4919:, pp. 203-30, where she argues that much of the classical Muslim understanding of the Koran rests on the work of storytellers and that this work is of very dubious historical value. These storytellers contributed to the tradition on the rise of Islam, and this is evident in the steady growth of information: "If one storyteller should happen to mention a raid, the next storyteller would know the date of this raid, while the third would know everything that an audience might wish to hear about it." 53 Then, comparing the accounts of the raid of Kharrar by Ibn Ishaq and al-Waqidi, Crone shows that al-Waqidi, influenced by and in the manner of the storytellers, "will always give precise dates, locations, names, where Ibn Ishaq has none, accounts of what triggered the expedition, miscellaneous information to lend color to the event, as well as reasons why, as was usually the case, no fighting took place."
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Quran. Other sections or fragments of this magnificent manuscript lie scattered in various collections all over the world. A Turkish note ascribes the Quran to the hand of the Caliph Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and thus demonstrates the high significance of this manuscript. The text is written in
Eastern Kufic, a monumental script that was developed in Iran in the late 10th century. The writing and the illumination of the manuscript bear witness to the great artistic skills of the calligrapher and the illustrator. The manuscript is at the Bavarian State Library in Munich, Germany. Out of seven complete or nearly complete semi-Kufic Qurans from before the end of the eleventh century, four contain a verse count. Although a small sample, it does suggest that the use of a verse count was a prevalent and quite deeply rooted practice in semi-Kufic Qurans between ca. 950 and ca. 1100.
2927:. The upper text has exactly the same verses and the same order of suras and verses as the standard Quran. The order of the suras in the lower text of the Sana'a codex is different from the order in the standard Quran. In addition, the lower text exhibits extensive variations from the counterpart text in the standard Quran; such that the lower text represents the only surviving early quranic manuscript that does not conform to the 'Uthmanic tradition. The majority of these variations add words and phrases, so as to emphasize or clarify the standard quranic reading. Some scholars have proposed parallels for these variations in reports of variants in 'companion codices' that were kept by individual companions to the Prophet outside of the mainstream tradition of 'Uthman; but these correspondences are much the minority.
1364:, describes the way in which the final version of the Quran was fixed: "the prophet recited the book before Gabriel every year in the month of Ramadan, and in the month in which he died he recited it before him twice." It is believed that toward the end of Muhammad's life a special act of revelation occurred in which a final and complete version of the Quran was created. The term 'recite', which is used here, is referring to the custom where a Quranic scholar recites the entire Quran from beginning to end a number of times before a senior scholar. According to this tradition the act of recital is being performed by Muhammad, with the angel Gabriel playing the role of superior authority.
2435:, with six. Professor Sean Anthony has discussed the textual history of these two surahs in detail and noted that their presence in mushafs modelled after Ubayy's (and to a lesser extent, certain other companions) is "robustly represented in our earliest and best sources". While we lack material evidence in the form of manuscripts, he notes that many of the Muslim sources make direct material observations of the surahs in such mushafs. The order of suras in Ubayy's codex is said to have differed from that of Uthman's and Ibn Masʿud's as well, although these are structural differences rather than textual variations. The surah order of the lower text of the early seventh century
2182:(685-705 CE). References to the Quran (or "Islam" as a new religion) are absent from seventh-century Christian literature describing the early conquerors coming out of Arabia and their beliefs. For example, when the Emir of the immigrants and Patriarch of the local Christians did have a religious colloquium there was much discussion of the scriptures but no mention of the Quran, which some have taken as an indication that the Quran had not been put into circulation. The Christians reported the Emir was accompanied by "learned Jews", that the immigrants "accepted the Torah just as the Jews and Samaritans", though none of the sources described the immigrants as Jews.
1691:
2080:
codex is faithful has been the prevalent Shia view ever since the Buyids period. Some Shia scholars have thus questioned the authenticity of those traditions that allege textual differences with the
Uthmanid codex, tracing them to the Ghulat, or to early Sunni traditions, while Sunnis have in turn blamed Shias for originating the falsification claims and accused them of espousing such views, often indiscriminately. Other Shia scholars have reinterpreted the traditions that may suggest the alteration of the Quran. For instance, a tradition ascribed to Ali suggests that a fourth of the Quran is about the House of Muhammad, or the
1334:, who also memorized it or wrote it down. Before the Quran was commonly available in written form, speaking it from memory prevailed as the mode of teaching it to others. The practice of memorizing the whole Quran is still practised among Muslims. Millions of people have memorized the entire Quran in Arabic. This fact, taken in the context of 7th-century Arabia, was not an extraordinary feat. People of that time had a penchant for recited poetry and had developed their skills in memorization to a remarkable degree. Events and competitions that featured the recitation of elaborate poetry were of great interest.
2563:
2610:
2622:
shaft with a pronounced right-sided foot, set at a considerable distance from the following letter. Also, unlike the Hijazi scripts, these are often richly illuminated in gold and other colours. Another difference is that sura headings are clearly marked and enclosed in rectangular panels with marginal vignettes or palmettes protruding into the outer margins. These Qurans of the early
Abbasid period were also bound in wooden boards, structured like a box enclosed on all sides with a movable upper cover that was fastened to the rest of the structure with leather thongs.
1311:, which could be translated into a number of ways: 'I do not read' or 'what am I to read/recite?' or 'I will not read/recite'. Gabriel pressed him "until all the strength went out of me; thereupon he released me and said: 'Read!'" This was repeated three times and upon the third, Gabriel released him and said, "Read in the name of the Sustainer who created humankind from a clot! Read! And your Sustainer is the most Beautiful." After this Muhammad continued to have revelations sporadically over a period of twenty-three years, until shortly before his death in 11/632.
1967:, is widely believed to have compiled his own transcript of the Quran. In particular, there are reports that Ali and some other companions of Muhammad collected the verses of the Quran during the lifetime of the prophet, while other reports emphasize that Ali prepared his codex immediately after the death of Muhammad in 632 CE. This latter group of reports may have been fabricated to imply consensus about the caliphate of Abu Bakr, that is, the preoccupation of Ali with his codex in these reports is intended to justify his widely-rumored absence in the
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scripts, which differ greatly from current writing. Economic factors may also have played a part because while the "new style" was being introduced, paper was also beginning to spread throughout the Muslim world, and the decrease in the price of books triggered by the introduction of this new material seems to have led to an increase in its demand. The "new style" was the last script to spread throughout the Muslim world before the introduction of printing. It remained in use until the 13th century, at which point it was restricted to titles only.
2875:
he remembered. Later, he discovered that the only person who had any record of that verse had been killed in the battle of Yamama and as a result the verse was lost. Some of the
Companions recalled that same verse, one person being 'A'isha, Muhammad's youngest wife. She is believed to have said that a sheet on which two verses, including the one on stoning, were under her bedding and that after Muhammad died, a domestic animal got into the room and ate the sheet. Experts on hadith literature have rejected this hadith, as all
2314:
1469:
2792:. Its publication has been called a "terrific success", and the edition has been described as one "now widely seen as the official text of the Qur’an", so popular among both Sunni and Shi'a that the common belief among less well-informed Muslims is "that the Qur’an has a single, unambiguous reading", i.e. that of the 1924 Cairo version. Minor amendments were made later in 1924 and in 1936 – the "Faruq edition" in honour of then ruler,
1605:, during the expedition there were 10,000 Kufan warriors, 6,000 in Azerbaijan and 4,000 at Rayy. A large number of soldiers disagreeing about the correct way of reciting the Quran may have caused Hudhayfah to promote a unified text. An example of the confusion at this time is seen during a campaign in Tabaristan, where one of the soldiers asked Hudhayfah, "How did the Messenger of God pray?" Hudhayfah told him the soldier prayed before fighting.
68:
129:
2380:. It is reported that he learned around seventy suras directly from Muhammad, who appointed him as one of the first teachers of Quranic recitation. Later he was appointed to an administrative post in Kufa by the caliph ʿUmar, where he became a leading authority on the Quran and Sunnah. Some sources suggest that Ibn Masʿud refused to destroy his copy of the Quran or to stop teaching it when the ʿUthmanic codex was made official.
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alterations. Any such alteration also would have been mentioned by Uthman's political opponents and assassins yet none accused him of this. Finally, he argues that if Uthman had altered the Quran, Ali would have restored it to its original state upon the death of Uthman, especially if verses of his rule had been removed. Instead Ali is seen promoting the Quran during his reign, which is evidence that there was no alteration.
2301:, however, expressed reservations about the reliability of the radiocarbon dates proposed for the Birmingham leaves, noting instances elsewhere in which radiocarbon dating had proved inaccurate in testing Qurans with an explicit endowment date. Mustafa Shah has suggested that the grammatical marks and verse separators in the Birmingham leaves are inconsistent with the proposed earlier range of the proposed radiocarbon dates.
2670:(died 118/736), respectively – and three for Kūfa, those of ʿAsim (died 127/744), Ḥamza (died 156/772), and al-Kisaʾi (died 189/804). His attempt to limit the number of canonical readings to seven was not acceptable to all, and there was strong support for alternative readings in most of the five cities. In the present day the most common reading that is in general use is that of 'Aasim al-Kufi through Hafs.
27:
1906:
1537:
1161:
1657:, Uthman's collection of the Quran was metaphorical, not physical. He did not collect the verses and suras in one volume, but in the sense that he united the Muslims on the reading of one authoritative recension. al-Khoei also argues that the one reading on which Uthman united the Muslims was the one in circulation among most Muslims, and that it reached them through uninterrupted transmission from Muhammad.
2219:
2174:, who instead projected the event two centuries after the time of Muhammad. In 1999, Cook and Crone argued that "there is no hard evidence for the existence of the Koran in any form before the last decade of the seventh century." Crone, however, abandoned her earlier views, stating that it is "difficult to doubt" that Muhammad uttered "all or most" of the Qur'an and that this is with "reasonable assurance".
2899:
Quran by Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman occurred significantly after the caliphate was decided, and so if Ali's rule had been mentioned, there would have been no need for the
Muslims to gather to appoint someone. The fact that none of the Companions mentioned this supposed alteration, either at the beginning of the caliphate or after Ali became caliph, is regarded as proof that this alteration did not occur.
1590:(r. 23/644–35/655), about twenty years after the death of Muhammad in 650 CE, though the date is not exact because it was not recorded by early Arab annalists. The Qur'anic canon is the form of the Quran as recited and written in which it is religiously binding for the Muslim community. This canonical corpus is closed and fixed in the sense that nothing in the Quran can be changed or modified.
2021:), among others. Supporting Ali's right to the caliphate after Muhammad, Shia polemists readily cited such reports to charge that explicit references to Ali had been removed by senior companions for political reasons. Yet the accusation that some words and verses were altered or omitted in the Uthmanid codex also appears in the Shia tradition. Among others, such reports can be found in
1349:, and for this reason he would recite the Quranic verses to his Companions for them to memorize. Therefore, it is unknown whether the Quran was ever written and collected during the time of Muhammad. While writing was not a common skill during Muhammad's time, Mecca, being a commercial center, had a number of people who could write. Some scholars believe that several scribes including
1173:
2068:). By contrast, any difference between the two codices is rejected by Sunnis because Ali did not impose his recension during his caliphate, while the Shia counterargument is that Ali deliberately remained silent about this divisive matter. Fearing persecution for themselves and their followers, later Twelver Imams may have also adopted religious dissimulation (
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earliest known scholar to emphasize the importance of Ḥafṣah's codex for the collection of the caliph ʿUthmān's recension – also serves as the authority for the accounts of the destruction of Ḥafṣah's scrolls (ṣuḥuf)." After her death, he reported that Hafsa's brother inherited the manuscripts and allowed Uthman or according to some versions,
2084:, while another fourth is about their enemies. The Uthmanic codex certainly does not meet this description but the inconsistency can be explained by another Shia tradition, which states that the verses of the Quran about the virtuous are primarily directed at the Ahl al-Bayt, while those verses about the evildoers are directed first at their enemies.
2416:, a Medinan Muslim who served as a secretary for Muhammad. It is believed that he may have been more prominent as a Quranic specialist than Ibn Masʿud during Muḥammad's lifetime. There are reports that he was responsible for memorizing certain important revelations on legal matters, which from time to time Muhammad asked him to recite. In a few
1429:"So I started looking for the Holy quran and collected it from (what was written on) palm-leaf stalks, thin white stones, and also from men who knew it by heart, until I found the last verse of Surat at-Tauba (repentance) with Abi Khuzaima al-Ansari, and I did not find it with anybody other than him. (Sahih al-Bukhari, Vol. 6, p. 478).
2680:(died 940), an accomplished calligrapher from Baghdad, was also a prominent figure at this time. He became vizir to three Abbasid caliphs and is credited with developing the first script to obey strict proportional rules. Ibn Muqla's system was used in the development and standardization of the Quranic script, and his
4527:
How the Qurʾan came into being and why it looks the way it does has proven to be a continual focus of attention for scholarship. Most accounts accept the basic framework of the Muslim memory, with the role of
Muhammad as the recipient of revelation and the role subsequent caliphs in bringing the text
2621:
The main characteristic of these scripts was their writing style. The letters in most of these manuscripts are heavy-looking, relatively short and horizontally elongated. The slanted isolated form of the alif that was present in the
Umayyad period completely disappeared and was replaced by a straight
2530:
After Uthman had the other codices destroyed there were still variations in the reading and the text of this Quran. However, scholars deny the possibility of great changes of the text arguing that addition, suppression or alteration would have led to controversy 'of which there is little trace'. They
2309:
may occur below the text of the
Birmingham manuscript, offering a potentially even earlier text, but more recent ultraviolet testing of the leaves has ruled out this possibility. Likewise, recent work on the orthography of Quranic manuscripts has demonstrated that all early manuscripts, excluding the
2079:
Alternatively, the recension of Ali may have matched the
Uthmanic codex, save for the ordering of its content, but it was rejected for political reasons as it also included the partisan commentary of Ali, who is often counted among the foremost exegetes of the Quran. The implication that the Uthmanid
1436:
draws special attention to Zayd's statement, "I found two verses of Sura al-Bara'a with Abu
Khuzaima al-Ansari," as demonstrating that Zayd's own writings and memorization were not deemed sufficient. Everything required verification. The compilation was kept by the Caliph Abu Bakr, after his death by
1376:
signifies a single and united entity and does not apply to a text which is scattered and not collected. However, Alan Jones has explored the use of this word in the Quran, finding that there is no evidence that it was used in such a "concrete sense" in reference to the Quran and other scriptures, but
2931:
proposes, on palaeographic grounds, a date for the lower text in the second half of the first century AH (hence 672 – 722 CE) and summarises the character of the Sana'a Palimpsest, "The scriptio inferior of the Codex Ṣanʿāʾ I has been transcribed in a milieu which adhered to a text of
2902:
Al-Khoei also argues that by the time 'Uthman became caliph, Islam had spread to such an extent that it was impossible for anyone to remove anything from the Quran. Uthman could have altered the text but he would have been unable to convince all those who had memorized the Quran to go along with his
2898:
addresses this issue and argues for the authenticity and completeness of the Quran on the basis that it was compiled during the lifetime of Muhammad. His argument is based on hadiths and on critically analysing the situation during and after the life of Muhammad. He states that the collection of the
2874:
However, some Sunni literature contains reports that suggest that some of the revelations had already been lost before the collection of the Quran initiated by Abu Bakr. In one report, 'Umar was once looking for the text of a specific verse of the Quran on stoning as a punishment for adultery, which
2638:(died 786) devised a tashkil system to replace that of Abu al-Aswad. His system has been universally used since the early 11th century, and includes six diacritical marks: fatha (a), damma (u), kasra (i), sukun (vowel-less), shadda (double consonant), madda (vowel prolongation; applied to the alif).
2480:
is translated: "If the son of Adam were given a valley full of riches, he would wish a second one; and if he were given two valleys full of riches, he would surely ask for a third. Nothing will fill the belly of the son of Adam except dust, and Allah is forgiving to him who is repentant." This text
2799:
Reasons given for the overwhelming popularity of Hafs and Asim range from the fact that it is easy to recite, to the simple statement that "God has chosen it". Ingrid Mattson credits mass-produced printing press mushafs with increasing the availability of the written Quran but also diminishing the
2487:
from Muhammad. (Bukhari, VIII, No. 444-47.) According to Ibn 'Abbas (No. 445) and 'Ubay (No. 446) this text was at times thought to be part of the Quran. However, Ubay himself clarifies that after sura 102: "I had been revealed, did not consider the above to be part of the Quran." (Bukhari, VIII,
1979:
of the Quran. By some Shia accounts, Ali offered his codex for official use after the death of Muhammad but was turned down by some of the companions. Alternatively, Ali may have offered his codex for official use to Uthman during his caliphate but the caliph rejected it in favor of other variants
1380:
Another argument some Shia and Sunni scholars bring up is the importance that Muhammad attached to the Quran. They believe that since Muhammad put so much importance to the Quran he had to have ordered the writing of it during his lifetime. For example, Zayd ibn Thabit reported, "We used to record
1314:
Muslims believe that Gabriel brought the word of God to Muhammad verbatim, and the Quran was divinely protected from any alteration or change. The Quran emphasizes that Muhammad was required only to receive the sacred text and that he had no authority to change it. It is also believed that God did
2688:
This "new style" is defined by breaks and angular forms and by extreme contrasts between the thick and thin strokes. The script was initially used in administrative and legal documents, but then it replaced earlier Quranic scripts. It is possible that it was easier to read than the early 'Abbasid
2617:
Unlike the manuscripts from the Umayyad Dynasty, many of the early Abbasid manuscripts were copied in a number of volumes. This is evident from the large scripts used and the smaller number of lines per page. Early Quranic manuscripts provide evidence for the history of the Quranic text and their
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The earliest codices of the Quran found in the Umayyad period were most likely made in single volumes, which can be determined from the large fragments that have survived. Also during this time, the format of the codex went from being vertical to horizontal in the 8th century. It is believed this
2537:
The Arabic script as we know it today was unknown in Muhammad's time (as Arabic writing styles have progressed through time) and the Quran was preserved through memorization and written references on different materials. As Arab society started to evolve into using writing more regularly, writing
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denounced these reports as lies fathered upon Ibn Mas'ud." Most of the other differences involve only altered vowels with the same consonantal text, which caused variations in recitation. Ramon Harvey notes that Ibn Masʿūd's reading continued in use, and was even taught as the dominant reading in
2190:
Many historians, including Emran El-Badawi and Fred Donner, have written rejoinders to arguments from the revisionist school and in favor of a canonization date in the time of Uthman. Although few, some seventh-century material evidence exists for the Quran, primarily from coins and commemorative
2587:
During this time the construction of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem in 72/691–92 was done, which was complete with Quranic inscriptions. The inscriptions on the Dome of the Rock in fact represent the earliest known dated passages from the Quran. In these inscriptions, many letters are already
2673:
The 11th-century eastern Quranic manuscript contains the 20th juz' (section) of a Quran that originally consisted of 30 parts. The arrangement into 30 parts corresponds to the number of days in the month of Ramadan, during which the Muslim is obliged to fast and to read through the whole of the
2595:
During this time, there was a diversity of styles in which the Quran was written. One characteristic seen in most of these manuscripts is the elongated shafts of the free-standing alif and the right-sided tail (foot) of the isolated alif. Also, these manuscripts do not have headings of chapters
2351:
Before Uthman established the canon of the Quran, there may have been different versions or codices in complete state, though none has yet been discovered. Such codices as may exist never gained general approval and were viewed by Muslims as individuals' personal copies. With respect to partial
1631:
The above quoted hadith refers to the manuscripts of the Quran compiled during the time of Caliph Abu Bakr, which were inherited by Caliph Umar's daughter Hafsa, a wife of Muhammad, and then returned to her, as promised. Sean Anthony and Catherine Bronson note that "Zuhrī – the
2684:
work became the standard way of writing the Quran. However it was later perfected by Ibn al-Bawwab (d. 1022), the master calligrapher who continued Muqla's tradition. Muqla's system became one of the most popular styles for transcribing Arabic manuscripts in general, being favoured for its
1367:
In one of the hadith Muhammad is recorded as saying: "I leave among you two things of high estimation: the Book of God and my Family." Some scholars argue that this provides evidence that the Quran had been collected and written during this time because it is not correct to call something
4528:
together clearly separated. Some scholarship has wanted to challenge the originality and source of the text itself, tracing it to other religious communities (especially Christian: Lüling 2003; Luxenberg 2007). Others have tried to refine the Muslim accounts of revelation and collection.
1608:
It is believed upon Hudhayfah's request Uthman obtained the sheets of the Quran from Ḥafṣa and appointed a commission consisting of Zayd and three prominent Meccans, and instructed them to copy the sheets into several volumes based on the dialect of Quraysh, the main tribe of Mecca.
1593:
By the time of Uthman's caliphate, there was a perceived need for clarification of Qur'an reading. The Caliphate had grown considerably, expanding into Iraq, Syria, Egypt, and Iran, bringing into Islam's fold many new converts from various cultures with varying degrees of isolation.
2453:("haste"), is translated as: "O Allah, we worship You and to You we pray and prostrate and to You we run and hasten to serve You. We hope for Your mercy and we fear Your punishment. Your punishment will certainly reach the disbelievers." These two pieces are said to constitute
2630:
The New Abbasid Style (NS) began at the end of the 9th century C.E. and was used for copying the Quran until the 12th centuries, and maybe even as late as the 13th century. Unlike manuscripts copied in Early Abbasid scripts, NS manuscripts had vertical formats.
1322:"Sometimes it is revealed like the ringing of a bell. This form of inspiration is the hardest of them all and then it passes off after I have grasped what is inspired. Sometimes the Angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me and I grasp whatever he says."
2270:
to the seventh century. With the discovery of earlier manuscripts which conform to the Uthmanic standard, the revisionist view fell out of favor and has been described as "untenable", with western scholarship generally supporting the traditional date.
1384:
Some authors believe that, as long as Muhammad was alive, there was always the expectation of further revelation as well as occasional abrogations. Any formal collection of the material already revealed could not properly be considered a complete text.
2352:
codices, there is opinion that "the search for variants in the partial versions extant before the Caliph Uthman's alleged recension in the 640s has not yielded any differences of great significance". The two most influential codices at this time are ʿ
2649:
text. He chose seven well-known Quran teachers of the 2nd/8th century and declared that their readings all had divine authority, which the others lacked. He based this on the popular ḥadith in which Muhammad says the Quran was revealed to him in
1377:
instead evidence points to an "abstract meaning". He further considers the role of writing among Arabs in the early seventh century and accounts in the Sira of the dictation of parts of the Quran to scribes towards the end of the Medinan period.
2592:
change to horizontal formats and thick/heavy-looking scripts may have been done to show the superiority of the Quran and to distinguish the Islamic tradition from the Jewish and Christian ones, who used vertical formats for their scriptures.
2491:
This explanation of Ubay also makes it very clear that the companions of Mohammad did not differ at all about what was part of the Quran and what was not part of the Quran when the revelation had ceased. It is also important to note that the
775:
was the first to compile the Quran shortly after Muhammad died. The canonization process is believed to have been highly conservative, although some amount of textual evolution is also indicated by the existence of companion codices like the
2618:
formal features tell us something about the way art and its deeper meaning were perceived in the classical age of Islam. Both its script and layout turned out to be constructed according to elaborate geometrical and proportional rules.
2515:
in Bukhari, VIII, No. 446, that Ubay at some early stage held this sentence to be part of the Quran). However, the tangible manuscripts of these copies of the Quran have not survived but were destroyed, having been considered obsolete.
2879:
either contain narrators charged with dishonesty in disclosing sources or simply conflict with the majority version of the report, which all have authentic routes of transmission but omit the part about the piece of paper being eaten.
2580:, the fifth Umayyad caliph (65/685–86/705). Under Abd al-Malik's reign, Abu'l Aswad al-Du'ali (died 688) founded the Arabic grammar and invented the system of placing large coloured dots to indicate the tashkil. The Umayyad governor
1288:) to describe Muhammad. The majority of Muslim scholars interpret this word as a reference to an illiterate individual, though some modern scholars instead interpret it as a reference to those who belong to a community without a
2883:
Certain Shia scholars state that Ali's predecessors wilfully excluded all references to the right of Ali to be the caliph after Muhammad died. Some Shias questioned the integrity of the Uthmanic codex, stating that two surahs,
2870:
Most Muslims believe that Quran, as it is presented today, is complete and untouched, supported by their faith in Quranic verses such as "We have, without doubt, sent down the Reminder ; and We will assuredly guard it ".
1974:
In his codex, Ali may have arranged the verses in the order by which they were revealed to Muhammad, though this claim has been questioned by some. The codex of Ali may have also included additional information on the
2654:". During this time there was strong Quranic traditions in Kufa, Baṣra, Medina, Damascus, and Mecca. Due to this, Ibn Mujāhid selected one reading each for Medina, Mecca, Baṣra, and Damascus – those of
2504:, since the notebook was not meant for public use and he himself knew well what to make of his own notes. All companions of Mohammad are said to have had their own copies of the Quran, with notes, for personal use.
1326:
At times, it was also reported that the experience was painful for Muhammad. For example, he had been heard saying, "Never once did I receive a revelation without thinking that my soul had been torn away from me."
2057:). As the faithful recension of the Quran, the codex of Ali is thus said to have been longer than the official one, with explicit references to Ali. This view was apparently popular among Shia scholars before the
2106:
Until around the 1970s, non-Muslim scholars assumed the traditional narrative of the origin story of the Quran. In the 1970s, historians in the field of Islamic origins began to question Islamic "literary
2244:
was written about a century after Muhammad died and all later narratives by Islamic biographers contain far more details and embellishments about events which are entirely lacking in Ibn Ishaq's text.
2290:. Puin noted unconventional verse orderings, minor textual variations, and rare styles of orthography in the manuscript. Puin believed that this implied an evolving text as opposed to a fixed one.
2103:
The origin of the Quran has been a subject of sustained academic research. There have also been a number of proposals for refinement of the traditional view and even its fundamental re-evaluation.
2446:("separation"), is translated as: "O Allah, we seek your help and ask your forgiveness, and we praise you and we do not disbelieve in you. We separate from and leave him who sins against you."
2420:, Ubay is seen in a variety of roles. For instance, the "sheets" of Ubay are sometimes mentioned in some instances instead of those of Ḥafsa, and sometimes he is also mentioned in some
2550:) to indicate prolongation or vowels were absent as well. Due to this there were endless possibilities for the mispronunciation of the word. The Arabic script as we know it today, the
1624:, and, according to some accounts, Mecca, and ordered that all other variant copies of the Quran be destroyed. This was done everywhere except in Kufa, where some scholars argue that
3129:
3665:
2258:
A number of important manuscript discoveries have also played a role in supporting the traditional date of the canonization of the Quran. Partial Quranic manuscripts such as the
2147:, and contemporary non-Arabic literature, that they argued provided "hard facts" and an ability to crosscheck, although the fundamental questions in the field remain unsolved.
2745:
and for minute details, not identical to any older system. The Cairo edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran with the exception of those used in all
1357:
recorded verses of the Quran. This provides an explanation as to how the Quran existed in written form during the life of Muhammad, even if it was not compiled into one text.
5036:
6994:
6949:
2534:
During the manuscript age, the Quran was the most copied Arabic text. It was believed that copying the Quran would bring blessings on the scribe and the owner.
5223:"Two 'Lost' Sūras of the Qurʾān: Sūrat al-Khalʿ and Sūrat al-Ḥafd between Textual and Ritual Canon (1st -3rd/7th -9th Centuries) [Pre-Print Version]"
4782:
2383:
There are two points on which Ibn Masʿud's version is alleged to differ from the ʿUthmanic text: the order of the suras and some variants in the readings.
2211:(Q 112). Inscriptions like these at the Dome of the Rock were particularly intended to declare the primacy of the new religion of Islam over Christianity.
573:
2507:
The Islamic reports of these copies of the Quran of the companions of Mohammad only tell of various differences according to reports that reached them (
7046:
6947:
Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (2009). "Information, Doubts and Contradictions in Islamic Sources". In Kohlberg, Etan; Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (eds.).
2500:
of Ubay because it was for his own personal use; that is, in his private notebook, where he did not always distinguish between Quranic material and
4964:
2404:
Kufa for at least a century after his death, in a paper discussing how some of his distinctive readings continued to play a role in Hanafi fiqh.
3699:
2531:
further state that even though Uthman became unpopular among Muslims, he was not charged with alteration or mutilation of the Quran in general.
7212:
3625:
3765:
7100:
2331:
5922:
420:
2573:
The earliest known manuscripts of the Quran are collectively called the Hijazi script, and are mostly associated with the Umayyad period.
2725:) is the Quran that was used throughout almost all the Muslim world until the Saudi Quran of 1985. The Egyptian edition is based on the "
1307:
described that the first Quranic revelation occurred when the angel Gabriel visited Muhammad and asked him to recite. Muhammad responded
5540:
3137:
2862:. Methodological differences aside, speculation alludes to a spirit of cooperation. Bergsträsser was certainly impressed with the work.
6454:
3395:
2215:
has also argued in favor an early date for the collection of the Quran on the basis of its absence of anachronisms from later periods.
2167:. Although hadith agree that the task of canonization had been completed by the end of the reign of Uthman, they agree on little else.
6112:
4831:
4710:
2941:
1996:, who is hidden from the public by divine will since 874, until his reappearance at the end of time to eradicate injustice and evil.
6211:
5129:
F. E. Peters, The Quest of the Historical Muhammad, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 23, No. 3 (Aug.,1991), p. 293
3086:
567:
193:
2131:(i.e. the biography of the prophet) – upon which the traditional account of the Quran were based. They employed a "
4517:
3304:
Goldfield, Isaiah (1980). "The Illiterate Prophet (Nabi Ummi): An inquiry into the development of a dogma in Islamic tradition".
165:
7205:
Corpus Coranicum: comprehensive website on early Quran manuscripts by the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities
1501:
879:
7182:
7163:
6889:
6846:
6813:
6762:
6693:
6643:
6585:
6541:
6500:
6441:
6312:
6266:
6043:
5863:
3999:
3480:
3455:
3334:
3238:
3106:
3044:
2156:
146:
40:
3952:
172:
5894:
2848:
Prominent committee members included Islamic scholar, Muhammad b. ‘Ali al-Husayni al-Haddad, Egypt's senior Qur'an Reader (
1023:
547:
6482:
1262:
in 610 CE, when Muhammad, at the age of forty, received the first visit from the angel Gabriel, reciting to him the first
5188:
2760:
had started work on the project in 1907 but it was not until 10 July 1924 that the "Cairo Qur’an" was first published by
2645:(died 324/936). His goal was to restrict the number of reliable readings and accept only those based on a fairly uniform
2542:
which lacked precision because distinguishing between consonants was impossible due to the absence of diacritical marks (
2027:
by the ninth-century Shia exegete Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Sayyari, though he has been widely accused of connections to the
803:
Others are that it is a name given to the book by God, without any previous etymology, that the word comes from the verb
513:
283:
1425:, Muhammad's main scribe, to gather the written fragments held by different members of the community. Ibn Thabit noted:
7144:
5747:
5631:
5326:
5174:
5150:
5064:"The 'Grace of God' as evidence for a written Uthmanic archetype: the importance of shared orthographic idiosyncrasies"
4916:
3797:
3376:
2780:
labels as errors, found in Qur’anic texts used in state schools. To do this they chose to preserve one of the fourteen
1203:
1393:
According to Sunni scholars, during the life of Muhammad parts of the Quran, though written, were scattered among his
179:
7089:
7005:
6982:
6960:
6937:
6366:
6195:
6170:
6093:
6005:
5932:
5806:
5763:
5699:
5479:
5404:
5371:
5167:
The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments
5143:
The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments
5117:
4903:
4794:
4086:
3923:
3898:
3873:
3848:
3790:
The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments
3749:
3675:
3574:
3549:
3520:
3168:
3069:
2567:
2160:
1791:
1581:
988:
903:
716:
715:(believed to have received the Quran through revelation between 610 and 632 CE), to the emergence, transmission, and
508:
503:
230:
212:
110:
54:
7137:
The History of the Qur'anic Text from Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments
6780:
Saadi, Abdul-Massih (2008). "Nascent Islam in the Seventh Century Syriac Sources". In Reynolds, Gabriel Said (ed.).
2800:
diversity of qira'at. Written text has become canonical and oral recitation has lost much of its previous equality.
2325:. The double layer reveals the additions made on the first text of the Quran and the differences with today's Koran.
2163:
of the Quran to the mid-7th century, placing it instead in the late-7th century, based on some reports found in the
6068:
6026:
5980:
5781:
2961:
2439:
palimpsest is known to have similarities with that reported of Ubayy (and to a lesser extent, that of Ibn Mas'ud).
1567:
386:
4951:
2395:, the two short suras with which the Quran ends (Suras 113 and 114)), he then states that "early scholars such as
4656:
2956:
2932:
the Qurʾan different from the ʿUthmanic tradition as well as from the Qurʾanic codices of Ibn Masʿūd and Ubayy".
2635:
1728:
679:
559:
403:
161:
77:
5692:
Gender and Muslim Constructions of Exegetical Authority: A Rereading of the Classical Genre of Qurʾān Commentary
3974:
3202:
2817:
but otherwise included it as an unnumbered line of text preceding the other 112 chapters, with the exclusion of
1690:
7067:
7031:
6838:
6677:
6400:
4634:
3739:
2663:
2581:
1016:
950:
625:
269:
150:
7198:
5189:"The Legal Epistemology of Qur'anic Variants: The Readings of Ibn Masʿūd in Kufan fiqh and the Ḥanafī madhhab"
4858:
7132:
5162:
5138:
3785:
2807:
within the Quranic text, reached consensus following the 1924 Edition, which included it as the first verse (
2384:
1936:
1231:
926:
335:
6992:
Kohlberg, Etan (2009). "Life and Works of al-Sayyārī". In Kohlberg, Etan; Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (eds.).
5245:
1660:
This is one of the most contested issues and an area where many non-Muslim and Muslim scholars often clash.
2427:
His version of the Quran is said to have included two short suras not in the Uthmanic or Ibn Masʿud texts:
2011:
1601:
reported this problem to the caliph and asked him to establish a unified text. According to the history of
7242:
5691:
3497:
2294:
2263:
1070:
983:
921:
693:
310:
6924:
5294:
3864:
Al-Tabari (1989). Ihsan Abbas; C. E. Bosworth; Jacob Lassner; Franz Rosenthal; Ehsan Yar-Shater (eds.).
2757:
6358:
5429:
2677:
2554:, which has pointed texts and is fully vowelled was not perfected until the middle of the 9th century.
2826:
2132:
2004:
Some Sunni reports allege that the official Uthmanid codex of the Quran is incomplete, as detailed in
7237:
7232:
7047:"The Speaking Qur'an and the silent Qur'an: A Study of the Principles and Development of Imāmī Shī'ī
6533:
3961:
2951:
2525:
1743:
1331:
1065:
807:(قرن, 'to join, to yoke'), referring to the gathering together of revelation, and that it comes from
720:
46:
7209:
7020:
4930:
7015:
6429:
6376:
5971:
5040:
4969:
3957:
1964:
1819:
1406:
6603:
2855:
2734:
1639:
It is generally accepted that the Uthmanic text comprises all 114 suras in the order known today.
186:
6729:(2008). "Introduction: Qur'anic Studies and its Controversies". In Reynolds, Gabriel Said (ed.).
6392:
6296:
6141:
5830:(2008). "Introduction: Qur'anic Studies and its Controversies". In Reynolds, Gabriel Said (ed.).
5734:
3868:. Gautier H. A. Juynboll (trans.). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. pp. 2–6.
2742:
2577:
2196:
2179:
1633:
1506:
1254:, which had become a sanctuary for pagan deities and an important trading center) in the cave of
1128:
1030:
139:
5471:
5463:
5396:
5388:
5363:
5355:
3840:
3832:
2596:(suras). Instead, a blank space is left at the end of one sura and at the beginning of another.
6797:
6433:
5518:
3036:
2976:
2685:
legibility. The eleventh century Quran is one of the earliest dated manuscripts in this style.
2353:
1880:
1824:
1809:
1598:
1304:
1196:
1048:
1011:
635:
620:
81:
6857:
6746:
6611:
6280:
5847:
5660:
Melchert, Christopher (2000). "Ibn Mujahid and the Establishment of Seven Qur'anic Readings".
2461:
prayer after recitation of suras from the Quran). They are in fact identical to some parts of
2225:. The structure, the oldest extant example of early Islamic architecture, was completed in 691
1421:
ordered the collection of the hitherto scattered pieces of the Quran into one copy, assigning
396:
6726:
6669:
6575:
6521:
6492:
6346:
6063:
6021:
5975:
5827:
5776:
5544:
2928:
2895:
2777:
2298:
1753:
1654:
1511:
1491:
1433:
1035:
965:
295:
6781:
6730:
6462:
6417:
6256:
5831:
3590:
Modarressi, Hossein (1993). "Early Debates on the Integrity of the Qur'an: A Brief Survey".
3537:
3324:
3028:
2609:
2562:
6478:
6304:
6137:
4835:
4718:
3408:
3098:
2667:
2392:
2318:
2302:
2240:
Skeptical scholars, nonetheless, point out that the earliest account of Muhammad's life by
2234:
2175:
1885:
1738:
1560:
939:
542:
537:
3914:
al-Tabari (1990). Ihsan Abbas; C. E. Bosworth; Franz Rosenthal; Ehsan Yar-Sharter (eds.).
3889:
Al-Tabari (1990). Ihsan Abbas; C. E. Bosworth; Franz Rosenthal; Ehsan Yar-Sharter (eds.).
1586:
According to Islamic tradition, the process of canonization ended under the third caliph,
767:
644–656 CE), leading the Quran as it exists today to be known as the Uthmanic codex. Some
92:
8:
7113:
4817:
4040:
4017:"Did Ḥafṣah Edit the Qurʾān? A Response with Notes on the Codices of the Prophet's Wives"
4016:
3893:. Stephen Humphreys (trans.). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. p. 8.
3282:
2825:
of separating and numbering verses, and thus standardized a different verse numbering to
2738:
2712:
2681:
2655:
2126:
1300:
1273:. Muslims believe that Muhammad continued to have revelations until his death in 632 CE.
1121:
886:
855:
672:
425:
6059:
5586:
2850:
2178:
continues to hold that the Quran did not reach its final compilation until the reign of
7077:
6903:
6881:
6819:
6789:
6768:
6738:
6707:
6599:
6555:
6547:
6326:
5869:
5839:
5673:
5621:
5522:
5441:
5275:
5095:
4878:
4044:
4036:
3965:
3607:
3428:
2373:
2364:
used by Ibn Mas'ud, Ubayy, and Zaid b. Thabit and finding no differences between them.
2267:
1981:
1953:
1625:
1496:
1468:
1338:
1289:
1133:
958:
872:
704:
495:
408:
391:
305:
6866:
The Qurʾān in Context: Historical and Literary Investigations into the Qurʾānic Milieu
6832:
6595:
1258:. According to Islamic belief, the revelations started one night during the month of
7178:
7159:
7140:
7085:
7063:
7027:
7001:
6978:
6956:
6933:
6907:
6895:
6885:
6861:
6842:
6823:
6809:
6782:
6772:
6758:
6731:
6711:
6699:
6689:
6649:
6639:
6581:
6559:
6537:
6496:
6437:
6418:
6396:
6362:
6330:
6318:
6308:
6262:
6191:
6166:
6089:
6085:
6039:
6001:
5997:
5928:
5873:
5859:
5832:
5802:
5798:
5759:
5755:
5695:
5627:
5475:
5400:
5367:
5322:
5279:
5263:
5170:
5146:
5113:
5099:
4899:
4790:
4691:
4630:
4082:
4048:
3995:
3991:
3919:
3918:. R. Humphreys (trans.). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. p. 42.
3894:
3869:
3844:
3793:
3745:
3671:
3570:
3545:
3516:
3476:
3451:
3372:
3330:
3234:
3164:
3102:
3065:
3040:
3029:
2924:
2892:(the Guardianship), which dealt with the virtues of Muhammad's family, were removed.
2838:
2310:
Sanaa manuscript, descend from a common Uthmanic archetype, and so cannot predate it.
2253:
2237:, that the majority of the Quran at the least goes back in some fashion to Muhammad.
2124:(i.e. the accounts of what the Islamic prophet Muhammad approved of or did not), and
1993:
1929:
1705:
1217:
1189:
1006:
862:
838:
822:(قرآن), with only Ibn Kathir's tradition excluding the letter, reading it instead as
811:(قرائن), the plural of a word variously translatable as 'evidence', 'yoke', 'union'.
772:
600:
6381:
3653:. Translated by Siddiqui, Mohammed Swaleh. Birmingham: Darul Ish'at. pp. 191–6.
2830:
2704:
7041:
6877:
6873:
6801:
6750:
6685:
6631:
6627:
6551:
6300:
6081:
6077:
6035:
5993:
5989:
5851:
5794:
5790:
5665:
5433:
5267:
5203:
5112:
Small, Keith E. (2011). Textual Criticism and Qur’ān Manuscripts. Lexington Books.
5085:
5075:
4870:
4028:
3987:
3983:
3599:
3420:
3094:
2966:
2946:
2912:
2773:
2722:
2708:
2436:
2413:
2340:
2275:
2259:
2222:
2192:
1857:
1834:
1828:
1710:
1587:
1405:
were killed, steps began to be taken to collate the body of material. The death of
1398:
1354:
1315:
not make himself known through the revelations; it was his will that was revealed.
1239:
1177:
1145:
1138:
777:
413:
300:
7199:
Dated Muslim Texts From 1-72 AH / 622-691 AD: Documentary Evidence For Early Islam
3538:"The word made visible: Arabic script and the committing of the Qur'an to writing"
88:
7216:
7204:
6517:
6276:
3228:
2971:
2854:). Noteworthy Western scholars/academics working in Egypt during the era include
2822:
2814:
2765:
2313:
2208:
2171:
2093:
1852:
1786:
1771:
1553:
1529:
1442:
1422:
1350:
890:
742:
724:
711:, is the timeline ranging from the inception of the Quran during the lifetime of
6618:. Texts and Studies on the Qurʾān. Vol. 8. Translated by Behn, Wolfgang H.
3727:. Translated by Kidwai, A.R. Karachi: Qur'anic Arabic Foundation. pp. 34–5.
2576:
Most of the fundamental reform to the manuscripts of the Quran took place under
1646:
Muslim scholars about the origins of the Quran may differ in some respects from
7247:
6612:"The Genesis of the Authorized Redaction of the Koran under the Caliph ʿUthmān"
5014:
4992:
3969:
2859:
2230:
1976:
814:
Nine out of the ten imams of recitation have it read in their tradition with a
665:
648:
552:
274:
6635:
6231:
Behnam Sadeghi & Mohsen Goudarzi, "Sana'a and the Origins of the Qu'ran",
5080:
5063:
4032:
3866:
The History of al-Tabari: The Conquest of Iraq, Southwestern Persia, and Egypt
2642:
2457:(that is, supplications which Muhammad sometimes made in morning prayer or in
1409:
was most significant, as he was one of the very few who had been entrusted by
7226:
7055:
6899:
6703:
6653:
6529:
6488:
6451:
2750:
2698:
2357:
2336:
2058:
1814:
1669:
1612:
When the task was finished Uthman kept one copy in Medina and sent others to
1402:
750:
457:
444:
345:
7082:
Tradition and Survival: A Bibliographical Survey of Early Shi'ite Literature
5437:
5271:
3542:
Texts, documents, and artefacts : Islamic studies in honour of D.S. Richards
2159:
in the 1970s offered a newfound challenge to the conventional dating of the
1992:. In Twelver belief, the codex is now in the possession of their last Imam,
365:
6970:
6284:
4896:
Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing
4661:
2776:
was not to delegitimize the other qir’at, but to eliminate that, which the
2746:
2726:
2287:
2229:
It is typically accepted nowadays, including among skeptical scholars like
1989:
1985:
1922:
1910:
1898:
1541:
1346:
1255:
1243:
1165:
1060:
653:
430:
340:
6805:
6754:
5855:
5207:
4685:
4683:
4681:
4679:
3255:
2834:
1330:
After Muhammad would receive revelations, he would later recite it to his
6607:
6413:
5645:
2916:
2761:
2646:
2343:
project is an ongoing effort to develop a critical edition of the Quran.
2212:
2144:
2136:
2081:
1733:
1318:
According to tradition, Muhammad described the experience of revelation:
1075:
759:(undotted Arabic text) being officially canonized under the third caliph
731:
5445:
2741:
of Kufa. It uses a set of additional symbols and an elaborate system of
749:, relying upon both textual fragments and the memories of those who had
6252:
5677:
5591:
5526:
4676:
4602:. Vol. The Quran in its historical context. Routledge. p. 29.
3611:
2920:
2919:
dated to the range 578-669 CE with 95% confidence. The manuscript is a
2793:
2781:
2730:
2659:
2651:
2306:
1516:
768:
746:
481:
452:
7022:
The Divine Guide In Early Shi'ism: The Sources of Esotericism in Islam
5581:
5321:, Richard Bell, W. Montgomery Watt, Edinburgh University Press, 1995,
5090:
4882:
4859:"Forgotten Witness: Evidence For The Early Codification Of The Qur'an"
4586:
Neva & Koren, "Methodological Approaches to Islamic Studies", 2000
4559:
Neva & Koren, "Methodological Approaches to Islamic Studies", 2000
3432:
3184:
7026:. Translated by Streight, David. State University of New York Press.
6793:
6742:
6354:
5959:
5843:
5718:
5608:
5250:
4392:
2818:
2789:
2396:
2388:
2297:, which, in 2015, was dated between 568 and 645 with 95.4% accuracy.
2241:
2140:
1988:
to his successor, as part of the esoteric knowledge available to the
1776:
1651:
1617:
1602:
1361:
735:
5895:"Popularity of the recitation of Hafs from 'Aasim. Fatwa No: 118960"
5669:
5590:), an Islamic symbol used as a dividing system is to facilitate the
5495:
5222:
3603:
3230:
Early Islam: A Critical Reconstruction Based on Contemporary Sources
1381:
the Quran from parchments in the presence of the Messenger of God."
788:
While there are various proposed etymologies, one is that the word '
128:
4874:
3475:. Chichester, West Sussex: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 165–166.
3424:
3280:
2400:
2377:
2372:
The most influential of the allegedly varying codices was that of ʿ
2279:
1875:
1781:
1621:
1483:
1418:
1410:
1342:
1235:
846:
738:
712:
630:
595:
264:
6322:
5566:
Böwering, "Recent Research on the Construction of the Quran", 2008
4965:"Birmingham Qur'an manuscript dated among the oldest in the world"
4952:"Birmingham Qur'an manuscript dated among the oldest in the world"
4769:
Saadi, "Nascent Islam in the Seventh Century Syriac Sources", 2008
4757:
Saadi, "Nascent Islam in the Seventh Century Syriac Sources", 2008
4274:
4272:
2557:
2538:
skills evolved accordingly. Early Quranic Arabic was written in a
6594:
6128:, vol. 6, pg. 269, hadith #26,359. Beirut: Mu`assasah al-Risalah.
5577:
2837:, which became widely accepted following 1924. A large number of
2804:
2204:
2200:
1270:
1259:
1093:
1055:
469:
359:
5752:
Islam and the Malay-Indonesian World: Transmission and Responses
4954:. University of Birmingham. 22 July 2015. Retrieved 22 July 2015
3362:
3360:
3358:
3356:
3354:
3352:
3350:
3348:
3346:
2809:
2519:
2278:
occurred in 1972, during the restoration of the Great Mosque of
354:
6869:
6681:
6623:
6619:
6425:
6388:
6292:
6145:
6073:
6031:
5985:
5786:
5259:
4269:
3979:
2833:. It adopted the chronological order of chapters attributed to
2483:
2322:
2218:
2164:
2119:
2109:
2071:
2028:
1971:
meeting where Abu Bakr was elected caliph after Muhammad died.
1968:
1486:
1456:
1394:
1227:
1103:
898:
867:
760:
529:
464:
5509:
Yasser Tabbaa (1991). "The transformation of Arabic writing".
5420:
Alan George (2007). "Geometry of early Qur'anic Manuscripts".
4702:
4459:
4457:
4455:
4136:
4134:
3450:. Chichester, West Sussex: Blackwell Publishing. p. 165.
2335:, has concluded that it is not possible to develop a reliable
2170:
The first to dispute the traditional date of canonization was
2135:" approach to this literature, including as evidence relevant
7060:
Approaches to the History of the Interpretation Of The Qur'ān
6108:
5924:
The Story of the Qur'an: Its History and Place in Muslim Life
3391:
3343:
2718:
2387:
lists three reports concerning the omission of three suras, (
2283:
2114:
1748:
1647:
1296:
1267:
1251:
1247:
946:
815:
789:
764:
708:
476:
330:
246:
4247:
4245:
4230:
4220:
4218:
4216:
1303:(who lived about 250 years after Muhammad), Muhammad's wife
723:. The history of the Quran is a major focus in the field of
6670:"Some Explorations of the Intertwining of Bible and Qur'ān"
4452:
4131:
4119:
3916:
The History of al-Tabari: The Crisis of the Early Caliphate
3891:
The History of al-Tabari: The Crisis of the Early Caliphate
2876:
2842:
2785:
2772:) edition." The goal of the government of the newly formed
2539:
2339:
of the Quran based on the sources currently available. The
1643:
1613:
1438:
1414:
1263:
1221:
1098:
755:
6258:
No God But God: The Origins, Evolution and Future of Islam
4179:
4177:
4175:
4173:
3722:
3326:
No God But God: The Origins, Evolution and Future of Islam
2613:
Folio from a late 8th century Quran in early Abbasid style
6156:
6154:
4832:"1591026342 : 9781591026341:Hidden Origins of Islam"
4824:
4752:
4750:
4748:
4440:
4404:
4368:
4344:
4332:
4284:
4242:
4213:
4146:
4060:
4058:
4021:
Journal of the International Qur'anic Studies Association
3667:
Introducing A.E. Housman (1859-1936): Preliminary Studies
3649:
Usmani, Mohammad Taqi (2000). Abdur Rehman, Rafiq (ed.).
1949:
1682:
4493:
4356:
4320:
4296:
4189:
1448:
6165:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 150–158.
5775:
Albin, Michael W. (2006). "Printing of the Qurʾān". In
5457:
5455:
5349:
5347:
5345:
5343:
5341:
5339:
5337:
5335:
4733:
4428:
4257:
4170:
4095:
6674:
Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in Scriptural Intertextuality
6151:
5068:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
4762:
4745:
4055:
3826:
3824:
3822:
3035:. London, England: Harvard University Press. pp.
1999:
1984:
that the codex of Ali has been handed down from every
7153:
4650:
4648:
4646:
4554:
4552:
3060:
Leemhuis, Fred (2006). Jane Dammen MacAuliffe (ed.).
2321:. The upper layer is the verses 265–271 of the surah
1980:
available to him. As for its fate, it is believed in
1234:, the revelation of the Quran to the Islamic prophet
6024:(2006). "Preface". In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.).
5452:
5332:
4579:
4481:
4416:
4201:
4158:
3723:
Hasan, Sayyid Siddiq; Nadwi, Abul Hasan Ali (2000).
3260:
Turkish Foundation of Religion Encyclopedia of Islam
2599:
2376:, an early convert who became a personal servant to
2247:
2069:
2022:
2005:
1372:(book) when it is merely in the memories. The word
1277:
7210:
Several early Qur'ans: information, zoomable images
7172:
6420:
Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam
4469:
4380:
4107:
3819:
3085:Esposito, John L. (2004). Esposito, John L. (ed.).
3031:
Muhammad and the Believers: at the Origins of Islam
153:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
7045:
7019:
6993:
6948:
6923:
6380:
6190:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 172.
4643:
4549:
4516:
4081:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 175.
3951:
3569:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 173.
3515:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 172.
800:(فعلان), thus resulting in the meaning 'reading'.
5914:
5822:
5820:
5818:
4922:
4598:Fred Donner (2008). Gabriel Said Reynolds (ed.).
4308:
3949:
2424:instead of Zayd, dictating the Quran to scribes.
7224:
6868:. Texts and Studies on the Qurʾān. Vol. 6.
6834:Creating the Qur'an: A Historical-Critical Study
4606:
4015:Anthony, Sean W.; Bronson, Catherine L. (2016).
3950:Welch, A. T.; Paret, R.; Pearson, J. D. (1960).
2803:Muslim disagreement over whether to include the
2768:, as such, it is sometimes known as the "royal (
2185:
5295:"An Introduction to the Sciences of the Qur'an"
5243:
5156:
5132:
4931:"New Light on the History of the Quranic Text?"
4533:
3803:
2558:Umayyad Period (44/661–132/750) – Hijazi script
2150:
6289:The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions
5911:(Qatari Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs)
5815:
5559:
4564:
4014:
3779:
2566:Single folio from an early 8th century Quran,
2412:The second most influential codex was that of
1397:, much of it as private possession. After the
6283:. In Blidstein, Moshe; Silverstein, Adam J.;
5508:
5292:
5015:"Birmingham's ancient Koran history revealed"
4993:"Birmingham's ancient Koran history revealed"
4514:
2520:Early manuscripts to the final canonical text
1930:
1561:
1445:, his daughter and one of Muhammad's widows.
1197:
673:
6577:Images of Jesus Christ in Islam: 2nd Edition
6185:
6160:
5728:
5726:
4787:The Qur'an and the Aramaic Gospel Traditions
4618:
4076:
3670:. Cambridge scholars publisher. p. 47.
3564:
3510:
3189:International Journal of Middle East Studies
3158:
2641:Another central figure during this time was
1283:
796:(قرء, 'to read') in the verbal noun pattern
7131:
7111:
7014:
6946:
6526:Muslim Identities: An Introduction to Islam
5419:
4818:"Emran El-Badawi | Faculty | MCL"
4597:
4446:
4410:
4398:
4374:
4290:
4263:
4251:
4236:
4224:
4152:
3945:
3943:
3941:
3939:
3937:
3935:
2032:
55:Learn how and when to remove these messages
7175:Islamic History: A Very Short Introduction
7076:
5735:Studies in two transmissions of the Qur'an
5694:, pg. 79. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2015.
5653:
5244:Sadeghi, Behnam; Goudarzi, Mohsen (2012).
5061:
4692:"What do we actually know about Mohammed?"
4629:. Oxford University Press. pp. 67–8.
4499:
4463:
4362:
4302:
4278:
4195:
4183:
4140:
4125:
4064:
3716:
3644:
3642:
3589:
3411:(1987). "The Cantillation of the Qur'an".
3322:
2995:Saadi did not examine the sources of Arab
2865:
1937:
1923:
1568:
1554:
1204:
1190:
680:
666:
91:. Please do not remove this message until
6830:
6020:
5723:
5089:
5079:
4780:
4739:
3913:
3888:
3863:
3495:
3407:
3371:. Oxford England: Oneworld Publications.
3303:
3281:Muslim Information Service of Australia.
2942:Christian influences on the Islamic world
1388:
734:tradition, it is believed that the first
231:Learn how and when to remove this message
213:Learn how and when to remove this message
111:Learn how and when to remove this message
6991:
6344:
6062:(2006). "Chronology and the Qurʾān". In
6058:
5659:
5246:"Ṣan'ā' 1 and the Origins of the Qur'ān"
4863:Journal of the American Oriental Society
4711:"How and why Muhammad made a difference"
4350:
4338:
3932:
3544:. Leiden, Boston: BRILL. pp. 1–16.
3084:
3059:
3022:
3020:
2608:
2561:
2332:Textual Criticism and Qurʼān Manuscripts
2312:
2217:
1246:) appeared to Muhammad (a trader in the
753:it during Muhammad's lifetime, with the
87:Relevant discussion may be found on the
6573:
6275:
6210:Behnam Sadeghi & Mohsen Goudarzi, "
5920:
5613:
5220:
4928:
4575:. Oxford University Press. p. 223.
3639:
3191:, Vol. 23, No. 3 (August 1991), p. 297.
2756:A committee of leading professors from
2367:
1413:to teach the Quran. Consequently, upon
771:Muslims believe that the fourth caliph
7225:
7156:The Cambridge Companion to the Quar'an
6921:
6667:
6516:
6412:
5970:
5927:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 129.
5748:Early Malay Qur'anic exegical activity
5740:
5709:
5707:
5619:
5496:"11th Century Qur'an in Eastern Kufic"
5461:
5386:
5353:
5186:
4929:Lumbard, Joseph E. B. (24 July 2015).
4856:
4783:"Challenges posed by the Quranic text"
4654:
4422:
4164:
4101:
3975:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
3830:
3766:"The Biography of Abu Bakr As-Siddeeq"
3663:
3648:
3626:"The Biography of Abu Bakr As-Siddeeq"
3470:
3445:
3026:
2923:with quranic verses in both upper and
2604:
7120:. Vol. VIII/6. pp. 575–581.
7098:
7062:. Clarendon Press. pp. 177–198.
7040:
6969:
6855:
6455:"The Islamic World: Past and Present"
6351:The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān
6251:
5774:
5623:The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an
5227:Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam
4898:, Donner, Darwin Press, 1998, p. 60,
4781:El-Badawi, Emran (17 December 2013).
4570:
4510:
4508:
4487:
4475:
4434:
4386:
4326:
4314:
4207:
4113:
3697:
3535:
3473:The Blackwell Companion to the Qur'an
3448:The Blackwell Companion to the Qur'an
3366:
3226:
3200:
3087:"The Islamic World: Past and Present"
3062:The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'ān
3017:
2692:
2157:revisionist school of Islamic studies
1449:Uthman ibn Affan and the canonization
1299:collector of traditions of Muhammad,
7084:. Vol. 1. Oneworld. p. 2.
6784:The Qur'an in its Historical Context
6779:
6733:The Qur'an in its Historical Context
6450:
6407:The Koran: A Very Short Introduction
6383:The Koran: A Very Short Introduction
6305:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199697762.013.6
6212:Sana'a and the Origins of the Qu'ran
5948:
5834:The Qur'an in its Historical Context
5620:Rippin, Andrew; et al. (2006).
5470:. New York, NY: Routledge. pp.
5362:. New York, NY: Routledge. pp.
4768:
4756:
4624:
3839:. New York, NY: Routledge. pp.
3185:The Quest of the Historical Muhammad
3099:10.1093/acref/9780195165203.001.0001
2625:
2346:
2199:(685–705) especially containing the
792:' (قرآن) comes from the Arabic verb
151:adding citations to reliable sources
122:
61:
20:
7154:Jane Dammen McAuliffe, ed. (2006).
7103:. In McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (ed.).
5704:
5640:For the history of compilation see
5395:. New York, NY: Routledge. p.
5007:
4585:
4558:
4525:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3741:Abu Bakr: The Beloved Of My Beloved
3701:Islamic Calligraphy: Noon-wal-qalam
3651:An approach to the Quranic sciences
3274:
3253:
2360:'s. Al-Qurazi recounted seeing the
2000:Differences with the Uthmanic codex
1441:, who on his deathbed gave them to
1403:Muslims who had memorized the Quran
1284:
13:
7125:
7112:Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali (1998).
6882:10.1163/ej.9789004176881.i-864.104
5169:, pp.199-201. UK Islamic Academy.
4985:
4917:Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam
4850:
4573:Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam
4505:
2717:The influential standard Quran of
2588:provided with diacritical points.
2087:
1650:beliefs. According to influential
14:
7259:
7192:
6725:
6477:
5826:
4689:
4612:
4539:
3737:
3078:
2600:Abbasid Period (132/750–640/1258)
2568:Khalili Collection of Islamic Art
2407:
2248:Textual criticism and manuscripts
1792:Ghurar al-Hikam wa Durar al-Kalim
1582:Canonization of Islamic scripture
1341:, the society during the time of
36:This article has multiple issues.
7114:"Eschatology iii. Imami Shiʿism"
6375:
6225:
6204:
6179:
6131:
6118:
6102:
6086:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00034
6052:
6014:
5998:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00024
5964:
5887:
5799:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00158
5768:
5684:
5597:
5571:
5533:
5502:
5488:
5413:
5380:
5312:
5286:
5237:
5214:
5180:
5123:
5106:
4708:
4600:The Qur'an in Recent Scholarship
3992:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0543
3809:
3163:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1116–1120.
2962:Prophets and messengers in Islam
2476:The single additional so-called
2473:, Cairo, 1955, pp. 57–58.)
1904:
1689:
1597:It is believed that the general
1535:
1467:
1171:
1159:
127:
66:
25:
16:Aspect of Islamic historiography
6522:"The Quran: The Base Narrative"
6281:"Islamo-Christian Civilization"
6245:
5565:
5055:
5029:
4957:
4945:
4909:
4889:
4810:
4774:
4591:
4070:
4008:
3907:
3882:
3857:
3758:
3731:
3691:
3657:
3618:
3583:
3558:
3540:. In Robinson, Chase F. (ed.).
3529:
3504:
3489:
3464:
3439:
3401:
3385:
3316:
3297:
3161:Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia
3064:. Cambridge. pp. 145–155.
2989:
2957:Biblical and Quranic narratives
2636:Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi
2465:reported in the collections of
2063:
1958:
1242:(believed to have been sent by
1238:began in 610 CE when the angel
138:needs additional citations for
44:or discuss these issues on the
7158:. Cambridge University Press.
6975:An Introduction to Shi'i Islam
6839:University of California Press
6831:Shoemaker, Stephen J. (2022).
6614:. In Behn, Wolfgang H. (ed.).
6148:: Dar Ihya al-Turath al-Arabi.
6126:Tahqiq Musnad Ahmad bin Hanbal
3498:"Sahih Muslim, Book 31, #5920"
3323:Reza Aslan (2 December 2008).
3247:
3220:
3194:
3177:
3152:
3122:
3053:
2906:
2839:pre-1924 Qurans were destroyed
2821:. The Cairo Quran adopted the
2582:al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi
2319:Stanford '07 binary manuscript
1:
6932:. Routledge. pp. 28–32.
6459:Oxford Islamic Studies Online
6163:The Prolegomena to the Qur'an
5145:, p.197. UK Islamic Academy.
4973:(Press release). 22 July 2015
4655:Lester, Toby (January 1999).
4079:The Prolegomena to the Qur'an
3567:The Prolegomena to the Qur'an
3513:The Prolegomena to the Qur'an
3201:Taher, Abul (8 August 2000).
3134:Oxford Islamic Studies Online
3091:Oxford Islamic Studies Online
3006:
2999:because none have been found.
2841:by dumping them in the river
2721:("1342 Cairo text" using the
2186:Early canonization hypothesis
2098:
7173:Adam J. Silverstein (2010).
6996:Revelation and Falsification
6951:Revelation and Falsification
6672:. In Reeves, John C. (ed.).
6261:. Random House. p. 29.
6186:Al-Khu'i, Al-Sayyid (1998).
6161:Al-Khu'i, Al-Sayyid (1998).
5464:"Calligraphy and the Qur'an"
5389:"Calligraphy and the Qur'an"
4077:Al-Khu'i, Al-Sayyid (1998).
3792:, p.83. UK Islamic Academy.
3725:The collection of the Qur'an
3565:Al-Khu'i, Al-Sayyid (1998).
3511:Al-Khu'i, Al-Sayyid (1998).
3329:. Random House. p. 29.
3011:
2915:was discovered. It has been
2749:(excluding Egypt) where the
2584:later enforced this system.
2293:Another case is that of the
2151:Late canonization hypothesis
2016:
2012:Abu Ubaid al-Qasim bin Salam
1663:
783:
7:
7177:. Oxford University Press.
7105:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān
6930:The Qur'an: An encyclopedia
6928:. In Leaman, Oliver (ed.).
6069:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān
6027:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān
5981:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān
5782:Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān
5468:The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia
5422:Journal of Qur'anic Studies
5393:The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia
5360:The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia
5356:"Manuscript and the Qur'an"
5196:Journal of Qur'anic Studies
5037:"Research and conservation"
3837:The Qur'an: an Encyclopedia
3130:"The Qurʾan - Introduction"
2935:
2784:“readings”, namely that of
2264:Birmingham Quran manuscript
2070:
2023:
2006:
1628:and his followers refused.
1278:
1071:Hadith of the pen and paper
829:
694:History of the Quran (book)
93:conditions to do so are met
10:
7264:
6922:Lalani, Arzina R. (2006).
6574:Leirvik, Oddbjørn (2010).
6484:In the Shadow of the Sword
6359:Cambridge University Press
6188:The Prolegomena the Qur'an
5956:The Quran: an Encyclopedia
5715:The Quran: an Encyclopedia
5605:The Quran: an Encyclopedia
5430:Edinburgh University Press
5319:Introduction to the Qur'an
5163:Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami
5139:Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami
4542:In the Shadow of the Sword
4401:, pp. 88–89, 204n455.
3968:; Lewis, B.; Pellat, Ch.;
3786:Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami
3369:The Qur'an: A User's Guide
3227:Ohlig, Karl-Heinz (2013).
3159:Cenap Çakmak, ed. (2017).
2702:
2696:
2678:Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Muqla
2523:
2449:The second sura, entitled
2385:Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami
2251:
2113:(i.e. commentaries on the
2107:sources" –
2091:
1667:
1579:
1232:Islamic scholarly accounts
1215:
691:
7107:. Brill Reference Online.
7016:Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali
7000:. Brill. pp. 30–37.
6977:. Yale University Press.
6955:. Brill. pp. 12–23.
6864:; Sinai, Nicolai (eds.).
6636:10.1163/9789004228795_017
6616:The History of the Qurʾān
6534:Columbia University Press
5713:Stefan Wild, "basmallah"
5081:10.1017/S0041977X19000338
4041:10.5913/jiqsa.1.2017.a006
4033:10.5913/jiqsa.1.2017.a006
3283:"Beginning of Revelation"
2952:Early Quranic manuscripts
2911:In the 20th century, the
2788:(d. 180/796), student of
2526:Early Quranic manuscripts
2442:The first sura, entitled
2431:, with three verses, and
2266:have been discovered and
2195:) dating to the reign of
7215:15 November 2015 at the
7101:"Shīʿism and the Qurʾān"
6668:Reeves, John C. (2004).
6430:Harvard University Press
5921:Mattson, Ingrid (2013).
5626:( ed.). Blackwell.
5041:University of Birmingham
4970:University of Birmingham
4857:Whelan, Estelle (1998).
4571:Crone, Patricia (1987).
3744:. Mohammad Hafiz Ganie.
3664:Sutton, Antoine (2018).
2982:
1820:The Fourteen Infallibles
1407:Salim Mawla Abi Hudhayfa
1295:According to the famous
1276:The Quran uses the term
692:Not to be confused with
7219:British Library website
6858:"The Qurʾan As Process"
6856:Sinai, Nicolai (2009).
6393:Oxford University Press
6347:MacAuliffe, Jane Dammen
6345:Leemhuis, Fred (2006).
6297:Oxford University Press
6142:Takmilat Fath al-Mulhim
5732:Brockett, Adrian Alan,
5603:Stefan Wild, "Reading"
5592:recitation of the Quran
5462:Leaman, Oliver (2006).
5438:10.3366/jqs.2007.9.1.78
5387:Leaman, Oliver (2006).
5354:Leaman, Oliver (2006).
5272:10.1515/islam-2011-0025
5062:van Putten, M. (2019).
5017:. BBC. 23 December 2015
4995:. BBC. 23 December 2015
3831:Leaman, Oliver (2006).
3738:Ganie, Mohammad Hafiz.
3496:Ibn al-Hajjaj, Muslim.
3471:Rippin, Andrew (2009).
3446:Rippin, Andrew (2009).
3262:. Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı
2866:Sunni versus Shia views
2764:under the patronage of
2197:Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan
1634:Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan
1461:The Generous (al-Ghani)
880:After Conquest of Mecca
7139:. UK Islamic Academy.
6727:Reynolds, Gabriel Said
6604:Bergsträsser, Gotthelf
6064:McAuliffe, Jane Dammen
6022:McAuliffe, Jane Dammen
5976:McAuliffe, Jane Dammen
5974:(2006). "Basmala". In
5828:Reynolds, Gabriel Said
5777:McAuliffe, Jane Dammen
5519:University of Michigan
5221:Anthony, Sean (2019).
5187:Harvey, Ramon (2017).
4625:Cook, Michael (1983).
4515:Andrew Rippin (2009).
2977:Criticism of the Quran
2877:routes of transmission
2614:
2570:
2326:
2317:The right page of the
2305:has speculated that a
2226:
1881:Succession to Muhammad
1810:Military career of Ali
1744:Timeline of Ali's life
1599:Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman
1437:his successor, Caliph
1431:
1389:Abu Bakr's compilation
1324:
1305:Khadija bint Khuwaylid
1066:Companions of Muhammad
904:Milestones and records
162:"History of the Quran"
7118:Encyclopaedia Iranica
6806:10.4324/9780203939604
6790:Abingdon, Oxfordshire
6755:10.4324/9780203939604
6739:Abingdon, Oxfordshire
5954:Stefan Wild, "Canon"
5856:10.4324/9780203939604
5840:Abingdon, Oxfordshire
5750:, p. 164. Taken from
5541:"11th Century Qur'an"
5300:. Islamicbulletin.org
5208:10.3366/jqs.2017.0268
4523:Oxford Bibliographies
4281:, pp. 22, 25–26.
3698:Aḥmad, Āftāb (1984).
3409:Al Faruqi, Lois Ibsen
3367:Esack, Farid (2005).
3254:Birışık, Abdülhamid.
3027:Donner, Fred (2010).
2888:(The Two Lights) and
2612:
2565:
2524:Further information:
2316:
2295:Birmingham manuscript
2274:The discovery of the
2221:
2010:by the Sunni exegete
1754:Event of Ghadir Khumm
1655:Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei
1580:Further information:
1512:Samarkand Kufic Quran
1434:Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani
1427:
1320:
1216:Further information:
966:Splitting of the Moon
311:Birmingham manuscript
296:Samarkand Kufic Quran
6925:"'Ali ibn Abi Talib"
6876:. pp. 405–440.
6860:. In Marx, Michael;
6630:. pp. 251–275.
6361:. pp. 145–155.
6299:. pp. 109–112.
6138:Muhammad Taqi Usmani
6124:Shu'aib al-Arna`ut,
4657:"What Is the Koran?"
3536:Jones, Alan (2003).
3233:. Prometheus Books.
3203:"Querying the Koran"
3140:on 17 September 2008
2743:modified vowel-signs
2666:(died 154/770), and
2546:). Vowelling marks (
2368:ʿAbdullah ibn Masʿud
2076:) about this issue.
1886:Great Mosque of Kufa
1178:Biography portal
701:history of the Quran
147:improve this article
7099:Bar-Asher, Meir M.
7078:Modarressi, Hossein
6600:Schwally, Friedrich
6552:10.7312/hugh16146.8
6414:Donner, Fred McGraw
6277:Bulliet, Richard W.
6255:(2 December 2008).
5293:Ahmad von Denffer.
4838:on 5 September 2008
4329:, pp. 172–173.
2758:Al-Azhar University
2713:Hinckelmann edition
2643:Abu Bakr b. Mujāhid
2605:Early Abbasid Style
2374:Abdullah ibn Masʿud
2354:Abdullah ibn Masʿud
1677:Part of a series on
1360:Muhammad's cousin,
1301:Muhammad al-Bukhari
1122:Al-Masjid an-Nabawi
887:Farewell Pilgrimage
80:of this article is
7243:Literary criticism
6862:Neuwirth, Angelika
6688:. pp. 43–60.
6536:. pp. 67–92.
6465:on 31 January 2008
6144:, vol. 1, pg. 69.
5972:Graham, William A.
5756:C. Hurst & Co.
5746:Peter G. Riddell,
5690:Aisha Geissinger,
4437:, pp. 77, 81.
3285:. Missionislam.com
2737:, the 8th-century
2735:ʻAsim's recitation
2693:1924 Cairo edition
2634:During this time,
2615:
2571:
2327:
2227:
1345:was predominantly
1339:Pre-Islamic Arabia
1024:Medieval Christian
560:Biblical parallels
306:Topkapi manuscript
7201:Islamic Awareness
7184:978-0-19-954572-8
7165:978-0-521-53934-0
7042:Ayoub, Mahmoud M.
6891:978-90-04-17688-1
6848:978-0-520-38903-8
6815:978-0-415-42899-6
6764:978-0-415-42899-6
6695:978-90-04-12726-5
6645:978-90-04-21234-3
6587:978-1-4411-8160-2
6580:. A&C Black.
6543:978-0-231-53192-4
6502:978-0-385-53135-1
6452:Esposito, John L.
6443:978-0-674-05097-6
6314:978-0-19-969776-2
6268:978-1-4070-0928-5
6060:Böwering, Gerhard
6045:978-90-04-14764-5
5865:978-0-415-42899-6
4933:. Huffington Post
4696:OpenDemocracy.net
4690:Crone, Patricia.
4466:, pp. 36–39.
4353:, pp. 32–33.
4341:, pp. 31–32.
4239:, pp. 29–30.
4143:, pp. 17–18.
4104:, pp. 30–31.
4001:978-90-04-16121-4
3962:van Donzel, E. J.
3482:978-1-4051-8820-3
3457:978-1-4051-8820-3
3336:978-1-4070-0928-5
3240:978-1-61614-825-6
3108:978-0-19-516520-3
3046:978-0-674-05097-6
2626:New Abbasid Style
2481:is known to be a
2393:Al-Mu'awwidhatayn
2347:Companion codices
2268:radiocarbon dated
2254:Textual criticism
2235:Stephen Shoemaker
2176:Stephen Shoemaker
2165:hadith literature
2007:Fada'il al-Qur'an
1994:Muhammad al-Mahdi
1947:
1946:
1706:Sunni view of Ali
1636:to destroy them.
1578:
1577:
1226:According to the
1218:Muhammad in Islam
1214:
1213:
773:Ali ibn Abi Talib
690:
689:
574:Mentioned by name
241:
240:
233:
223:
222:
215:
197:
121:
120:
113:
59:
7255:
7238:History of books
7233:History of Islam
7188:
7169:
7150:
7121:
7108:
7095:
7073:
7053:
7037:
7025:
7011:
6999:
6988:
6966:
6954:
6943:
6927:
6918:
6916:
6914:
6874:Brill Publishers
6852:
6827:
6787:
6776:
6736:
6722:
6720:
6718:
6686:Brill Publishers
6680:. Vol. 24.
6664:
6662:
6660:
6628:Brill Publishers
6596:Nöldeke, Theodor
6591:
6570:
6568:
6566:
6518:Hughes, Aaron W.
6513:
6511:
6509:
6474:
6472:
6470:
6461:. Archived from
6447:
6423:
6409:
6386:
6372:
6341:
6339:
6337:
6285:Stroumsa, Guy G.
6272:
6240:
6229:
6223:
6208:
6202:
6201:
6183:
6177:
6176:
6158:
6149:
6135:
6129:
6122:
6116:
6106:
6100:
6099:
6078:Brill Publishers
6056:
6050:
6049:
6036:Brill Publishers
6030:. Vol. VI.
6018:
6012:
6011:
5990:Brill Publishers
5968:
5962:
5952:
5946:
5945:
5943:
5941:
5918:
5912:
5910:
5908:
5906:
5891:
5885:
5884:
5882:
5880:
5837:
5824:
5813:
5812:
5791:Brill Publishers
5785:. Vol. IV.
5772:
5766:
5744:
5738:
5730:
5721:
5711:
5702:
5688:
5682:
5681:
5657:
5651:
5637:
5617:
5611:
5601:
5595:
5582:Commences with ۞
5575:
5569:
5563:
5557:
5556:
5554:
5552:
5543:. Archived from
5537:
5531:
5530:
5506:
5500:
5499:
5492:
5486:
5485:
5459:
5450:
5449:
5417:
5411:
5410:
5384:
5378:
5377:
5351:
5330:
5316:
5310:
5309:
5307:
5305:
5299:
5290:
5284:
5283:
5241:
5235:
5234:
5218:
5212:
5211:
5193:
5184:
5178:
5160:
5154:
5136:
5130:
5127:
5121:
5110:
5104:
5103:
5093:
5083:
5059:
5053:
5052:
5050:
5048:
5033:
5027:
5026:
5024:
5022:
5011:
5005:
5004:
5002:
5000:
4989:
4983:
4982:
4980:
4978:
4961:
4955:
4949:
4943:
4942:
4940:
4938:
4926:
4920:
4915:Patricia Crone,
4913:
4907:
4893:
4887:
4886:
4854:
4848:
4847:
4845:
4843:
4834:. Archived from
4828:
4822:
4821:
4814:
4808:
4807:
4805:
4803:
4778:
4772:
4766:
4760:
4754:
4743:
4737:
4731:
4730:
4728:
4726:
4717:. Archived from
4706:
4700:
4699:
4687:
4674:
4673:
4671:
4669:
4652:
4641:
4640:
4622:
4616:
4610:
4604:
4603:
4595:
4589:
4583:
4577:
4576:
4568:
4562:
4556:
4547:
4537:
4531:
4530:
4520:
4512:
4503:
4497:
4491:
4485:
4479:
4473:
4467:
4461:
4450:
4447:Amir-Moezzi 2009
4444:
4438:
4432:
4426:
4420:
4414:
4411:Amir-Moezzi 2009
4408:
4402:
4399:Amir-Moezzi 1994
4396:
4390:
4384:
4378:
4375:Amir-Moezzi 2009
4372:
4366:
4360:
4354:
4348:
4342:
4336:
4330:
4324:
4318:
4312:
4306:
4300:
4294:
4291:Amir-Moezzi 2009
4288:
4282:
4276:
4267:
4264:Amir-Moezzi 1998
4261:
4255:
4252:Amir-Moezzi 1994
4249:
4240:
4237:Amir-Moezzi 2009
4234:
4228:
4225:Amir-Moezzi 2009
4222:
4211:
4205:
4199:
4193:
4187:
4181:
4168:
4162:
4156:
4153:Amir-Moezzi 2009
4150:
4144:
4138:
4129:
4128:, p. 16–17.
4123:
4117:
4111:
4105:
4099:
4093:
4092:
4074:
4068:
4062:
4053:
4052:
4012:
4006:
4005:
3984:Brill Publishers
3966:Heinrichs, W. P.
3955:
3947:
3930:
3929:
3911:
3905:
3904:
3886:
3880:
3879:
3861:
3855:
3854:
3828:
3817:
3807:
3801:
3783:
3777:
3776:
3774:
3772:
3762:
3756:
3755:
3735:
3729:
3728:
3720:
3714:
3713:
3711:
3709:
3695:
3689:
3688:
3686:
3684:
3661:
3655:
3654:
3646:
3637:
3636:
3634:
3632:
3622:
3616:
3615:
3587:
3581:
3580:
3562:
3556:
3555:
3533:
3527:
3526:
3508:
3502:
3501:
3493:
3487:
3486:
3468:
3462:
3461:
3443:
3437:
3436:
3405:
3399:
3389:
3383:
3382:
3364:
3341:
3340:
3320:
3314:
3313:
3301:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3290:
3278:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3267:
3251:
3245:
3244:
3224:
3218:
3217:
3215:
3213:
3198:
3192:
3181:
3175:
3174:
3156:
3150:
3149:
3147:
3145:
3136:. Archived from
3126:
3120:
3119:
3117:
3115:
3082:
3076:
3075:
3057:
3051:
3050:
3034:
3024:
3000:
2993:
2967:Quranic timeline
2947:Corpus Coranicum
2929:François Déroche
2913:Sanaa manuscript
2851:Shaykh al-Maqâri
2774:Kingdom of Egypt
2723:Islamic calendar
2709:Marracci edition
2662:(died 120/737),
2658:(died 169/785),
2496:appeared in the
2341:Corpus Coranicum
2329:Keith Small, in
2299:François Déroche
2276:Sanaa manuscript
2260:Sanaa manuscript
2223:Dome of the Rock
2193:Dome of the Rock
2155:The rise of the
2075:
2067:
2065:
2056:
2053:
2050:
2046:
2043:
2040:
2037:
2034:
2026:
2024:Kitab al-Qira'at
2020:
2018:
2009:
1977:abrogated verses
1963:) and the first
1962:
1960:
1939:
1932:
1925:
1911:Islam portal
1909:
1908:
1907:
1870:Related articles
1858:Hazrat Ali Mazar
1835:Ali in the Quran
1829:The Twelve Imams
1711:Shia view of Ali
1693:
1674:
1673:
1642:Beliefs of some
1588:Uthman ibn Affan
1570:
1563:
1556:
1542:Islam portal
1540:
1539:
1538:
1478:Related articles
1471:
1462:
1453:
1452:
1401:in 633, when 70
1399:Battle of Yamama
1287:
1286:
1281:
1206:
1199:
1192:
1176:
1175:
1174:
1166:Islam portal
1164:
1163:
1162:
1146:History of Islam
951:First revelation
834:
833:
778:Sanaa manuscript
761:Uthman ibn Affan
682:
675:
668:
626:Quran and Sunnah
301:Sanaa manuscript
270:First revelation
243:
242:
236:
229:
218:
211:
207:
204:
198:
196:
155:
131:
123:
116:
109:
105:
102:
96:
70:
69:
62:
51:
29:
28:
21:
7263:
7262:
7258:
7257:
7256:
7254:
7253:
7252:
7223:
7222:
7217:Wayback Machine
7195:
7185:
7166:
7147:
7128:
7126:Further reading
7092:
7070:
7034:
7008:
6985:
6963:
6940:
6912:
6910:
6892:
6849:
6816:
6765:
6716:
6714:
6696:
6658:
6656:
6646:
6588:
6564:
6562:
6544:
6507:
6505:
6503:
6468:
6466:
6444:
6403:
6369:
6335:
6333:
6315:
6269:
6248:
6243:
6230:
6226:
6209:
6205:
6198:
6184:
6180:
6173:
6159:
6152:
6136:
6132:
6123:
6119:
6107:
6103:
6096:
6072:. Vol. I.
6057:
6053:
6046:
6019:
6015:
6008:
5984:. Vol. I.
5969:
5965:
5953:
5949:
5939:
5937:
5935:
5919:
5915:
5904:
5902:
5893:
5892:
5888:
5878:
5876:
5866:
5825:
5816:
5809:
5773:
5769:
5745:
5741:
5731:
5724:
5712:
5705:
5689:
5685:
5670:10.2307/1596266
5662:Studia Islamica
5658:
5654:
5634:
5618:
5614:
5602:
5598:
5576:
5572:
5564:
5560:
5550:
5548:
5539:
5538:
5534:
5507:
5503:
5494:
5493:
5489:
5482:
5460:
5453:
5418:
5414:
5407:
5385:
5381:
5374:
5352:
5333:
5317:
5313:
5303:
5301:
5297:
5291:
5287:
5242:
5238:
5219:
5215:
5191:
5185:
5181:
5161:
5157:
5137:
5133:
5128:
5124:
5111:
5107:
5060:
5056:
5046:
5044:
5035:
5034:
5030:
5020:
5018:
5013:
5012:
5008:
4998:
4996:
4991:
4990:
4986:
4976:
4974:
4963:
4962:
4958:
4950:
4946:
4936:
4934:
4927:
4923:
4914:
4910:
4894:
4890:
4855:
4851:
4841:
4839:
4830:
4829:
4825:
4816:
4815:
4811:
4801:
4799:
4797:
4779:
4775:
4767:
4763:
4755:
4746:
4738:
4734:
4724:
4722:
4709:Cook, Michael.
4707:
4703:
4688:
4677:
4667:
4665:
4653:
4644:
4637:
4623:
4619:
4611:
4607:
4596:
4592:
4584:
4580:
4569:
4565:
4557:
4550:
4538:
4534:
4513:
4506:
4500:Modarressi 1993
4498:
4494:
4486:
4482:
4474:
4470:
4464:Modarressi 1993
4462:
4453:
4445:
4441:
4433:
4429:
4421:
4417:
4409:
4405:
4397:
4393:
4385:
4381:
4373:
4369:
4363:Modarressi 1993
4361:
4357:
4349:
4345:
4337:
4333:
4325:
4321:
4313:
4309:
4303:Modarressi 1993
4301:
4297:
4289:
4285:
4279:Modarressi 1993
4277:
4270:
4262:
4258:
4250:
4243:
4235:
4231:
4223:
4214:
4206:
4202:
4196:Modarressi 1993
4194:
4190:
4184:Modarressi 2003
4182:
4171:
4163:
4159:
4151:
4147:
4141:Modarressi 1993
4139:
4132:
4126:Modarressi 1993
4124:
4120:
4112:
4108:
4100:
4096:
4089:
4075:
4071:
4065:Modarressi 1993
4063:
4056:
4013:
4009:
4002:
3978:. Vol. 1.
3958:Bosworth, C. E.
3948:
3933:
3926:
3912:
3908:
3901:
3887:
3883:
3876:
3862:
3858:
3851:
3829:
3820:
3808:
3804:
3784:
3780:
3770:
3768:
3764:
3763:
3759:
3752:
3736:
3732:
3721:
3717:
3707:
3705:
3696:
3692:
3682:
3680:
3678:
3662:
3658:
3647:
3640:
3630:
3628:
3624:
3623:
3619:
3604:10.2307/1595789
3592:Studia Islamica
3588:
3584:
3577:
3563:
3559:
3552:
3534:
3530:
3523:
3509:
3505:
3494:
3490:
3483:
3469:
3465:
3458:
3444:
3440:
3406:
3402:
3390:
3386:
3379:
3365:
3344:
3337:
3321:
3317:
3302:
3298:
3288:
3286:
3279:
3275:
3265:
3263:
3252:
3248:
3241:
3225:
3221:
3211:
3209:
3199:
3195:
3183:F. E. Peters, "
3182:
3178:
3171:
3157:
3153:
3143:
3141:
3128:
3127:
3123:
3113:
3111:
3109:
3083:
3079:
3072:
3058:
3054:
3047:
3025:
3018:
3014:
3009:
3004:
3003:
2994:
2990:
2985:
2972:Qisas Al-Anbiya
2938:
2909:
2868:
2823:Kufan tradition
2819:Quran chapter 9
2815:Quran chapter 1
2766:Fuad I of Egypt
2715:
2701:
2695:
2628:
2607:
2602:
2560:
2528:
2522:
2469:. (See Nawawi,
2410:
2370:
2349:
2256:
2250:
2209:Surat al-Ikhlas
2188:
2172:John Wansbrough
2153:
2133:source-critical
2101:
2096:
2094:Quranic studies
2090:
2088:Quranic studies
2066: 934–1062
2062:
2054:
2051:
2048:
2044:
2041:
2038:
2035:
2015:
2002:
1957:
1954:Rashidun caliph
1943:
1905:
1903:
1891:
1890:
1876:Rashidun Caliph
1871:
1863:
1862:
1853:Imam Ali Shrine
1848:
1840:
1839:
1805:
1797:
1796:
1787:Imam Ali Mosque
1772:Nahj al-Balagha
1767:
1759:
1758:
1724:
1716:
1715:
1701:
1672:
1666:
1584:
1574:
1536:
1534:
1522:
1521:
1479:
1460:
1459:
1451:
1443:Hafsa bint Umar
1423:Zayd ibn Thabit
1417:'s insistence,
1391:
1351:Zayd ibn Thabit
1309:ma ana bīqāre'u
1248:Western Arabian
1224:
1210:
1172:
1170:
1160:
1158:
1151:
1150:
1117:
1109:
1108:
1089:
1081:
1080:
1051:
1041:
1040:
1002:
994:
993:
979:
971:
970:
959:Isra and Mi'raj
942:
932:
931:
917:
909:
908:
891:Farewell Sermon
858:
832:
786:
745:to compile the
743:Zayd ibn Thabit
725:Quranic studies
697:
686:
641:
640:
616:
615:
606:
605:
591:
590:
589:Characteristics
581:
580:
570:
568:Related persons
533:
532:
521:
520:
499:
498:
487:
486:
448:
447:
436:
435:
382:
381:
372:
371:
326:
325:
316:
315:
260:
259:
237:
226:
225:
224:
219:
208:
202:
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5901:. 9 March 2009
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4721:on 29 May 2023
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5202:(1): 72–101.
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4792:
4789:. Routledge.
4788:
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4758:
4753:
4751:
4749:
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4509:
4502:, p. 29.
4501:
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4478:, p. 74.
4477:
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4458:
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4449:, p. 28.
4448:
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4431:
4425:, p. 29.
4424:
4419:
4413:, p. 25.
4412:
4407:
4400:
4395:
4389:, p. 90.
4388:
4383:
4377:, p. 26.
4376:
4371:
4365:, p. 32.
4364:
4359:
4352:
4351:Kohlberg 2009
4347:
4340:
4339:Kohlberg 2009
4335:
4328:
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4316:
4311:
4305:, p. 23.
4304:
4299:
4293:, p. 16.
4292:
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4275:
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4265:
4260:
4254:, p. 89.
4253:
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4226:
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4197:
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4166:
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4154:
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747:written Quran
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203:December 2015
195:
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167:
164: –
163:
159:
158:Find sources:
152:
148:
142:
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136:This article
134:
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7155:
7136:
7117:
7104:
7081:
7059:
7048:
7021:
6995:
6974:
6950:
6929:
6911:. Retrieved
6865:
6833:
6783:
6732:
6715:. Retrieved
6673:
6657:. Retrieved
6615:
6608:Pretzl, Otto
6576:
6563:. Retrieved
6525:
6506:. Retrieved
6483:
6479:Holland, Tom
6467:. Retrieved
6463:the original
6458:
6419:
6406:
6382:
6350:
6334:. Retrieved
6288:
6257:
6246:Bibliography
6236:
6232:
6227:
6219:
6215:
6206:
6187:
6181:
6162:
6133:
6125:
6120:
6104:
6067:
6054:
6025:
6016:
5979:
5966:
5955:
5950:
5938:. Retrieved
5923:
5916:
5903:. Retrieved
5898:
5889:
5877:. Retrieved
5833:
5780:
5770:
5751:
5742:
5733:
5714:
5686:
5664:(91): 5–22.
5661:
5655:
5642:Introduction
5641:
5622:
5615:
5604:
5599:
5587:rubʿ al-ḥizb
5585:
5573:
5568:: p. 74
5561:
5551:19 September
5549:. Retrieved
5545:the original
5535:
5514:
5510:
5504:
5490:
5467:
5425:
5421:
5415:
5392:
5382:
5359:
5318:
5314:
5304:19 September
5302:. Retrieved
5288:
5255:
5249:
5239:
5230:
5226:
5216:
5199:
5195:
5182:
5166:
5158:
5142:
5134:
5125:
5108:
5071:
5067:
5057:
5045:. Retrieved
5031:
5019:. Retrieved
5009:
4997:. Retrieved
4987:
4975:. Retrieved
4968:
4959:
4947:
4935:. Retrieved
4924:
4911:
4895:
4891:
4866:
4862:
4852:
4840:. Retrieved
4836:the original
4826:
4812:
4800:. Retrieved
4786:
4776:
4764:
4735:
4723:. Retrieved
4719:the original
4714:
4704:
4695:
4666:. Retrieved
4662:The Atlantic
4660:
4626:
4620:
4608:
4599:
4593:
4581:
4572:
4566:
4541:
4535:
4526:
4522:
4495:
4483:
4471:
4442:
4430:
4418:
4406:
4394:
4382:
4370:
4358:
4346:
4334:
4322:
4310:
4298:
4286:
4259:
4232:
4203:
4191:
4186:, p. 2.
4160:
4148:
4121:
4109:
4097:
4078:
4072:
4024:
4020:
4010:
3973:
3915:
3909:
3890:
3884:
3865:
3859:
3836:
3811:
3805:
3789:
3781:
3771:19 September
3769:. Retrieved
3760:
3740:
3733:
3724:
3718:
3706:. Retrieved
3704:. p. 26
3700:
3693:
3681:. Retrieved
3666:
3659:
3650:
3631:19 September
3629:. Retrieved
3620:
3595:
3591:
3585:
3566:
3560:
3541:
3531:
3512:
3506:
3491:
3472:
3466:
3447:
3441:
3416:
3412:
3403:
3387:
3368:
3325:
3318:
3309:
3305:
3299:
3287:. Retrieved
3276:
3264:. Retrieved
3259:
3249:
3229:
3222:
3210:. Retrieved
3207:the Guardian
3206:
3196:
3188:
3179:
3160:
3154:
3142:. Retrieved
3138:the original
3133:
3124:
3112:. Retrieved
3090:
3080:
3061:
3055:
3030:
2996:
2991:
2910:
2901:
2894:
2890:"al-Walayah"
2889:
2885:
2882:
2873:
2869:
2856:Bergsträsser
2849:
2847:
2831:1834 edition
2808:
2802:
2798:
2769:
2755:
2747:North Africa
2733:") based on
2729:" version ("
2716:
2687:
2682:calligraphic
2676:
2672:
2640:
2633:
2629:
2620:
2616:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2578:Abd al-Malik
2575:
2572:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2536:
2533:
2529:
2512:
2508:
2506:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2490:
2482:
2477:
2475:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2448:
2443:
2441:
2432:
2428:
2426:
2421:
2417:
2411:
2382:
2371:
2361:
2350:
2330:
2328:
2292:
2288:Gerd R. Puin
2273:
2257:
2239:
2228:
2189:
2180:Abd al-Malik
2169:
2161:canonization
2154:
2125:
2118:
2108:
2105:
2102:
2078:
2042:exaggerators
2003:
1990:Twelve Imams
1982:Twelver Shia
1973:
1948:
1804:Perspectives
1659:
1641:
1638:
1630:
1611:
1607:
1596:
1592:
1585:
1432:
1428:
1392:
1383:
1379:
1373:
1369:
1366:
1359:
1336:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1308:
1294:
1275:
1225:
1061:Ghadir Khumm
1001:Perspectives
823:
819:
813:
808:
804:
802:
797:
793:
787:
754:
729:
717:canonization
700:
698:
654:Islam portal
543:Hermeneutics
496:Translations
364:
256:
227:
209:
200:
190:
183:
176:
169:
157:
145:Please help
140:verification
137:
107:
98:
76:
52:
45:
39:
38:Please help
35:
18:
7133:M. M. Azami
6796:. pp.
6745:. pp.
6432:. pp.
6253:Aslan, Reza
6239:(2012), 23.
6222:(2012), 26.
5846:. pp.
5646:Tamara Sonn
5521:: 119–148.
5047:6 September
4869:(1): 1–14.
4759:: p.219-220
4613:Berg (2000)
4423:Lalani 2006
4165:Lalani 2006
4102:Lalani 2006
4027:: 108–112.
3970:Schacht, J.
3953:"al-Ḳurʾān"
3413:Asian Music
3266:25 February
2925:lower texts
2917:radiocarbon
2907:Manuscripts
2886:"al-Nurayn"
2762:Amiri Press
2652:seven aḥruf
2647:consonantal
2213:Fred Donner
2145:numismatics
2137:archaeology
2082:Ahl al-Bayt
1734:First Fitna
1492:Family tree
1230:belief and
1129:Possessions
1076:Ahl al-Bayt
1031:Historicity
548:Esotericism
426:Eschatology
290:Manuscripts
284:Historicity
7227:Categories
7069:0198265468
7033:0791421228
6913:15 January
6717:15 January
6659:15 January
6565:14 October
6402:0192853449
6336:14 October
6323:2014960132
5879:15 January
5754:. London:
5432:: 78–110.
5264:De Gruyter
5091:1887/79373
5021:4 February
4999:4 February
4771:: p.217-18
4636:0192876058
4488:Ayoub 1988
4476:Momen 1985
4435:Momen 1985
4387:Esack 2005
4327:Momen 1985
4208:Momen 1985
4114:Esack 2005
3419:(1): 3–4.
3212:6 December
3007:References
2921:palimpsest
2794:King Faruq
2739:recitation
2703:See also:
2660:Ibn Kathir
2488:No. 446.)
2307:palimpsest
2286:headed by
2252:See also:
2099:Background
2052:extremists
2019: 838
1729:Birthplace
1626:Ibn Masʿūd
1517:Uthmaniyya
1395:companions
1332:Companions
1049:Succession
989:Christians
927:Diplomatic
636:Shi’a view
553:Abrogation
366:Muqatta'at
173:newspapers
78:neutrality
41:improve it
6908:191057440
6900:1567-2808
6824:211653850
6794:Routledge
6773:160637821
6743:Routledge
6712:160092342
6704:1569-3627
6654:1567-2808
6560:169663918
6508:29 August
6493:Doubleday
6355:Cambridge
6331:170430270
6233:Der Islam
6216:Der Islam
5960:Routledge
5874:160637821
5844:Routledge
5719:Routledge
5609:Routledge
5584:(1/199) (
5280:164120434
5251:Der Islam
5100:231795084
4977:26 August
4588:: p.422-6
4540:Holland,
4315:Bar-Asher
4049:149034877
3812:The Koran
3708:17 August
3683:17 August
3598:(77): 8.
3012:Citations
2997:Mhaggraye
2835:Ibn Abbās
2753:is used.
2471:al-adhkar
2397:al-Nawawi
2389:Al-Fatiha
2242:Ibn Ishaq
2141:epigraphy
2047: or
1965:Shia Imam
1777:Al-Ghadir
1664:Shia view
1603:al-Tabari
1502:Campaigns
1362:Ibn Abbas
1290:scripture
1036:Criticism
784:Etymology
751:memorized
705:holy book
621:Criticism
601:Inerrancy
514:Ahmadiyya
324:Divisions
89:talk page
47:talk page
7213:Archived
7135:(2003).
7080:(2003).
7044:(1988).
7018:(1994).
6973:(1985).
6610:(2013).
6530:New York
6520:(2013).
6489:New York
6481:(2012).
6416:(2010).
6379:(2000).
6287:(eds.).
6279:(2015).
5940:11 April
5905:11 April
5899:Islamweb
5758:, 2001.
5446:25728237
5329:, p. 51.
5233:: 73–79.
5165:(2003),
5141:(2003),
5120:. p. 178
4937:24 March
4802:30 March
4725:15 March
4627:Muhammad
4615:: p. 495
4518:"Qur'an"
3972:(eds.).
3788:(2003),
3312:: 58–68.
3256:"KUR'AN"
2936:See also
2896:Al-Khoei
2778:colophon
2770:amīriyya
2668:IbnʿAmir
2664:Abu ʿAmr
2437:Ṣanʽā’ 1
2401:Ibn Hazm
2378:Muhammad
2262:and the
1899:Category
1782:Zulfiqar
1622:Damascus
1530:Category
1497:Election
1484:Rashidun
1419:Abu Bakr
1411:Muhammad
1374:al-kitab
1370:al-kitab
1343:Muhammad
1250:city of
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