418:
6136:
6105:
6085:
6032:
5313:
5066:
3845:
3668:
3539:. Carbon based polymers are more susceptible to thermal degradation than
3500:
Although such changes are frequently undesirable, in some cases, such as
3497:) which may occur at the chain ends or at random positions in the chain.
3339:
3229:
3104:
2978:
2727:
2657:
2421:
2356:
1905:
1546:
1465:
1444:
1355:
1335:
1265:
1189:
1120:
1105:
1007:
956:
774:
666:
654:
534:
480:
268:
256:
48:
5486:
5270:
4743:
3621:
3325:
2714:
phase transition (LCST), at which phase separation occurs with heating.
2579:
do not exhibit other phase transitions, though semicrystalline polymers
2501:
describes a complex time-dependent elastic response, which will exhibit
1529:
While branched and unbranched polymers are usually thermoplastics, many
1415:
751:. Historically, products arising from the linkage of repeating units by
6333:
6171:
6007:
5910:
4366:
4339:
3850:
3828:
3737:) reached Europe in the 16th century from South America long after the
3680:
3650:
3528:
3432:
is a useful technique to evaluate the thermal stability of the polymer.
3208:
3189:
3162:
3139:
3081:
3050:
3016:
2982:
2502:
2475:
1719:
1579:
1534:
1503:, when the fraction of ionizable units is large or small respectively.
1406:
1387:
1293:
1289:
1257:
1217:
1167:
928:
924:
920:
744:
670:
377:
357:
199:
6524:
4253:
3953:
2198:
Polyethylene: zigzag conformation of molecules in close packed chains
2137:
2111:
6391:
6217:
6002:
5475:
Journal of
Biomedical Materials Research Part B: Applied Biomaterials
4758:
3781:
3773:
3765:
3722:
3714:
3672:
3660:
3638:
3591:
3509:
3505:
3439:
3166:
3089:
3066:
2947:
2943:
2935:
2845:
2797:
2789:
2528:
2527:
The movement of individual macromolecules occurs by a process called
2306:
2228:
2161:
In the solid state, atactic polymers, polymers with a high degree of
2073:
2059:
1891:
1878:
1782:
1731:
1651:
1583:
1530:
1344:
1285:
1269:
1151:
1124:
932:
909:
705:
352:
283:
273:
226:
70:
5596:
3547:
and are therefore not ideal for most high-temperature applications.
3473:
Polymer degradation is a change in the propertiesâtensile strength,
2046:. Alternating, periodic and block copolymers are simple examples of
1308:
of a polymer is the identity of its constituent monomers. Next, the
796:
27:
Substance composed of macromolecules with repeating structural units
6560:
5867:
external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into
4879:
IUPAC Compendium of
Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book")
4180:
Jahres-Bericht ĂŒber die Fortschitte der physischen Wissenschaften âŠ
3865:
3793:
3777:
3654:
3607:
3603:
3578:
3486:
3435:
3093:
3046:
2915:
2780:
2692:
2680:
2449:
2400:
1997:
1454:
1003:
992:
976:
972:
752:
646:
507:
485:
347:
2474:
general, tensile strength increases with polymer chain length and
2006:
have more than two species of monomer units in a regular sequence.
1873:). This is a result of the increase in chain interactions such as
6408:
6386:
6366:
3702:
3490:
3466:
3296:
3170:
3123:
3042:
2919:
2911:
2700:
2684:
2675:
2247:
2077:
1989:
1618:
1500:
1476:
1367:
1359:
1261:
1233:
1229:
889:
725:
686:
678:
658:
5426:"A brief guide to polymer nomenclature (IUPAC Technical Report)"
3461:
2211:
1781:) depends on whether the polymer is above or below the onset of
1172:
1014:
is also commonly present in polymer backbones, such as those of
869:
Polymers are of two types: naturally occurring and synthetic or
6376:
6371:
5977:
5601:
Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft (A and B Series)
5032:
Allcock, Harry R.; Lampe, Frederick W.; Mark, James E. (2003).
4389:
McGeogh, Julie E. M.; McGeogh, Malcolm W. (28 September 2022).
4313:
Allcock, Harry R.; Lampe, Frederick W.; Mark, James E. (2003).
3746:
3738:
3706:
3469:
of the material (compared with replacement item in foreground).
3313:
3174:
3154:
3100:
3001:
2809:
2805:
2772:
2283:
1281:
1253:
1249:
1237:
1225:
1011:
999:
905:
770:
524:
2372:
Semi-crystalline thermoplastic elastomer under tensile stress
2146:
633:
579:
Appearance of real linear polymer chains as recorded using an
6351:
5972:
3785:
3726:
3710:
3634:
3482:
3474:
3247:
2776:
2236:
2174:
1704:) are most commonly reported. The ratio of these two values (
1111:
Synthetic methods are generally divided into two categories,
980:
893:
836:
767:
4442:"Polymers in meteorites provide clues to early solar system"
587:
for this polymer is ~204 nm; thickness is ~0.4 nm.
5423:
4881:. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 2014.
3698:
3551:
3478:
3404:
3193:
3073:
2951:
2793:
2202:
1352:
is a copolymer which contains three types of repeat units.
901:
897:
885:
490:
278:
152:
4984:
3. Auflage, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim 2014, S. 295f (in German).
4721:
3288:
Poly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyloxycarbonyl-1,4-phenylenecarbonyl)
2272:, often with a diameter in the range of 0.05 to 1 mm.
1674:
A common means of expressing the length of a chain is the
1216:
that information to synthesize the specified protein from
621:
5982:
5508:
Hurley, Paul E. (May 1981). "History of Natural Rubber".
5015:"Types of polymer: Requirements of fibre forming polymer"
2931:
2771:
The intermolecular forces in polymers can be affected by
1362:-based repeat units, and is classified as a homopolymer.
1027:
674:
627:
5472:
5374:"Nomenclature of Regular Single-Strand Organic Polymers"
4128:. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 1.
2840:
and HEMA:MMA are used as matrices in the gain medium of
2631:
All polymers (amorphous or semi-crystalline) go through
2387:
has a somewhat ambiguous usage. In some cases, the term
1457:. The main chain is formed of silicon and oxygen atoms.
5191:
Meille, S.; Allegra, G.; Geil, P.; et al. (2011).
4340:"Polymer amide in the Allende and Murchison meteorites"
4124:
McCrum, N. G.; Buckley, C. P.; Bucknall, C. B. (1997).
1491:
A polymer containing ionizable subunits (e.g., pendant
5165:
4227:"Ask the Historian: The origin of the polymer concept"
1424:
6513:
5510:
Journal of Macromolecular Science: Part A - Chemistry
4763:. Springer Series in Chemical Physics. Vol. 95.
4600:. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p.
4123:
4101:
Fundamentals of polymer science: an introductory text
2583:
undergo crystallization and melting (at temperatures
2560:
semicrystalline polymers, represented as traces from
2505:
in the stress-strain curve when the load is removed.
1833:
1791:
1767:
1740:
1154:. Laboratory synthesis of biopolymers, especially of
4926:
4174:, Unterscheidung von damit analogen VerhÀltnissen" (
3819:
Some memorable milestones in the history of polymers
3800:, fabrics, buttons), crockery and decorative items.
3415:, can be used to determine the chemical composition.
2881:. This has led to many applications in the field of
2865:
Most conventional polymers such as polyethylene are
2663:
Whereas crystallization and melting are first-order
1976:
possess two regularly alternating monomer residues:
1885:
1569:
Semi-crystalline structure of an unbranched polymer
624:
618:
5742:
Polymers: chemistry and physics of modern materials
5239:
5190:
5166:Brandrup, J.; Immergut, E.H.; Grulke, E.A. (1999).
3527:while polyesters are susceptible to degradation by
2391:finds identical usage to that used in conventional
2344:Wide-meshed cross-linked polymer (elastomer) under
1827:, whereas above the entanglement molecular weight,
1243:
912:, which is the main constituent of wood and paper.
630:
615:
5786:
5739:
4221:
2730:. The transition between the states is known as a
1861:
1819:
1773:
1753:
927:) is a space polymer that is the first polymer of
5906:Polymer Chemistry Hypertext, Educational resource
5851:may not follow Knowledge's policies or guidelines
4208:, pages 65â70; the word "polymeriska" appears on
3629:Polymer oxidation has caused accidents involving
1284:. Ways in which polymers can be modified include
1127:. Step-growth polymerization can be divided into
947:, roughly in order of worldwide demand, includes
6597:
5031:
4312:
4103:. Lancaster, Pa.: Technomic Pub. Co. p. 1.
3508:, they may be intended to prevent environmental
2481:
1056:Polymerization is the process of combining many
1052:A classification of the polymerization reactions
5901:How to Analyze Polymers Using X-ray Diffraction
5789:The elements of polymer science and engineering
5145:(2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. pp. 155â6.
5077:(2 ed.). Butterworth-Heinermann. pp.
4992:
4990:
4591:
4178:, distinction from relations analogous to it),
3625:Ozone-induced cracking in natural rubber tubing
2313:); heating cross-linked polymers only leads to
1204:involves multiple enzyme-mediated processes to
5738:Cowie, J. M. G. (John McKenzie Grant) (1991).
5036:(3 ed.). Pearson Education. p. 546.
4388:
4337:
4288:Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft
4099:Painter, Paul C.; Coleman, Michael M. (1997).
4098:
3582:Chlorine attack of acetal resin plumbing joint
2957:Electronic and photonic technologies: organic
2726:condition), the polymer behaves like an ideal
2543:
5941:
5770:(2nd ed.). London; New York: Macmillan.
5334:
5003:3. Auflage, Carl Hanser, MĂŒnchen 2011, S. 84.
4592:Rubinstein, Michael; Colby, Ralph H. (2003).
4317:(3 ed.). Pearson Education. p. 21.
2869:, but the development of polymers containing
2334:Wide-meshed cross-linked polymer (elastomer)
2017:. For example, the chain-growth copolymer of
1280:by heating natural rubber in the presence of
1184:There are three main classes of biopolymers:
827: 'part'. The term was coined in 1833 by
556:
5955:
5101:
4987:
4976:
4974:
4206:Ă
rsberÀttelse om Framstegen i Fysik och Kemi
3814:
3236:
2737:
2691:In general, polymeric mixtures are far less
1328:
773:is an example of a natural polymer, and the
4860:
4858:
4856:
4433:
4382:
3939:
3861:Important publications in polymer chemistry
1988:. An example is the equimolar copolymer of
1785:. Below the entanglement molecular weight,
6031:
5948:
5934:
5594:
5108:. Cambridge University Press. p. 41.
5065:
4846:
4844:
4842:
4840:
4756:
4674:. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
4281:
3394:, polymeric micelles, and other materials.
3330:
3022:Construction and structural applications:
2775:in the monomer units. Polymers containing
2742:Inclusion of plasticizers tends to lower T
1386:such as DNA are composed of four types of
1366:, even though produced from two different
649:that consists of very large molecules, or
563:
549:
5887:Learn how and when to remove this message
5810:Environmental Stress Cracking of Plastics
5676:
5563:
5441:
5407:"Macromolecular Nomenclature Note No. 18"
5389:
5269:
4971:
4886:
4760:The Mesoscopic Theory of Polymer Dynamics
4669:
4416:
4365:
2493:of the polymer. It is defined, for small
2084:(alternating placement of substituents).
583:on a surface, under liquid medium. Chain
158:Nitroxide-mediated radical polymerization
5362:CAS: Index Guide, Appendix IV ((c) 1998)
4853:
4487:Introduction to physical polymer science
4485:Sperling, L. H. (Leslie Howard) (2006).
4484:
4331:
3968:
3942:Journal of the American Chemical Society
3620:
3577:
3460:
3386:, are used to determine the dimensions (
2860:
2674:
2547:
2448:
2444:
2080:(random placement of substituents), and
1617:
1397:
1171:
1137:
1047:
856:
795:
574:
5702:Chemical & Engineering News Archive
5658:
5545:
4837:
4799:
4338:McGeoch, J.E.M.; McGeoch, M.W. (2015).
3997:
3413:nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
3405:Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
2603:crystallization and melting transitions
2512:
1862:{\displaystyle \eta \sim {M_{w}}^{3.4}}
1607:
1161:
75:
14:
6598:
5807:
5507:
5291:
4587:
4585:
2902:Clothing, sportswear and accessories:
2754:
2305:Wide-meshed cross-linked polymers are
1399:Homopolymers and copolymers (examples)
800:Cartoon schematic of polymer molecules
731:Polymers are studied in the fields of
5929:
5784:
5737:
5700:"Lord Todd: the state of chemistry".
5541:
5539:
5371:
5285:
5140:
5102:Meyers, M. A.; Chawla, K. K. (1999).
5012:
4645:
4536:
4530:
4439:
2873:has led to a wealth of polymer-based
2831:
2616:) and below the melting temperature (
2407:
2359:as "crosslinking sites": one type of
2076:(all substituents on the same side),
1820:{\displaystyle \eta \sim {M_{w}}^{1}}
1248:Naturally occurring polymers such as
6472:
5831:
5760:
4902:
4828:
4627:
4489:. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. p. 10.
3316:is called polyethene, retaining the
3144:controlled drug delivery and release
2635:. The glass-transition temperature (
1208:genetic information from the DNA to
1158:, is an area of intensive research.
1088:âOH) but the repeating unit is âOCâC
809:The term "polymer" derives from
657:derived from one or more species of
6496:
5635:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1953"
4802:Proceedings of the Physical Society
4688:
4672:Scaling concepts in polymer physics
4582:
4345:Meteoritics & Planetary Science
4117:
3403:Spectroscopy techniques, including
3345:
2712:lower critical solution temperature
2708:upper critical solution temperature
2626:
2464:
2383:When applied to polymers, the term
85:
24:
5536:
5170:(4 ed.). Wiley-Interscience.
4539:An introduction to polymer physics
4092:
4009:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
3980:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
3573:
3291:Poly(oxyethyleneoxyterephthaloyl)
2670:
1432:
1423:
1414:
1405:
865:chain, from a molecular simulation
846:
685:of many small molecules, known as
47:
25:
6637:
5921:Glossary of Polymer Abbreviations
5827:
5659:Feldman, Dorel (1 January 2008).
5404:
4670:De Gennes, Pierre Gilles (1979).
4202:, several) for these substances.)
4126:Principles of polymer engineering
4034:"Polymer â Definition of polymer"
3570:to identify the type of plastic.
3419:Differential scanning calorimetry
3153:Personal hygiene and healthcare:
2852:, are known to yield very narrow
2562:differential scanning calorimetry
2538:
2151:Interlocking of several polymers
2064:Tacticity describes the relative
1886:Monomer arrangement in copolymers
1551:Linear, unbranched macromolecule
1506:
1010:and waterproof plumbing sealant.
749:materials science and engineering
143:Controlled radical polymerization
6583:
6571:
6559:
6547:
6535:
6523:
6495:
6483:
6471:
6460:
6459:
5836:
5143:Polymer Science & Technology
5105:Mechanical Behavior of Materials
5001:Kunststoffchemie fĂŒr Ingenieure.
4014:macromolecule (polymer molecule)
3568:Society of the Plastics Industry
3324:
2378:
2365:
2350:
2337:
2328:
2241:
2227:
2210:
2201:
2192:
2145:
2136:
2110:
2101:
2092:
1956:
1947:
1934:
1925:
1916:
1589:
1572:
1563:
1554:
1545:
1244:Modification of natural polymers
1176:Microstructure of part of a DNA
915:
611:
5731:
5693:
5652:
5627:
5595:Staudinger, H. (12 June 1920).
5588:
5546:Feldman, Dorel (January 2008).
5501:
5466:
5417:
5398:
5365:
5356:
5342:. New York: Elsevier Academic.
5328:
5233:
5184:
5159:
5134:
5095:
5059:
5050:
5025:
5006:
4920:
4911:
4867:
4793:
4750:
4715:
4706:
4697:
4663:
4654:
4636:
4618:
4573:
4564:
4555:
4521:
4512:
4503:
4478:
4461:
4306:
4275:
4215:
3594:. Chlorine-induced cracking of
3378:Scattering techniques, such as
2888:
2453:A polyethylene sample that has
1695:weight-average molecular weight
1684:number-average molecular weight
1669:
820: 'many, much' and
653:, that are constituted by many
5665:Designed Monomers and Polymers
5552:Designed Monomers and Polymers
5034:Contemporary Polymer Chemistry
4541:. Cambridge University Press.
4315:Contemporary Polymer Chemistry
4142:
4078:
4051:
4026:
3933:
3485:, and the presence of certain
3450:
3384:small-angle neutron scattering
3041:Paints, glues and lubricants:
785:âi.e., proteins (polyamides),
762:formed by non-covalent links.
13:
1:
6058:Spontaneous symmetry breaking
5708:(40): 28â33. 6 October 1980.
4286:[On polymerization].
4234:Journal of Chemical Education
3927:
3365:gel permeation chromatography
3361:Size-exclusion chromatography
3340:constitutional repeating unit
3182:personal protective equipment
2482:Young's modulus of elasticity
2427:
2309:and cannot be molten (unlike
2253:, red dotted: hydrogen bonds
2124:
1595:Highly cross-linked polymer (
106:FloryâHuggins solution theory
5262:10.1021/acs.macromol.0c00472
3283:Poly(ethylene terephthalate)
2324:
2223:
2188:
2132:
2088:
2053:
2048:sequence-controlled polymers
1541:
1475:: The repeat units based on
1394:
1302:
1037:
938:
804:
7:
4469:"World Plastics Production"
3896:Sequence-controlled polymer
3838:
3424:dynamic mechanical analysis
3398:Wide-angle X-ray scattering
2544:Crystallization and melting
2507:Dynamic mechanical analysis
2295:crystallization of polymers
2207:Lamella with tie molecules
2165:and random copolymers form
2044:sequence-controlled polymer
2036:Graft or grafted copolymers
882:Natural polymeric materials
689:. Their consequently large
172:Condensation polymerization
138:Free-radical polymerization
133:Chain-growth polymerization
10:
6642:
6238:Spin gapless semiconductor
6147:Nearly free electron model
5761:Hall, Christopher (1989).
5430:Pure and Applied Chemistry
5200:Pure and Applied Chemistry
5013:Sayed, Abu (August 2014).
4822:10.1088/0370-1328/92/1/303
4757:Pokrovskii, V. N. (2010).
4409:10.1038/s41598-022-21043-4
3891:Reactive compatibilization
3690:
3686:
3564:resin identification codes
3454:
3367:), sometimes coupled with
3349:
2988:Packaging and containers:
2326:
2171:freely-jointed-chain model
2142:Randomly oriented polymer
2057:
1889:
1611:
1510:
1462:polyethylene terephthalate
1364:Polyethylene terephthalate
1165:
1113:step-growth polymerization
1041:
945:list of synthetic polymers
876:
850:
167:Step-growth polymerization
29:
6455:
6417:
6342:
6286:
6246:
6195:
6187:Density functional theory
6162:electronic band structure
6129:
6078:
6071:
6040:
6029:
5963:
5808:Wright, David C. (2001).
5714:10.1021/cen-v058n040.p028
5522:10.1080/00222338108056785
4777:10.1007/978-90-481-2231-8
3829:biological macromolecules
3531:. Polymers containing an
3244:American Chemical Society
3237:Standardized nomenclature
3199:Separation technologies:
2738:Inclusion of plasticizers
1933:
1875:van der Waals attractions
1761:) on the melt viscosity (
1622:Branch point in a polymer
1329:Monomers and repeat units
969:phenol formaldehyde resin
835:distinct from the modern
716:, and a tendency to form
6357:Bogoliubov quasiparticle
6101:Quantum spin Hall effect
5993:BoseâEinstein condensate
5957:Condensed matter physics
5916:Introduction to Polymers
5678:10.1163/156855508X292383
5613:10.1002/cber.19200530627
5565:10.1163/156855508X292383
5443:10.1351/PAC-REP-12-03-05
5212:10.1351/PAC-REC-10-11-13
4537:Bower, David I. (2002).
4300:10.1002/cber.19200530627
3637:gas attacks susceptible
3352:Polymer characterization
3148:matrices for cell growth
2959:field effect transistors
2319:Thermoplastic elastomers
1676:degree of polymerization
1656:two-dimensional polymers
1473:styrene-butadiene rubber
32:Polymer (disambiguation)
5391:10.1351/pac197648030373
5141:Fried, Joel R. (2003).
5069:; Jones, David (1996).
4982:Makromolekulare Chemie.
4941:10.1126/science.1238149
4888:10.1351/goldbook.P04494
4358:2015M&PS...50.1971M
4086:"Polymer on Britannica"
4022:10.1351/goldbook.M03667
3993:10.1351/goldbook.P04735
3380:static light scattering
3369:static light scattering
3159:superabsorbent polymers
2732:coilâglobule transition
2552:Thermal transitions in
2361:thermoplastic elastomer
2116:Atactic (i. e. random)
1560:Branched macromolecule
1146:Newer methods, such as
789:(polynucleotides), and
760:supramolecular polymers
724:structures rather than
581:atomic force microscope
177:Addition polymerization
111:Coilâglobule transition
5785:Rudin, Alfred (1982).
4440:Staff (29 June 2021).
4282:Staudinger, H (1920).
3911:Supramolecular polymer
3820:
3626:
3583:
3470:
3118:Medical applications:
3055:anti-graffiti coatings
2842:solid-state dye lasers
2688:
2598:
2575:). Amorphous polymers
2458:
2303:Cross-linked polymers:
2010:Statistical copolymers
1974:Alternating copolymers
1953:Alternating copolymer
1863:
1821:
1775:
1755:
1623:
1437:
1428:
1419:
1410:
1380:Ethylene-vinyl acetate
1181:
1143:
1053:
866:
801:
602:
588:
289:Self-healing hydrogels
52:
6233:Topological insulator
6167:Anderson localization
5597:"Ăber Polymerisation"
5413:on 25 September 2003.
5073:Engineering Materials
4651:Rubinstein, pp. 23â24
4284:"Ăber Polymerisation"
3921:Thermosetting polymer
3818:
3624:
3581:
3535:backbone degrade via
3464:
2971:television components
2963:light emitting diodes
2867:electrical insulators
2861:Electrical properties
2802:dipole-dipole bonding
2678:
2551:
2452:
2445:Mechanical properties
2397:x-ray crystallography
2032:triblock terpolymers.
1864:
1822:
1776:
1774:{\displaystyle \eta }
1756:
1754:{\displaystyle M_{w}}
1664:living polymerization
1621:
1436:
1427:
1418:
1409:
1323:microphase separation
1276:and the formation of
1220:. The protein may be
1202:synthesis of proteins
1175:
1148:plasma polymerization
1141:
1051:
860:
799:
597:
578:
503:Cookware and bakeware
455:Industrial production
323:X-ray crystallography
51:
6111:AharonovâBohm effect
5998:Fermionic condensate
5857:improve this article
5746:. Glasgow: Blackie.
5340:Tunable Laser Optics
5314:10.1364/AO.38.006347
4875:"Periodic copolymer"
4064:Dictionary Reference
3901:Shape-memory polymer
3616:stress concentration
3598:plumbing joints and
3545:polydimethylsiloxane
3269:Poly(ethylene oxide)
3059:antifouling coatings
2814:Van der Waals forces
2788:polymers containing
2518:Transport properties
2513:Transport properties
2435:intensive properties
2282:, as in the case of
2159:Disordered polymers:
1831:
1789:
1765:
1738:
1644:dendronized polymers
1614:Polymer architecture
1608:Polymer architecture
1451:polydimethylsiloxane
1358:is composed only of
1162:Biological synthesis
1117:chain polymerization
1108:or monomer residue.
1032:phosphodiester bonds
829:Jöns Jacob Berzelius
30:For other uses, see
6502:Physics WikiProject
6177:tight binding model
6157:Fermi liquid theory
6142:Free electron model
6091:Quantum Hall effect
6072:Electrons in solids
5869:footnote references
5487:10.1002/jbm.b.33502
5306:1999ApOpt..38.6347D
5254:2020MaMol..53.4770C
4814:1967PPS....92....9E
4769:2010mtpd.book.....P
4744:10.1021/ma00015a038
4736:1991MaMol..24.4479O
4246:2008JChEd..85..624J
4088:. 25 December 2023.
4038:The Free Dictionary
3948:(45): 15688â15689.
3881:Polymer engineering
3675:. Furthermore, the
3457:Polymer degradation
3213:ion-exchange resins
3205:fuel cell membranes
3201:synthetic membranes
3030:windows, flooring,
2883:organic electronics
2755:Chemical properties
2478:of polymer chains.
2004:Periodic copolymers
1931:Gradient copolymer
1654:. There exist also
1064:. The monomers are
1016:polyethylene glycol
923:(previously termed
702:physical properties
476:Protective Coatings
91:MarkâHouwink theory
6063:Critical phenomena
5793:. Academic Press.
5122:on 2 November 2013
4396:Scientific Reports
4367:10.1111/maps.12558
4223:Jensen, William B.
3871:Polymer adsorption
3821:
3805:Hermann Staudinger
3731:"caoutchouc" trees
3663:is susceptible to
3627:
3584:
3541:inorganic polymers
3471:
3409:Raman spectroscopy
3388:radius of gyration
3277:Poly(oxyethylene)
3274:Poly(oxyethylene)
3063:non-stick surfaces
3013:thermal insulation
2952:tents and shelters
2871:Ï-conjugated bonds
2832:Optical properties
2689:
2687:coexistence curves
2599:
2459:
2414:radius of gyration
2408:Chain conformation
1904:symbolize the two
1859:
1817:
1771:
1751:
1624:
1438:
1429:
1420:
1411:
1182:
1144:
1054:
961:polyvinyl chloride
867:
841:Hermann Staudinger
802:
700:, produces unique
663:synthetic plastics
655:repeating subunits
589:
53:
6626:Materials science
6616:Polymer chemistry
6511:
6510:
6397:Exciton-polariton
6282:
6281:
6254:Thermoelectricity
5911:The Macrogalleria
5897:
5896:
5889:
5819:978-1-85957-064-7
5800:978-0-12-601680-2
5777:978-0-333-46379-6
5764:Polymer materials
5753:978-0-412-03121-2
5661:"Polymer History"
5548:"Polymer History"
5436:(10): 2167â2169.
5300:(30): 6347â6349.
5206:(10): 1831â1871.
5177:978-0-471-47936-9
5115:978-0-521-86675-0
5088:978-0-7506-2766-5
5056:Rubinstein, p. 13
5043:978-0-13-065056-6
4935:(6146): 1238149.
4786:978-90-481-2230-1
4730:(15): 4479â4480.
4681:978-0-8014-1203-5
4611:978-0-19-852059-7
4496:978-0-471-70606-9
4352:(12): 1971â1983.
4324:978-0-13-065056-6
4254:10.1021/ed085p624
4135:978-0-19-856526-0
4110:978-1-56676-559-6
3954:10.1021/ja0558239
3886:Polymery (botany)
3856:Inorganic polymer
3790:vulcanised rubber
3566:developed by the
3518:polyglycolic acid
3309:
3308:
3220:polymer banknotes
3186:bulletproof vests
3109:construction sets
3099:Household items:
3086:windscreen wipers
2836:Polymers such as
2695:than mixtures of
2665:phase transitions
2633:glass transitions
2376:
2375:
2257:
2256:
2222:
2221:
2177:, the respective
2155:
2154:
2120:
2119:
1968:
1967:
1922:Random copolymer
1603:
1602:
1493:carboxylic groups
1487:
1486:
1376:terephthalic acid
1278:vulcanized rubber
1212:and subsequently
1066:terephthalic acid
985:polyacrylonitrile
863:styrene-butadiene
833:with a definition
737:polymer chemistry
573:
572:
486:Consumer products
16:(Redirected from
6633:
6606:Organic polymers
6588:
6587:
6586:
6576:
6575:
6574:
6564:
6563:
6552:
6551:
6550:
6540:
6539:
6538:
6528:
6527:
6519:
6499:
6498:
6487:
6475:
6474:
6463:
6462:
6402:Phonon polariton
6294:Amorphous magnet
6274:Electrostriction
6269:Flexoelectricity
6264:Ferroelectricity
6259:Piezoelectricity
6116:Josephson effect
6096:Spin Hall effect
6076:
6075:
6053:Phase transition
6035:
6018:Luttinger liquid
5965:States of matter
5950:
5943:
5936:
5927:
5926:
5892:
5885:
5881:
5878:
5872:
5840:
5839:
5832:
5823:
5804:
5792:
5781:
5769:
5757:
5745:
5726:
5725:
5697:
5691:
5690:
5680:
5656:
5650:
5649:
5647:
5645:
5631:
5625:
5624:
5607:(6): 1073â1085.
5592:
5586:
5585:
5567:
5543:
5534:
5533:
5516:(7): 1279â1287.
5505:
5499:
5498:
5470:
5464:
5463:
5445:
5421:
5415:
5414:
5409:. Archived from
5402:
5396:
5395:
5393:
5369:
5363:
5360:
5354:
5353:
5332:
5326:
5325:
5289:
5283:
5282:
5273:
5248:(XXX): XXXâXXX,
5237:
5231:
5230:
5228:
5226:
5197:
5188:
5182:
5181:
5168:Polymer Handbook
5163:
5157:
5156:
5138:
5132:
5131:
5129:
5127:
5118:. Archived from
5099:
5093:
5092:
5076:
5063:
5057:
5054:
5048:
5047:
5029:
5023:
5022:
5010:
5004:
4994:
4985:
4978:
4969:
4968:
4924:
4918:
4915:
4909:
4906:
4900:
4899:
4897:
4895:
4890:
4871:
4865:
4862:
4851:
4848:
4835:
4832:
4826:
4825:
4797:
4791:
4790:
4754:
4748:
4747:
4719:
4713:
4710:
4704:
4701:
4695:
4694:Rubinstein, p. 5
4692:
4686:
4685:
4667:
4661:
4658:
4652:
4649:
4643:
4640:
4634:
4633:Rubinstein, p. 3
4631:
4625:
4622:
4616:
4615:
4599:
4589:
4580:
4577:
4571:
4568:
4562:
4559:
4553:
4552:
4534:
4528:
4525:
4519:
4516:
4510:
4507:
4501:
4500:
4482:
4476:
4475:
4473:
4465:
4459:
4458:
4456:
4454:
4437:
4431:
4430:
4420:
4386:
4380:
4379:
4369:
4335:
4329:
4328:
4310:
4304:
4303:
4294:(6): 1073â1085.
4279:
4273:
4272:
4270:
4268:
4262:
4256:. Archived from
4231:
4219:
4213:
4169:
4158:
4146:
4140:
4139:
4121:
4115:
4114:
4096:
4090:
4089:
4082:
4076:
4075:
4073:
4071:
4059:"Define polymer"
4055:
4049:
4048:
4046:
4044:
4030:
4024:
4001:
3995:
3972:
3966:
3965:
3937:
3825:six Nobel prizes
3717:) for garments,
3677:asphalt concrete
3612:injection molded
3557:depolymerization
3430:Thermogravimetry
3346:Characterization
3334:
3328:
3254:
3253:
3024:garden furniture
2826:superhydrophobic
2783:groups can form
2766:hydrogen bonding
2627:Glass transition
2597:, respectively).
2566:glass transition
2471:tensile strength
2465:Tensile strength
2369:
2354:
2341:
2332:
2325:
2291:circuit topology
2265:semi-crystalline
2245:
2231:
2224:
2214:
2205:
2196:
2189:
2149:
2140:
2133:
2114:
2105:
2096:
2089:
2029:Block copolymers
2015:random copolymer
1994:maleic anhydride
1987:
1986:
1985:
1960:
1951:
1938:
1929:
1920:
1913:
1912:
1903:
1899:
1868:
1866:
1865:
1860:
1858:
1857:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1826:
1824:
1823:
1818:
1816:
1815:
1810:
1809:
1808:
1780:
1778:
1777:
1772:
1760:
1758:
1757:
1752:
1750:
1749:
1680:molecular weight
1660:glass-transition
1628:branched polymer
1593:
1576:
1567:
1558:
1549:
1542:
1495:) is known as a
1460:The homopolymer
1395:
1319:glass transition
1222:modified further
1129:polycondensation
1024:glycosidic bonds
965:synthetic rubber
735:(which includes
640:
639:
636:
635:
632:
629:
626:
623:
620:
617:
565:
558:
551:
469:Applied coatings
306:Characterization
39:
38:
21:
6641:
6640:
6636:
6635:
6634:
6632:
6631:
6630:
6596:
6595:
6594:
6584:
6582:
6572:
6570:
6558:
6548:
6546:
6536:
6534:
6522:
6514:
6512:
6507:
6451:
6432:Granular matter
6427:Amorphous solid
6413:
6338:
6324:Antiferromagnet
6314:Superparamagnet
6287:Magnetic phases
6278:
6242:
6191:
6152:Bloch's theorem
6125:
6067:
6048:Order parameter
6041:Phase phenomena
6036:
6027:
5959:
5954:
5893:
5882:
5876:
5873:
5854:
5845:This article's
5841:
5837:
5830:
5820:
5801:
5778:
5767:
5754:
5734:
5729:
5699:
5698:
5694:
5657:
5653:
5643:
5641:
5633:
5632:
5628:
5593:
5589:
5544:
5537:
5506:
5502:
5471:
5467:
5422:
5418:
5403:
5399:
5378:Pure Appl. Chem
5370:
5366:
5361:
5357:
5350:
5333:
5329:
5290:
5286:
5238:
5234:
5224:
5222:
5195:
5189:
5185:
5178:
5164:
5160:
5153:
5139:
5135:
5125:
5123:
5116:
5100:
5096:
5089:
5064:
5060:
5055:
5051:
5044:
5030:
5026:
5011:
5007:
4997:Wolfgang Kaiser
4995:
4988:
4979:
4972:
4925:
4921:
4917:Sperling, p. 47
4916:
4912:
4907:
4903:
4893:
4891:
4873:
4872:
4868:
4863:
4854:
4850:Rudin, p. 18â20
4849:
4838:
4833:
4829:
4798:
4794:
4787:
4755:
4751:
4720:
4716:
4711:
4707:
4702:
4698:
4693:
4689:
4682:
4668:
4664:
4659:
4655:
4650:
4646:
4641:
4637:
4632:
4628:
4623:
4619:
4612:
4596:Polymer physics
4590:
4583:
4579:Sperling, p. 30
4578:
4574:
4569:
4565:
4560:
4556:
4549:
4535:
4531:
4527:Sperling, p. 29
4526:
4522:
4518:Sperling, p. 15
4517:
4513:
4509:Sperling, p. 11
4508:
4504:
4497:
4483:
4479:
4471:
4467:
4466:
4462:
4452:
4450:
4438:
4434:
4387:
4383:
4336:
4332:
4325:
4311:
4307:
4280:
4276:
4266:
4264:
4263:on 18 June 2018
4260:
4229:
4220:
4216:
4203:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4159:) and benzene (
4157:
4153:
4149:
4147:
4143:
4136:
4122:
4118:
4111:
4097:
4093:
4084:
4083:
4079:
4069:
4067:
4057:
4056:
4052:
4042:
4040:
4032:
4031:
4027:
4002:
3998:
3973:
3969:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3925:
3906:Solâgel process
3876:Polymer classes
3841:
3695:
3693:Polymer science
3689:
3665:acid hydrolysis
3631:medical devices
3588:safety-critical
3576:
3574:Product failure
3514:polylactic acid
3459:
3453:
3354:
3348:
3299:or Polyamide 6
3239:
3132:surgical suture
2891:
2863:
2834:
2757:
2749:
2745:
2740:
2673:
2671:Mixing behavior
2655:
2648:
2641:
2629:
2622:
2615:
2596:
2589:
2574:
2546:
2541:
2533:viscoelasticity
2515:
2499:Viscoelasticity
2489:quantifies the
2487:Young's modulus
2484:
2467:
2447:
2430:
2418:pervaded volume
2410:
2393:crystallography
2381:
2371:
2370:
2355:
2343:
2342:
2333:
2261:Linear polymers
2246:
2232:
2215:
2206:
2197:
2150:
2141:
2127:
2115:
2106:
2097:
2066:stereochemistry
2062:
2056:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1979:
1977:
1963:Block copolymer
1961:
1952:
1941:Graft copolymer
1939:
1930:
1921:
1901:
1897:
1894:
1888:
1872:
1853:
1846:
1842:
1841:
1840:
1832:
1829:
1828:
1811:
1804:
1800:
1799:
1798:
1790:
1787:
1786:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1745:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1717:
1710:
1703:
1692:
1672:
1648:ladder polymers
1640:polymer brushes
1616:
1610:
1594:
1577:
1568:
1559:
1550:
1515:
1509:
1497:polyelectrolyte
1384:polynucleotides
1372:ethylene glycol
1331:
1315:crystallization
1305:
1299:
1246:
1194:polynucleotides
1186:polysaccharides
1170:
1164:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1078:ethylene glycol
1075:
1071:
1058:small molecules
1046:
1040:
1020:polysaccharides
941:
918:
879:
861:Structure of a
855:
853:Polymer classes
849:
847:Common examples
807:
791:polysaccharides
741:polymer physics
733:polymer science
722:semicrystalline
714:viscoelasticity
614:
610:
603:
596:
569:
540:
539:
451:
443:
442:
373:
365:
364:
308:
298:
297:
215:Polyisobutylene
196:Functional type
192:
182:
181:
128:
118:
117:
61:
42:Polymer science
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6639:
6629:
6628:
6623:
6618:
6613:
6608:
6593:
6592:
6580:
6568:
6556:
6544:
6532:
6509:
6508:
6506:
6505:
6493:
6490:Physics Portal
6481:
6469:
6456:
6453:
6452:
6450:
6449:
6444:
6439:
6437:Liquid crystal
6434:
6429:
6423:
6421:
6415:
6414:
6412:
6411:
6406:
6405:
6404:
6399:
6389:
6384:
6379:
6374:
6369:
6364:
6359:
6354:
6348:
6346:
6344:Quasiparticles
6340:
6339:
6337:
6336:
6331:
6326:
6321:
6316:
6311:
6306:
6304:Superdiamagnet
6301:
6296:
6290:
6288:
6284:
6283:
6280:
6279:
6277:
6276:
6271:
6266:
6261:
6256:
6250:
6248:
6244:
6243:
6241:
6240:
6235:
6230:
6228:Superconductor
6225:
6220:
6215:
6210:
6208:Mott insulator
6205:
6199:
6197:
6193:
6192:
6190:
6189:
6184:
6179:
6174:
6169:
6164:
6159:
6154:
6149:
6144:
6139:
6133:
6131:
6127:
6126:
6124:
6123:
6118:
6113:
6108:
6103:
6098:
6093:
6088:
6082:
6080:
6073:
6069:
6068:
6066:
6065:
6060:
6055:
6050:
6044:
6042:
6038:
6037:
6030:
6028:
6026:
6025:
6020:
6015:
6010:
6005:
6000:
5995:
5990:
5985:
5980:
5975:
5969:
5967:
5961:
5960:
5953:
5952:
5945:
5938:
5930:
5924:
5923:
5918:
5913:
5908:
5903:
5895:
5894:
5849:external links
5844:
5842:
5835:
5829:
5828:External links
5826:
5825:
5824:
5818:
5805:
5799:
5782:
5776:
5758:
5752:
5733:
5730:
5728:
5727:
5692:
5651:
5639:NobelPrize.org
5626:
5587:
5535:
5500:
5481:(2): 237â248.
5465:
5416:
5397:
5384:(3): 373â385.
5372:IUPAC (1976).
5364:
5355:
5349:978-0122226960
5348:
5327:
5294:Applied Optics
5284:
5242:Macromolecules
5232:
5183:
5176:
5158:
5151:
5133:
5114:
5094:
5087:
5067:Ashby, Michael
5058:
5049:
5042:
5024:
5005:
4986:
4970:
4919:
4910:
4908:Painter, p. 15
4901:
4866:
4852:
4836:
4834:Painter, p. 14
4827:
4792:
4785:
4749:
4724:Macromolecules
4714:
4705:
4696:
4687:
4680:
4662:
4660:Painter, p. 22
4653:
4644:
4635:
4626:
4617:
4610:
4581:
4572:
4563:
4554:
4547:
4529:
4520:
4511:
4502:
4495:
4477:
4460:
4447:Science Digest
4432:
4381:
4330:
4323:
4305:
4274:
4240:(5): 624â625.
4214:
4166:
4162:
4155:
4151:
4141:
4134:
4116:
4109:
4091:
4077:
4050:
4025:
3996:
3967:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3768:, Ludersdorf,
3735:natural rubber
3688:
3685:
3647:nitrile rubber
3643:natural rubber
3575:
3572:
3537:ozone cracking
3525:UV degradation
3502:biodegradation
3495:chain scission
3489:, oxygen, and
3455:Main article:
3452:
3449:
3448:
3447:
3433:
3427:
3416:
3401:
3395:
3392:block polymers
3376:
3350:Main article:
3347:
3344:
3336:
3335:
3307:
3306:
3303:
3300:
3293:
3292:
3289:
3286:
3279:
3278:
3275:
3272:
3265:
3264:
3261:
3258:
3238:
3235:
3234:
3233:
3227:
3216:
3197:
3178:
3151:
3136:contact lenses
3116:
3107:, toys (e.g.,
3097:
3070:
3039:
3020:
3005:
2998:food packaging
2986:
2955:
2928:billiard balls
2890:
2887:
2879:polythiophenes
2875:semiconductors
2862:
2859:
2850:organic lasers
2833:
2830:
2785:hydrogen bonds
2756:
2753:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2736:
2697:small molecule
2672:
2669:
2653:
2646:
2639:
2628:
2625:
2620:
2613:
2594:
2587:
2572:
2556:amorphous and
2545:
2542:
2540:
2539:Phase behavior
2537:
2514:
2511:
2483:
2480:
2466:
2463:
2446:
2443:
2439:thermodynamics
2429:
2426:
2409:
2406:
2380:
2377:
2374:
2373:
2363:
2348:
2346:tensile stress
2335:
2323:
2322:
2311:thermoplastics
2299:
2298:
2280:hydrogen bonds
2274:
2273:
2255:
2254:
2239:
2220:
2219:
2208:
2199:
2187:
2186:
2183:Intermolecular
2153:
2152:
2143:
2126:
2123:
2122:
2121:
2118:
2117:
2108:
2099:
2058:Main article:
2055:
2052:
2040:
2039:
2033:
2026:
2019:vinyl chloride
2007:
2001:
1982:
1970:
1969:
1966:
1965:
1954:
1944:
1943:
1932:
1923:
1890:Main article:
1887:
1884:
1870:
1856:
1849:
1845:
1839:
1836:
1814:
1807:
1803:
1797:
1794:
1770:
1748:
1744:
1715:
1708:
1701:
1690:
1671:
1668:
1612:Main article:
1609:
1606:
1605:
1604:
1601:
1600:
1587:
1570:
1561:
1552:
1513:Microstructure
1511:Main article:
1508:
1507:Microstructure
1505:
1489:
1488:
1485:
1484:
1469:
1458:
1447:
1440:
1439:
1430:
1421:
1412:
1402:
1401:
1338:is known as a
1330:
1327:
1310:microstructure
1304:
1301:
1274:nitrocellulose
1245:
1242:
1198:DNA polymerase
1166:Main article:
1163:
1160:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1073:
1069:
1044:Polymerization
1042:Main article:
1039:
1036:
940:
937:
917:
914:
904:, and natural
878:
875:
848:
845:
806:
803:
783:macromolecules
756:chemical bonds
695:small molecule
693:, relative to
691:molecular mass
683:polymerization
651:macromolecules
591:
590:
585:contour length
571:
570:
568:
567:
560:
553:
545:
542:
541:
538:
537:
532:
530:Plastic bottle
527:
522:
517:
516:
515:
513:Food Container
510:
500:
499:
498:
488:
483:
478:
473:
472:
471:
466:
456:
452:
449:
448:
445:
444:
441:
440:
435:
430:
425:
420:
415:
410:
405:
400:
395:
390:
385:
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374:
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362:
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360:
355:
345:
340:
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320:
315:
309:
304:
303:
300:
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296:
295:
294:
293:
292:
291:
276:
271:
266:
262:
261:
260:
259:
254:
249:
244:
237:Vinyl polymers
234:
229:
224:
219:
218:
217:
212:
207:
197:
193:
190:Classification
188:
187:
184:
183:
180:
179:
174:
169:
163:
162:
161:
160:
155:
150:
140:
135:
129:
124:
123:
120:
119:
116:
115:
114:
113:
108:
103:
98:
93:
86:Phase behavior
83:
78:
73:
68:
62:
59:
58:
55:
54:
44:
43:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6638:
6627:
6624:
6622:
6619:
6617:
6614:
6612:
6609:
6607:
6604:
6603:
6601:
6591:
6581:
6579:
6569:
6567:
6562:
6557:
6555:
6545:
6543:
6533:
6531:
6526:
6521:
6520:
6517:
6504:
6503:
6494:
6492:
6491:
6486:
6482:
6480:
6479:
6470:
6468:
6467:
6458:
6457:
6454:
6448:
6445:
6443:
6440:
6438:
6435:
6433:
6430:
6428:
6425:
6424:
6422:
6420:
6416:
6410:
6407:
6403:
6400:
6398:
6395:
6394:
6393:
6390:
6388:
6385:
6383:
6380:
6378:
6375:
6373:
6370:
6368:
6365:
6363:
6360:
6358:
6355:
6353:
6350:
6349:
6347:
6345:
6341:
6335:
6332:
6330:
6327:
6325:
6322:
6320:
6317:
6315:
6312:
6310:
6307:
6305:
6302:
6300:
6297:
6295:
6292:
6291:
6289:
6285:
6275:
6272:
6270:
6267:
6265:
6262:
6260:
6257:
6255:
6252:
6251:
6249:
6245:
6239:
6236:
6234:
6231:
6229:
6226:
6224:
6221:
6219:
6216:
6214:
6213:Semiconductor
6211:
6209:
6206:
6204:
6201:
6200:
6198:
6194:
6188:
6185:
6183:
6182:Hubbard model
6180:
6178:
6175:
6173:
6170:
6168:
6165:
6163:
6160:
6158:
6155:
6153:
6150:
6148:
6145:
6143:
6140:
6138:
6135:
6134:
6132:
6128:
6122:
6119:
6117:
6114:
6112:
6109:
6107:
6104:
6102:
6099:
6097:
6094:
6092:
6089:
6087:
6084:
6083:
6081:
6077:
6074:
6070:
6064:
6061:
6059:
6056:
6054:
6051:
6049:
6046:
6045:
6043:
6039:
6034:
6024:
6021:
6019:
6016:
6014:
6011:
6009:
6006:
6004:
6001:
5999:
5996:
5994:
5991:
5989:
5986:
5984:
5981:
5979:
5976:
5974:
5971:
5970:
5968:
5966:
5962:
5958:
5951:
5946:
5944:
5939:
5937:
5932:
5931:
5928:
5922:
5919:
5917:
5914:
5912:
5909:
5907:
5904:
5902:
5899:
5898:
5891:
5888:
5880:
5870:
5866:
5865:inappropriate
5862:
5858:
5852:
5850:
5843:
5834:
5833:
5821:
5815:
5811:
5806:
5802:
5796:
5791:
5790:
5783:
5779:
5773:
5766:
5765:
5759:
5755:
5749:
5744:
5743:
5736:
5735:
5723:
5719:
5715:
5711:
5707:
5703:
5696:
5688:
5684:
5679:
5674:
5670:
5666:
5662:
5655:
5640:
5636:
5630:
5622:
5618:
5614:
5610:
5606:
5602:
5598:
5591:
5583:
5579:
5575:
5571:
5566:
5561:
5557:
5553:
5549:
5542:
5540:
5531:
5527:
5523:
5519:
5515:
5511:
5504:
5496:
5492:
5488:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5469:
5461:
5457:
5453:
5449:
5444:
5439:
5435:
5431:
5427:
5420:
5412:
5408:
5401:
5392:
5387:
5383:
5379:
5375:
5368:
5359:
5351:
5345:
5341:
5337:
5336:Duarte, F. J.
5331:
5323:
5319:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5303:
5299:
5295:
5288:
5281:
5277:
5272:
5267:
5263:
5259:
5255:
5251:
5247:
5243:
5236:
5221:
5217:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5201:
5194:
5187:
5179:
5173:
5169:
5162:
5154:
5152:0-13-018168-4
5148:
5144:
5137:
5121:
5117:
5111:
5107:
5106:
5098:
5090:
5084:
5080:
5075:
5074:
5068:
5062:
5053:
5045:
5039:
5035:
5028:
5020:
5016:
5009:
5002:
4998:
4993:
4991:
4983:
4980:Bernd Tieke:
4977:
4975:
4966:
4962:
4958:
4954:
4950:
4946:
4942:
4938:
4934:
4930:
4923:
4914:
4905:
4889:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4870:
4864:Cowie, p. 104
4861:
4859:
4857:
4847:
4845:
4843:
4841:
4831:
4823:
4819:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4803:
4796:
4788:
4782:
4778:
4774:
4770:
4766:
4762:
4761:
4753:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4733:
4729:
4725:
4718:
4709:
4703:McCrum, p. 37
4700:
4691:
4683:
4677:
4673:
4666:
4657:
4648:
4642:McCrum, p. 33
4639:
4630:
4624:McCrum, p. 30
4621:
4613:
4607:
4603:
4598:
4597:
4588:
4586:
4576:
4567:
4558:
4550:
4548:9780511801280
4544:
4540:
4533:
4524:
4515:
4506:
4498:
4492:
4488:
4481:
4470:
4464:
4449:
4448:
4443:
4436:
4428:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4410:
4406:
4402:
4398:
4397:
4392:
4385:
4377:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4359:
4355:
4351:
4347:
4346:
4341:
4334:
4326:
4320:
4316:
4309:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4290:(in German).
4289:
4285:
4278:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4228:
4224:
4218:
4211:
4207:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4145:
4137:
4131:
4127:
4120:
4112:
4106:
4102:
4095:
4087:
4081:
4066:
4065:
4060:
4054:
4039:
4035:
4029:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3981:
3976:
3971:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3936:
3932:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3916:Thermoplastic
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3843:
3836:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3806:
3801:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3758:
3756:
3755:Thomas Graham
3750:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3694:
3684:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3623:
3619:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3580:
3571:
3569:
3565:
3560:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3521:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3498:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3434:
3431:
3428:
3425:
3420:
3417:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3399:
3396:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3363:(also called
3362:
3359:
3358:
3357:
3353:
3343:
3341:
3333:
3327:
3323:
3322:
3321:
3319:
3315:
3304:
3301:
3298:
3295:
3294:
3290:
3287:
3284:
3281:
3280:
3276:
3273:
3270:
3267:
3266:
3262:
3259:
3256:
3255:
3252:
3249:
3245:
3231:
3228:
3225:
3224:payment cards
3221:
3217:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3128:rubber gloves
3125:
3121:
3117:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2975:compact discs
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2886:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2858:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2829:
2827:
2823:
2822:self-assembly
2817:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2769:
2767:
2763:
2762:ionic bonding
2752:
2735:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2720:theta solvent
2715:
2713:
2709:
2704:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2686:
2682:
2677:
2668:
2666:
2661:
2659:
2652:
2645:
2638:
2634:
2624:
2619:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2593:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2550:
2536:
2534:
2530:
2525:
2523:
2519:
2510:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2479:
2477:
2472:
2462:
2457:under tension
2456:
2451:
2442:
2440:
2437:according to
2436:
2425:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2405:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2379:Crystallinity
2368:
2364:
2362:
2358:
2353:
2349:
2347:
2340:
2336:
2331:
2327:
2320:
2316:
2315:decomposition
2312:
2308:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2275:
2271:
2266:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2252:
2250:
2244:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2234:polypropylene
2230:
2226:
2225:
2218:
2213:
2209:
2204:
2200:
2195:
2191:
2190:
2184:
2180:
2179:conformations
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2157:
2156:
2148:
2144:
2139:
2135:
2134:
2131:
2113:
2109:
2107:Syndiotactic
2104:
2100:
2095:
2091:
2090:
2087:
2086:
2085:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2061:
2051:
2049:
2045:
2037:
2034:
2030:
2027:
2024:
2023:vinyl acetate
2020:
2016:
2011:
2008:
2005:
2002:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1964:
1959:
1955:
1950:
1946:
1945:
1942:
1937:
1928:
1924:
1919:
1915:
1914:
1911:
1910:
1909:
1907:
1893:
1883:
1880:
1879:entanglements
1876:
1854:
1847:
1843:
1837:
1834:
1812:
1805:
1801:
1795:
1792:
1784:
1783:entanglements
1768:
1746:
1742:
1733:
1727:
1725:
1721:
1714:
1707:
1700:
1696:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1667:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1636:comb polymers
1633:
1632:star polymers
1629:
1620:
1615:
1598:
1592:
1588:
1585:
1581:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1543:
1540:
1539:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1527:
1525:
1521:
1514:
1504:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1482:
1481:1,3-butadiene
1478:
1474:
1470:
1467:
1464:has only one
1463:
1459:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1446:
1442:
1441:
1435:
1431:
1426:
1422:
1417:
1413:
1408:
1404:
1403:
1400:
1396:
1393:
1392:
1391:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1351:
1347:
1346:
1341:
1337:
1326:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1311:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1291:
1290:cross-linking
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1241:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1179:
1174:
1169:
1159:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1140:
1136:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1109:
1107:
1079:
1067:
1063:
1062:PET polyester
1059:
1050:
1045:
1035:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
996:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
953:polypropylene
950:
946:
936:
934:
930:
926:
922:
916:Space polymer
913:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
874:
872:
864:
859:
854:
844:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
819:
815:
812:
798:
794:
792:
788:
787:nucleic acids
784:
780:
776:
772:
769:
765:
761:
757:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
729:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
638:
608:
601:
594:
586:
582:
577:
566:
561:
559:
554:
552:
547:
546:
544:
543:
536:
533:
531:
528:
526:
523:
521:
518:
514:
511:
509:
506:
505:
504:
501:
497:
494:
493:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
470:
467:
465:
462:
461:
460:
457:
454:
453:
447:
446:
439:
436:
434:
431:
429:
426:
424:
421:
419:
416:
414:
411:
409:
406:
404:
401:
399:
396:
394:
391:
389:
386:
384:
381:
379:
376:
375:
369:
368:
359:
356:
354:
351:
350:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
314:
311:
310:
307:
302:
301:
290:
287:
286:
285:
282:
281:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
264:
263:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
239:
238:
235:
233:
232:Polycarbonate
230:
228:
225:
223:
220:
216:
213:
211:
210:Polypropylene
208:
206:
203:
202:
201:
198:
195:
194:
191:
186:
185:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
164:
159:
156:
154:
151:
149:
146:
145:
144:
141:
139:
136:
134:
131:
130:
127:
122:
121:
112:
109:
107:
104:
102:
99:
97:
94:
92:
89:
88:
87:
84:
82:
79:
77:
74:
72:
69:
67:
64:
63:
57:
56:
50:
46:
45:
41:
40:
37:
33:
19:
6500:
6488:
6476:
6464:
6441:
6382:Pines' demon
6121:Kondo effect
6023:Time crystal
5883:
5874:
5859:by removing
5846:
5809:
5788:
5763:
5741:
5732:Bibliography
5705:
5701:
5695:
5668:
5664:
5654:
5642:. Retrieved
5638:
5629:
5604:
5600:
5590:
5555:
5551:
5513:
5509:
5503:
5478:
5474:
5468:
5433:
5429:
5419:
5411:the original
5405:Wilks, E.S.
5400:
5381:
5377:
5367:
5358:
5339:
5330:
5297:
5293:
5287:
5271:10261/218380
5245:
5241:
5235:
5223:. Retrieved
5203:
5199:
5186:
5167:
5161:
5142:
5136:
5124:. Retrieved
5120:the original
5104:
5097:
5072:
5061:
5052:
5033:
5027:
5019:Textile Apex
5018:
5008:
5000:
4981:
4932:
4928:
4922:
4913:
4904:
4892:. Retrieved
4878:
4869:
4830:
4805:
4801:
4795:
4759:
4752:
4727:
4723:
4717:
4708:
4699:
4690:
4671:
4665:
4656:
4647:
4638:
4629:
4620:
4595:
4575:
4566:
4561:Rudin, p. 17
4557:
4538:
4532:
4523:
4514:
4505:
4486:
4480:
4463:
4451:. Retrieved
4445:
4435:
4403:(1): 16198.
4400:
4394:
4384:
4349:
4343:
4333:
4314:
4308:
4291:
4287:
4277:
4265:. Retrieved
4258:the original
4237:
4233:
4217:
4205:
4199:
4195:
4192:polymerische
4191:
4188:From page 64
4183:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4144:
4125:
4119:
4100:
4094:
4080:
4068:. Retrieved
4062:
4053:
4041:. Retrieved
4028:
4007:
3999:
3978:
3970:
3945:
3941:
3935:
3823:Since 1953,
3822:
3810:
3802:
3797:
3792:and, later,
3759:
3751:
3696:
3659:
3628:
3600:polybutylene
3596:acetal resin
3585:
3561:
3549:
3522:
3499:
3472:
3355:
3337:
3317:
3310:
3257:Common name
3240:
3163:toothbrushes
3113:Rubik's cube
3007:Insulation:
2979:photoresists
2908:PVC clothing
2892:
2889:Applications
2864:
2835:
2818:
2770:
2758:
2741:
2716:
2705:
2690:
2662:
2658:plasticizers
2650:
2643:
2636:
2630:
2617:
2610:
2606:
2600:
2591:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2569:
2557:
2553:
2526:
2516:
2485:
2476:crosslinking
2468:
2460:
2431:
2422:ideal chains
2411:
2388:
2384:
2382:
2357:Crystallites
2302:
2284:
2260:
2248:
2158:
2128:
2082:syndiotactic
2063:
2041:
2035:
2028:
2014:
2009:
2003:
1973:
1906:repeat units
1895:
1728:
1723:
1712:
1705:
1698:
1687:
1673:
1670:Chain length
1625:
1580:cross-linked
1528:
1524:alkyl groups
1519:
1516:
1490:
1449:Homopolymer
1443:Homopolymer
1398:
1354:
1349:
1343:
1339:
1332:
1306:
1298:
1247:
1190:polypeptides
1183:
1178:double helix
1145:
1133:polyaddition
1110:
1055:
997:
949:polyethylene
942:
919:
880:
870:
868:
824:
821:
817:
814:
808:
764:Polyisoprene
730:
606:
604:
598:
520:Vinyl record
464:Blow molding
450:Applications
222:Polyurethane
205:Polyethylene
66:Architecture
36:
6621:Soft matter
6566:Electronics
6554:Numismatics
6419:Soft matter
6319:Ferromagnet
6137:Drude model
6106:Berry phase
6086:Hall effect
5671:(1): 1â15.
5558:(1): 1â15.
5225:31 December
5126:31 December
4808:(1): 9â16.
4570:Cowie, p. 4
3846:Ideal chain
3681:asphaltenes
3669:diesel fuel
3586:Failure of
3533:unsaturated
3451:Degradation
3263:IUPAC name
3230:3D printing
3190:space suits
3105:kitchenware
3082:windshields
3072:Car parts:
3051:dispersants
3017:spray foams
2967:solar cells
2965:(OLED) and
2916:sport shoes
2728:random coil
2683:curves and
2522:diffusivity
2389:crystalline
2385:crystalline
2175:solid state
1466:repeat unit
1445:polystyrene
1356:Polystyrene
1340:homopolymer
1336:repeat unit
1294:end-capping
1266:nitric acid
1218:amino acids
1121:polystyrene
1106:repeat unit
1076:âCOOH) and
1008:Silly Putty
957:polystyrene
929:amino acids
775:polystyrene
671:biopolymers
669:to natural
667:polystyrene
535:Plastic bag
481:3D printing
269:Homopolymer
257:Polystyrene
81:Degradation
18:Homopolymer
6600:Categories
6334:Spin glass
6329:Metamagnet
6309:Paramagnet
6196:Conduction
6172:BCS theory
6013:Superfluid
6008:Supersolid
3928:References
3851:Catenation
3719:paper reed
3691:See also:
3651:ozonolysis
3641:, such as
3639:elastomers
3592:fuel lines
3529:hydrolysis
3373:dispersity
3246:(ACS) and
3209:filtration
3180:Security:
3140:prosthesis
3090:fuel tanks
3067:lubricants
3009:electrical
2983:holography
2944:parachutes
2936:snowboards
2896:composites
2877:, such as
2854:linewidths
2798:Polyesters
2796:linkages.
2503:hysteresis
2491:elasticity
2428:Properties
2307:elastomers
2270:spherulite
2217:Spherulite
2125:Morphology
2098:Isotactic
2025:is random.
1720:dispersity
1652:dendrimers
1535:thermosets
1531:elastomers
1471:Copolymer
1390:subunits.
1388:nucleotide
1350:terpolymer
1258:polyethene
1206:transcribe
1180:biopolymer
1168:Biopolymer
933:meteorites
925:hemolithin
921:Hemoglycin
851:See also:
745:biophysics
710:elasticity
704:including
595:definition
496:Whitewalls
418:Staudinger
388:MacDiarmid
372:Scientists
358:Viscometry
200:Polyolefin
76:Morphology
60:Properties
6542:Chemistry
6392:Polariton
6299:Diamagnet
6247:Couplings
6223:Conductor
6218:Semimetal
6203:Insulator
6079:Phenomena
6003:Fermi gas
5877:June 2021
5861:excessive
5812:. RAPRA.
5722:0009-2347
5687:219539020
5621:0365-9488
5582:219539020
5574:1568-5551
5530:0022-233X
5452:0033-4545
5280:219911779
4965:206549042
4949:0036-8075
4453:9 January
4186:: 63â67.
3833:Lord Todd
3803:In 1920,
3782:parkesine
3774:celluloid
3762:Braconnot
3723:cellulose
3715:cellulose
3673:black ice
3510:pollution
3506:recycling
3487:chemicals
3440:viscosity
3260:ACS name
3242:Both the
3167:cosmetics
3120:blood bag
3094:car seats
3047:adhesives
2924:footballs
2904:polyester
2846:laser dye
2529:reptation
2401:angstroms
2173:. In the
2167:amorphous
2163:branching
2074:isotactic
2060:Tacticity
2054:Tacticity
1892:Copolymer
1838:∼
1835:η
1796:∼
1793:η
1769:η
1732:viscosity
1718:) is the
1597:thermoset
1584:elastomer
1582:polymer (
1578:Slightly
1345:copolymer
1303:Structure
1286:oxidation
1270:cellulose
1214:translate
1125:polyester
1038:Synthesis
939:Synthetic
931:found in
910:cellulose
831:, though
805:Etymology
779:styrofoam
718:amorphous
706:toughness
698:compounds
643:substance
459:Extrusion
438:Braconnot
428:Baekeland
408:de Gennes
393:Shirakawa
353:Rheometry
284:Hydrogels
274:Copolymer
265:Structure
227:Polyester
126:Synthesis
71:Tacticity
6611:Polymers
6466:Category
6447:Colloids
5495:26315946
5460:95629051
5338:(2003).
5322:18324163
5220:98823962
4957:23929982
4427:36171277
4376:97089690
4225:(2008).
4176:Isomeric
4172:Isomerie
3962:16277495
3866:Oligomer
3839:See also
3794:Bakelite
3778:galalith
3713:fibres (
3661:Nylon 66
3655:gasoline
3608:extruded
3604:chlorine
3543:such as
3436:Rheology
3124:syringes
2961:(OFET),
2920:wetsuits
2790:urethane
2781:carbonyl
2693:miscible
2681:spinodal
2520:such as
1998:Nylon 66
1455:silicone
1368:monomers
1272:to form
1156:proteins
1152:catalyst
1004:ethylene
993:silicone
977:neoprene
973:Bakelite
884:such as
871:man made
753:covalent
726:crystals
687:monomers
679:proteins
673:such as
665:such as
659:monomers
647:material
508:Bakelite
423:Goodyear
348:Rheology
6530:Science
6516:Portals
6478:Commons
6442:Polymer
6409:Polaron
6387:Plasmon
6367:Exciton
5855:Please
5847:use of
5644:25 June
5302:Bibcode
5250:Bibcode
4929:Science
4894:9 April
4810:Bibcode
4765:Bibcode
4732:Bibcode
4418:9519966
4354:Bibcode
4267:4 March
4242:Bibcode
4210:page 66
4070:23 July
4043:23 July
3985:polymer
3770:Hayward
3703:keratin
3687:History
3491:enzymes
3467:crazing
3444:modulus
3329:→
3297:Nylon 6
3285:or PET
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