History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1648–1764)

4682: 2285: 998: 2238: 1038:. War destruction affected the diversified magnate possessions to a lesser degree than single estates of middle szlachta, which increasingly turned szlachta into dependent clients of their "elder brothers". Parts of a latifundium were typically leased or run by hired szlachta or urban, often Jewish, hierarchy of administrators, with each layer exploiting the serf laborers. The various aspects of commercial life in the territories, including agriculture, trade, mining, and manufacturing, had previously been controlled by szlachta in a legally protected way. Now, in the more decentralized and anarchistic feudal state, the magnate class was in a position to establish in its state-like domains absolute rule, based not on laws but on practical advantages they enjoyed. The regional authority and power that the magnates attained was exerted by a variety of means, including private military forces. 1483: 1819: 5622: 1738: 3274: 1620: 3998: 3044: 1118: 5746: 4802: 4946:

establishment. The Commonwealth military lacked talented commanders and lost its will to fight for a cause, even though during the Northern War it could be up to 50,000 men strong (in addition to the Saxon army of 30,000). After 1717, the radically reduced Polish army had become a neglected rump of its former self. The Commonwealth diplomacy likewise fell into obscurity, in spite of the extensive resident European diplomatic service maintained by Augustus II and staffed mostly by Saxons. The Commonwealth had become a passive participant of European politics, which contrasted with the activist, but unconcerned in this respect Saxon court.

5058: 2734: 959: 6507: 6723: 6663: 6090: 940:-based economy of the Commonwealth had tried to adjust. The particular solutions adopted resulted eventually in deterioration of the effectiveness of agricultural practices, lower productivity and pauperization of the rural population. But the degree to which the economic regression in the Commonwealth had progressed had no parallels in the economies of the neighboring countries, some of which practiced the same type of rural economy. While the war destruction that took place during the events of 1655–60 was particularly devastating, the Commonwealth was subjected to constant warfare from 1648 to 1720. 1046: 4182: 3707: 5124: 6787: 2549: 4112: 4568: 6031: 5882: 3040:'s strategic interest in preventing a collapse of the Polish–Lithuanian state and uncontrolled expansion of Sweden. Not giving up its own claims and gains in the east, Russia moved against the Swedish forces in Livonia, which also facilitated their removal from Lithuania. This new situation forced Charles Gustav to alter his plans of conquering all of Poland and to propose a territorial partitioning scheme, under which the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was to be eliminated altogether and he would be able to keep at least some of Sweden's prospects. 4326: 5534: 1275: 5267: 2968: 5461: 4977: 4832: 6118: 2356: 4263: 6819: 4505: 902: 6300: 5313: 1197: 6585: 2188:

complemented the destruction and depopulation reached 40% in some regions of the country. The losses caused damage to the cohesiveness of the Cossack army and led to greater pro-Moscow orientation and dependence on the northeastern neighbor. The Cossack hetman turned to his prior concepts of increasing cooperation with Russia (talks with the Tsardom took place already in 1651, but the deal was not consummated at that time because of the Berestechko defeat), the country of more distant common

437: 2128: 6466: 4936: 2489: 6343: 2044: 1411:. The peasant influx into towns slowed to a trickle, while the proportion of Jewish inhabitants increased considerably. Of the 750,000 Jews living in the Commonwealth in the middle of the 18th century (other sources give about a million in the 1770s), 3/4 resided in cities, making up almost half of the total urban population. The Jews were very industrious, accepted even marginal profits and soon dominated the crafts and trade, especially in smaller towns. Their communities ( 3569: 2413: 3123: 5962: 3837: 3463: 1565: 1325: 5200: 4667: 2178: 5822: 7181: 697: 5404: 4678:

factions, were temporary (lasting up to several years) associations, whose members were at times pressured into joining, but were sworn and often deeply committed. Confederate decisions were generally made by a majority of votes. All nobility could join, and there was some urban participation. A confederation was led by a marshal and a council and was typically directed against a monarch or aspired to defend the country from foreign oppression.

4764: 4409: 2842: 6409: 4824:, succession for his descendants and parliamentary reform, through an alliance with France. Facing determined opposition from the pro-Austrian magnate camp, after 1678 the King abandoned his pro-French policies and collaborators. Deprived as a result of significant domestic support for his projects, Sobieski from 1686 also had to contend with Austria, Brandenburg and Sweden, which agreed to act together to prevent changes in the Polish 6979: 6912: 6887: 7165: 356: 2917: 1420: 3905: 5689: 6427:, level of general education. What was left of the school system, destroyed or damaged by wars and lack of interest, concentrated on religious education and cultivating the attachment to szlachta's "freedoms". The number of parish schools and secondary schools increased in the 18th century, with more serious reform commencing in the 1840s. Many secondary education colleges were conducted by religious orders of the 42: 1367: 3350: 368: 5042:. Augustus II, unable to take Riga even after a long siege, wanted to pull out of the war. For Sweden however the union of Saxony and the Commonwealth seemed a strategic and economic threat and Charles demanded that Augustus relinquishes the Polish throne as the condition for peace. The Swedish monarch expected considerable support within the Commonwealth, where in Lithuania the powerful and abusive 1910: 6068:, had remained strong ever since. Numerous Italian artists worked in the Commonwealth, supported by the royal and magnate courts, while many among the Polish upper nobility traveled to Italy to study, participate in pilgrimages or for sightseeing, and increasingly also to France, to cultivate aristocratic contacts and familiarize themselves with the Western ways of life, at such major centers as 6191: 4628: 4367:. The pact's basic goals were recovery of the lost territories and common fight until the time of a commonly agreed peace. The Holy League arrangements severely limited the Commonwealth's ability to exercise its options and future reverses can be traced to the failure of the decentralized, ineffective Polish diplomacy to protect through negotiations the country's national interest. 3406: 7055: 6903:

The ethnically Polish groups west of the Commonwealth (in Silesia and Pomerania) were often disregarded by the Polish establishment as non-nobles, and their ties with the country of their ethnic origin were getting weaker. These factors made it later difficult for Poles to find their proper place within the process of formation of modern European nations and states.

4924:. Augustus and his followers acted however more quickly and decisively than the French prince, whose belated arrival in Danzig area, where he sailed, but was blocked by supporters of Augustus from landing in the city, was not enough to prevent the Saxon from gaining the throne. This result was confirmed, after the initial unrest, by the "pacification sejm" in 1699. 4889: 6280:, and was to remain a part of the national mystique for a long time. The practical byproducts of this supposedly civic-minded, self-elevating point of view were parochialism, xenophobia, stagnation and intolerance. The Polish Catholic Church had remained likewise nationalistic and intellectually backward until the 18th century, when the reforms of the 1450:, their own small countryside towns, existing under protection of a feudal lord. Jews usually functioned under the Jewish court system, subject to noble (sejm mandated) courts in case of conflict with municipal authorities or other Christians and in appellate cases. The spatial separation was only partial and in the Commonwealth there were no formal 5503:. Augustus refused to intercede on behalf of the condemned and his standing among the unrepentant and unyielding szlachta improved. Subsequent efforts to normalize Poland's foreign relations came to an end when the Commonwealth became engulfed in factional fighting, of which the two recently formed great rival magnate camps, led respectively by the 6971:'s tragedies were shown. Despite many objections from the Jesuits and others, the trend set by the Collegium Nobillium was followed. In 1754 all the Piarist colleges were reformed and the Jesuit schools soon followed. New textbooks and teacher training methods were implemented. In the area of school theater Konarski's work was continued by 4547:, who cared about the well-being of the Commonwealth, but were obsessively preoccupied with the issue of royal succession, the Polish–Lithuanian state was informally divided into a number of territorial domains, practically controlled by regional top feudal lords, inclined to pursue their private and familial interests in the first place. 2830:. Before the end of the year, as peasant rescue units approached the site, the Swedish forces were compelled to abandon the siege. The Poles at this stage of the war were becoming increasingly effective militarily. They used the attack against the national shrine as a rallying point; it added a religious dimension and zeal (defense of 1671:, and denying the Ukrainian people cultural opportunities were some of the factors that contributed greatly to the unrest. In spite of the suppression, during the first half of the 17th century the Rus' elements in the region matured, consolidated and gained strength at all levels of society. Accordingly, a great majority of the 5301:

1715, when the action unified the pro-Swedish and pro-Russian camps and Peter I's support was secured. In the fall the Crown army became organized in an anti-Saxon capacity and fighting commenced, with large scale participation not only of szlachta, but also of the oppressed by military contributions peasants. In November, the

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introducing additional tensions within cities. Townspeople in larger cities, including Danzig, supported with dedication and generosity the national cause during the foreign invasions. The Commonwealth's urban upper layer had lost its previously prominent role in the promotion of cultural advancement, but in

5390:, but requiring participation of the Commonwealth. Peter I, however, cooperated with the Commonwealth by withdrawing his forces that same year and accordingly the Sejm would not ratify the treaty. Augustus was still able to largely free himself from Peter's protectorate, but in return was excluded from the 1587:, the manorial serfdom labor requirements were being replaced with peasant land rentals and owners collecting monetary compensation. This "buying off" of the forced labor obligations was often favored by the peasants themselves, as it improved their financial situation and reconnected them to city markets. 3593: 5602:, kept increasing, until he gained the support of both magnate camps and of much of szlachta's rank and file. But the powers which surrounded the Commonwealth opposed both candidacies. In order to control the situation within their weak Polish neighbor they concluded several pacts, beginning in 1720 in 3226:. The Protestants in Royal Prussia were guaranteed religious freedoms, Frederick William had to return his conquests in Swedish Pomerania to Sweden. John II Casimir relinquished his claims to the Swedish throne. The Treaty of Oliva involved the Commonwealth, Brandenburg and Sweden and was guaranteed by 2528:, a prohibition ignored by the papacy and numerous governments. The Sejm itself had rather frequently sent its own missions abroad. The magnates, including top state officials, especially the hetmans, conducted their own foreign activities and at times served foreign powers for their private gain. When 5394:

negotiations, which concluded the war in 1721. Russia took Livonia and the Commonwealth no longer shared a border with Sweden. In real terms, Poland, besides Sweden, was the main victim of the war, because of the damage inflicted on its population, economy, degree of independence, ability to function

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The spreading movement, unable to fulfill its mission alone, requested mediation by Peter I. Augustus agreed and several months of negotiations facilitated by the Russian ambassador followed, with the fighting still intermittently taking place. Eventually Augustus asked for an intervention by Russian

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election attempts. After the contentious and broken sejm of 1668, the King abdicated and rejected numerous appeals for reconsideration. He still took steps to influence his succession, apologized for his errors (the balance of the reign was clearly negative) and predicted again the ultimate demise of

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with added social indoctrination. The one allowed peasant activity, sometimes even required because of mandatory purchases of such staples as beer form the lord's brewery, was the participation in village tavern life. The taverns provided some entertainment, functioned as outlets for significant folk

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portion of the rural economy), or manorial duties were replaced by feudal rent arrangements if that seemed more profitable to landlords. Those and many other measures amounting to extreme exploitation and imposition of hardship had not resulted in increased production, but rather made the crisis more

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Further disintegration followed nevertheless. The Commonwealth, subjected to almost constant warfare until 1720, suffered devastating population losses and massive damage to its economy and social structure. The economic regression had not been fully compensated for the duration of the Commonwealth's

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of the Czartoryskis perceived imperial Russia as the future ultimate arbiter of the Commonwealth's fate. Amidst the domestic bickering and foreign meddling, the indispensable treasury and military reforms had never materialized, despite several apparent opportunities and close calls, most notably at

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The last fifteen years of the rule of Augustus II the Strong was characterized by the continuation of magnate factions' private pursuits, but also by the arrival of long-awaited peace and the formation of the Commonwealth's reformist camp. Augustus II, after 1717 having his most ambitious or extreme

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The activities of Augustus II were aimed at strengthening his royal power in the Commonwealth. Nobility's opposition to the stationing of Saxon troops in Poland, its cost and internally threatening role, led to military resistance, first attempted in 1714 and then in a more definitive way pursued in

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Augustus II stationed the powerful Saxon army within the Commonwealth and applied various external pressures in order to alter its political system, which only alienated the Polish nobility and further demoralized the broader society, relegated to watching the corrupt, but unsuccessful at all levels

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The Russian plans included not only incorporation of Ukraine, but also recovery of the lands lost by Russia further north. The Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate, worried by the new configuration, were now inclined to support the Commonwealth. With the Tatars the Polish units waged a destructive

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Among the more worldly of the magnates, influenced by foreign elements in the Commonwealth's royal courts and West European currents, admiration of foreign (often French and German) ways and fashions was becoming increasingly common. The magnates built splendid palaces of brick and stone in the main

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in the 17th century of the majority of Lithuanian and Ruthenian nobility of the Commonwealth. The ethnically non-Polish urban classes were much less affected by this process and the peasantry still less, so that the apparent cultural and linguistic uniformity of the country was largely an illusion.

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to banishment, unless they convert to Catholicism. As a result, several hundred families (about five thousand people) left the Commonwealth in 1660, while others, threatened with capital punishment and confiscations, faked conversion, only to subject themselves to further statutory persecution. The

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With the disintegration of the system, and of the functionality of central and local parliamentary assemblies in particular, confederations had assumed an important role, as a substitute but necessary mode of governance. Confederations, which in reality usually constituted more closely knit magnate

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to their prewar possessions, many of the ordinary Cossack rebels would have been reduced to feudal peasantry status again. The treaty was reluctantly ratified by the Sejm in May 1659, however with the Cossack negotiated gains substantially reduced, which contributed to the pact's eventual demise, a

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The Swedes failed to take advantage of the local support and treated the Commonwealth as a conquered country, subjecting it to widespread violence, predatory contributions, ruthlessness and pillage. Spontaneous popular resistance arose first among the peasants, beginning with a skirmish they fought

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and reached the Vistula, but was forced to acknowledge John Casimir's supremacy again when his efforts were thwarted by the Tatars. Until his death in 1657 the Cossack leader, despite the Pereyaslav treaty, conducted independent policy, intent on taking advantage of the calamities that had befallen

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The first changes indicating an upcoming economic recovery took place in the 1725–50 period. More clearly visible agricultural and industrial progress occurred during the two following decades (1750–70) and had to do with the improved by that time state of the agricultural market in Europe. During

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Average living conditions in the increasingly impoverished rural villages were very bad and the exploited peasants resorted to various forms of resistance, most often running away from particularly abusive landlords. Some villages or areas engaged in collectively refusing to perform the prescribed

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of Ruthenian aristocracy, the Ukrainian people became deprived of their national elites. The noble clans saw their position initially as being allied with the Polish state, but in time assumed its fundamental membership attributes. Ukrainian intellectual elites were restored only during the later

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The Commonwealth and Cossack combatants were unable to arrive at a military solution, the Crimean and Ottoman alliances had not been reliable for Bohdan Khmelnytsky, and Ukraine was devastated by five years of warfare. Enslavement of Ukrainians by the Tatar "allies", plagues and periods of hunger

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The Tatars, concerned with the preservation of the regional balance of power, over all may have saved the Commonwealth, by deciding not to support the Cossacks at crucial junctures. While for the moment they reaped the benefits of their position and actions (the King agreed not to resist the next

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The Commonwealth city populations were fragmented on the basis of trade, class, ethnicity, religious affiliation or jurisdiction type and consumed by internal conflicts. The most enterprising and successful of burghers were able to join the ranks of nobility, thus leaving the urban occupations or

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The increased dominance of the magnates negatively affected the class integrity of the so far crucially important middle szlachta stratum. The fragmentation of szlachta deepened the decentralizing tendencies in the large state. The magnates established networks of szlachta supporters and national

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ideology and the awareness of the deteriorated condition of the Polish–Lithuanian state. The necessity of reforms, including urgent social issues such as economic and political empowerment of the urban classes and personal freedom for the peasantry, was being addressed in numerous written works.

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of 1709, but achieved only a partial success. Attempts at peace with Sweden, which would strengthen Augustus' hand in dealing with Peter, turned also elusive, as Charles XII kept making excessive demands, including high reparations for Leszczyński. Resumption of hostilities necessarily followed,

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The Commonwealth forces had a much higher (50%) than in other European, infantry-dominated armies, proportion of cavalry, which was of unrivaled in Europe quality. The infantry was also of high battlefield value. Artillery was well-developed and effective, with nearly two thousand pieces present

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Nationwide the urban classes had become marginalized and lacked influence, as even by the end of the 18th century the population of town residents constituted no more than 15% of the Commonwealth total. Most cities were private, as opposed to "royal" or public, with their inhabitants accordingly

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Of fundamentally greater importance was the role of the middle nobility, propertied and better qualified people, able to pursue careers within magnate courts, or assume public offices obtained with the help of their magnate benefactors. The noblemen in question, through the magnates they served,

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As the King failed to convince the nobility of the necessity of action in the north, the country's establishment directed its attention back toward the recovery of the lands lost in the east. Russia however was now seen as an ally against the Ottoman power. In order to reclaim the areas lost to

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The peasants, who had traditionally constituted a vital part of the town merchants' clientele, now impoverished and forced by their feudal masters to limit their purchases to what was produced or sold within their home estate, largely stopped plying their role in the internal market. The market

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Even with its civilizational influence diminished, the Commonwealth continued as a medium or conduit of cultural and diplomatic contacts between the West and the East, with the Polish culture and language being of international importance and retaining its attractiveness in a number of foreign

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John Casimir made one more attempt to reverse the losses and regain all of Ukraine by attacking the Tsardom in 1663 and 1664. While some of his forward units approached Moscow, fighting the Russian people and weather took its toll, which combined with the internal difficulties at home made the

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The personal union of the Commonwealth and Saxony lasted for over half a century, but joined two basically dissimilar political and economic entities, each of which resented the close integration and unification persistently attempted by Augustus. This difficulty naturally checked the ruler's

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and other towns to take oath of fealty; part of the secular and Orthodox clergy leaders objected or refused. The actual agreement was finalized in April in Moscow, where the Cossack emissaries managed to convince the Tsardom to accept a majority of the Cossack demands (the degree of Ukrainian

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The destruction and depletion of resources applied to all segments of the society, affecting rural villages, cities and towns, of which many had practically lost their urban character. Industry and manufacturing suffered as well as the funds flowing into the state treasury. The war losses and

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currents had been fully developed in Western Europe, especially in England and France, when its ideology and paradigms reached the Commonwealth during the last quarter-century of the union with Saxony period. Augustus II propagated France's culture, while Stanisław Leszczyński its social and

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influenced strongly the German and Protestant burghers, especially in Royal Prussia and Poznań area, some of whom were educated at Protestant universities in Germany. The German culture became significant in the 18th century Commonwealth in the context of the personal union with Saxony. Less

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destruction, Protestants were not allowed to restore the structures of their congregations or build new ones. They were banned from holding state offices and removed from central parliament. The discriminatory laws were all collected in the sejm statute of 1733, after which the Commonwealth

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Of special importance were the writings of Stanisław Konarski. Beyond school reform, he fought over many years for reform of the central government and for moral renewal of the noble class, including lessening of the burdens and improving the lot of non-nobility. In his most important work

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guarantees or to foreign (Prussian, English and Dutch) protection in case of imposed restrictions. The ethnically Polish and culturally active settlement concentrations that had remained in parts of Silesia, Pomerania and Prussia had the burgher Protestant class as their leading component.

4781:. After fruitless bickering and the death of the pro-French party's royal candidate, urged by wartime necessities, the two confederations eventually became reconciled in 1673. The accord made possible a common sejm, which was able to come up with the necessary fiscal and military measures. 5768:

of 1736, which finally assigned top state offices, to Józef Potocki (the Crown Hetman) and the main electors of Augustus. The foreign forces left the Commonwealth, but its sovereignty remained badly compromised and the Polish nobility in reality had lost its most cherished privilege, the

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The one major weakness and backwardness of the Commonwealth defenses was the lack of significant system of modern fortifications throughout most of its territory, which allowed the invading armies to inflict damage disproportionate to military effort. The exceptions were the mouth of the

5120:, aimed at subjugating the Commonwealth to Swedish dominance. The Swedish monarch was granted permanent extensive territorial and other concessions, such as the right to station and conscript troops, and intended to use the Commonwealth's resources to fight Russia, his main adversary. 2080:

King John Casimir was able to impose on the enemy the site for the confrontation he chose and in heavy fighting destroy the Cossack army, while the fleeing Tatars took Khmelnytsky with them. However, a majority of the Cossack soldiers were saved by one of their outstanding commanders,

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crafts and manufacturing, the mainstay of the urban middle class, became reduced to a fraction of its past capacity. However, the Commonwealth was able to preserve or rebuild much of the mining, metallurgy and heavier industries, some of which were important for military applications.

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represented religious painting in the 18th century. Of particular interest is the Sarmatist portrait painting. Usually anonymous, it often faithfully conveys crucial individual characteristics of ordinary Polish nobles and magnates, even if constrained by its artistic convention.

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and other Catholic educators lost incentives to provide competitive high-quality education. The backward mentality and close-mindedness of the szlachta masses has become proverbial, and as the nation experienced its greatest decline, the typically uniform szlachta indulged in the

1721:, where he agitated among the Cossacks already embittered by the repressions of the 1630s, and now also made restless by the cancellation of the war they were told to expect. Khmelnytsky effectively caused the Cossack force to change sides. He was able to secure support from the 5341:

of Feb. 1, 1717, so called because no debate was allowed. The outcome was a compromise arrived by the negotiating representatives of the King and of the Tarnogród Confederation, but the Tsardom's mediation and supervision marked a turning point in the Polish-Russian relations.

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Royal court theater continued under John Casimir, John III, August II and August III. Foreign troupes were brought from Italy (Italian repertoire was the most popular), France and Germany. At least ten magnate-supported theaters functioned in Saxon times, including one at the

5681:' army entered the Commonwealth and took Kraków, where his crowning took place in January 1734. Stanisław Leszczyński went to Danzig, where he waited in vain for serious help from France. The city itself supported him, and surrounded by the Russian and Saxon forces, put up a 3252:

and internal unrest in the military, extended no help. Frederick William's forces entered Königsberg and imprisoned the leaders of the rebellion. Von Kalckstein fled to Poland, but in 1670 was captured by a Prussian ruler's representative, taken to the Duchy and executed.

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In the decentralized state and treasury, the military potential was hampered by the inefficient fiscal apparatus and insufficient taxation. The Commonwealth in the second half of the 17th century developed huge indebtedness in respect to its own armed forces. Military

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cultural ties with Ukraine. The Cossack leaders expected on the one hand Russia's help in eliminating what was left of the Commonwealth's nobility rule in Ukraine, and broad autonomy for the Cossack state on the other. The Polish reverses in the region convinced Tsar

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is its architecture, developed under the Italian, Dutch, German and French influence, with a strong local component. The new elaborate residential and religious compounds, or the rebuilding of older, war-damaged structures, were financed by magnates and the Church.

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for several weeks at the end of 1655. The success of the monastery's defense was of great psychological and spiritual importance for the Poles. The defense efforts at Jasna Góra, a great shrine and fortress with a crew of a few hundred volunteers, were led by Prior

6164:, contributed greatly to cultural contacts and to the increasingly common family ties between the French and Polish aristocratic circles. The court of Augustus II, himself an admirer of the French and follower of Versailles patterns, strengthened the trend and the 2869:

aimed at opposing the Swedish invaders. In January 1656 John Casimir returned from abroad and, impressed by the contributions to the war effort made by Poland's common people, solemnly declared in Lwów his support for relieving the peasantry of unjust obligations.

3585:. The popular uprisings there were subdued with great effort, with Hetman Czarniecki dying in the fighting in 1665. The Commonwealth nobility attempted return to their Ukrainian possessions and the warfare caused widespread destruction in Ukraine. In 1665, as the 6331:

Polish Brethren were among the most enlightened segments of the society and their expulsion had strong deleterious effects on the country's intellectual development. Other Protestant denominations remained, at least formally, protected by the rules of the 1573

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of the magnates were for the most part located. More comprehensive foreign policy needs were neglected, the functioning of the state had become even more disorganized and the military effort and destruction contributed to further disintegration of the economy.

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became confounded further by the monetary crisis, warfare destruction and the fact that some of the most major Poland's and Lithuania's municipal centers were lost to the neighboring states, either permanently or at times of reversals of military fortunes.

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of unpaid soldiers were established in 1661 in the Crown and in Lithuania. The army confederations lasted for two years, forced the parliament to come up with large sums of money, devastated estates and put an end to what was left of the reform processes.

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rejection by the increasingly Moscow-influenced Cossack assembly in September. For the Cossack rank and file, what Vyhovsky had negotiated offered too little and came too late. The crucial factor that doomed the Hadiach treaty was that the sizable regular

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was signed in May, after Charles Gustav's death. The Polish side needed now to preserve strength for the struggle with Russia and the old demarcation line was mostly agreed to, with the Commonwealth keeping Courland and southeastern Livonia, including

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A period of peace lasted from August 1649 to February 1651, but the Polish side balked at the implementation of the Zboriv agreements and further confrontations became inevitable. Khmelnytsky pursued diplomatic activities and obtained a promise of the

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The subordination to magnate interests took place not without some resistance, but the various szlachta movements lacked coordination and in the first half of the 18th century the middle nobility ceased being an independent force in national politics.

5297:, undertaken jointly by the forces of Saxony, Prussia and Denmark, ended in its capture and basically concluded the Saxon participation in the war. Saxony-Commonwealth ended up as the only power in the victorious coalition with no territorial gains. 1266:, to function as a self-contained organism, arbitrarily ruled by the lord's administrator, with some participation from local self-government, whose continuous existence depended on its degree of cooperativeness. The parish schools taught mostly the 6945:

The postulated by the Enlightenment thinkers social changes depended on an improved level and wider dissemination of education. The Theatines had few colleges in the Commonwealth, but theirs were the first attempts at school reform in the 1830s. In

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was a soldier and poet connected with the Polish Brethren. He had to spend half of his life in exile in Prussia and produced realistic poetry concerned with the hardships and dangers of military life. Another poet and member of the Polish Brethren,

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in July and August against the overwhelming Cossack and Tatar armies. Their situation was getting increasingly desperate when the main Crown forces under King John Casimir approached in a rescue attempt. The King was surprised by the enemy at the

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The Deluge's long term deleterious effects included an increase in xenophobic attitudes and intolerance in Poland. The religious minorities, accused of supporting foreign adversaries, were persecuted and pressured to emigrate, in the case of the

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The Cossack hetman and his advisers meant a military alliance to facilitate common fight against Poland, even at the price of losing some of the sovereignty acquired in recent years; to Russia a new avenue for imperial expansion was opened. The

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During the sejm of 1688/1689 the King's supporters demanded decisive action against the increasingly bold domestic opposition, but John III was growing weak and refrained from forcefully acting against his enemies and pursuing his aspirations.

1807:. Fighting the Cossacks with some measure of success he matched the ruthlessness of the rebels, but brought no resolution to the conflict and prevented a possibility of the considered negotiated solution. Wiśniowiecki commanded his army at the 6309:

The Polish populace was by and large brought back into the fold of Catholicism during the first half of the 17th century, but anti-Protestant attacks continued. They most often took the form of written Catholic propaganda pamphlets and strict

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horsemen were famously involved in the victorious assault on Kara Mustafa's camp. The Ottoman offensive capabilities were broken, even though Kara Mustafa was able to save from the rout a portion of his retreating army. Vienna, the gateway to

3817:, which coincided with intense factional infighting within the Commonwealth. Doroshenko's proposal of granting the Cossacks full autonomy in return for Ukraine's association with the Commonwealth was rejected, and a Polish committee nominated 3618:

the Polish forces stationed in the region, ending in reality the Polish military rule over Ukraine. In the years that followed, Doroshenko led Cossack fighters and participated in political maneuvers involving the Commonwealth, Russia and the

4298:, and Sobieski quickly marched his 25,000 men to the Vienna battlefield area, where they complemented an allied army of 70,000 total, comprised also of Austrians and Germans. Sobieski took command of the attack on the besiegers and the main 4797:

became fascinated by the possibility of establishing a natively Polish ruling dynasty, and like his predecessors he allowed the succession issue to consume his attention in vain, at the expense of urgent matters of the deteriorating state.

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remained negative most of the time, and the country's transit role diminished. The lack of central controls opened the Commonwealth to exploitation by more advanced economies. The monetary crisis and chaotic policy in that area, as well as

4658:), where rebel forces slaughtered thousands of the King's best troops. The victory brought no great advantage to Lubomirski, who left the country again and soon died, but John Casimir was obliged to formally abandon his and the Queen's 5358:. Saxon ministers were barred from ruling on matters concerning the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The King was to be able to keep only 1200 personal guard Saxon soldiers and was not allowed to reside in Saxony for prolonged periods. 5722:

as its marshal. The confederates mustered up armed resistance, dedicated to the defense of the Commonwealth's integrity and independence, but the forces of Russia and Saxony encountered no great difficulty in eliminating their units.

4681: 4322:. In the first confrontation Sobieski was subjected to a surprise attack, and only two days later, on October 9, together with the Austrians, the Poles destroyed the Turkish army defending the north Hungarian Ottoman possessions. 3977:, continued the war with Turkey. In 1674 Russia undertook its own military action against the Ottoman Empire and became a subject of a Turkish offensive, aimed at aiding their ally Doroshenko, at that time under Russian siege in 6808: 2031:

calling on the peasants to throw off their lord's yoke. The insurgency generated limited following and was soon suppressed, its leaders executed. There were also a few other centers of peasant revolt, including one organized by

1223:. Their communities suffered population losses and many villages disappeared altogether. The serf labor force was displaced and their plots taken over under estate consolidation schemes (to further increase the already dominant 6008:

The union with Saxony was of beneficial economic and cultural consequences for both participating societies. The Saxons were important in the dissemination of the early Enlightenment intellectual currents in the Commonwealth.

4582:. In 1658 the King, supported by the more patriotic faction of the szlachta, postulated a reform program, which included the introduction of majority voting rules in parliamentary assemblies. The proposal was supported by the 6815:) style. Vault or dome painting, subordinate to the overall aesthetic design, compounded the impression by using optical illusion effects. Sculpture also had the primary function of complementing the design of the interiors. 5575: 4563:

of 1652. This widely abused practice eventually led to a paralysis of most of significant legislative activity, and through their szlachta surrogates was used by foreign powers to prevent internal reform in the Commonwealth.

3646:

and an internal army). The truce's provisions were favorable to the Tsardom, which, through the territorial gains secured, stopped the Polish eastern expansion and facilitated its own future further movement to the west. The

1066:), a group whose members possessed little or no property and were poorly educated, has long been recognized. The lesser szlachta was useful, as it provided crowds of armed men able to influence various public events, such as 1415:

autonomous congregations) conducted extensive credit operations, servicing the Polish middle and upper social strata. Christian townspeople had made at times unsuccessful attempts to limit the commercial rights of the Jews.

6272:"nation" of common origin, whose calling was the defense of Christianity and freedom in Europe. This uniquely understood role of the "chosen" Polish nation was being promoted by the leading writers of the period, including 6049:. The middle of the 18th century was a period of transition between the two. Being a part of the nonhomogeneous European Baroque, the Commonwealth holds a unique, original position. West European elements were blended with 1511:, 17% to nobility interests and only the rest to the actual city folks. The degradation of towns was recognized as one of the leading factors contributing to national decline by the more enlightened of szlachta publicists ( 6383:

of 1724, were rare and considerable freedom of religious practice had prevailed. Non-nobles attracted less scrutiny and many foreign persecuted minorities were allowed to settle in the country and keep their religion. The

5214:

a combined Swedish and Warsaw Confederation force, which left most of the Commonwealth clear of the Swedish occupiers, until Charles entered through Silesia again. The Sandomierz Confederation held to their alliance with

2931:

in February 1656. Afterwards the Polish commander successfully applied guerrilla fighting tactics, harassing the enemy while avoiding engagements with the main army. Charles Gustav was soon forced to abandon the siege of

4240:

Turkey in the south-east and to reestablish influence in Moldavia, John III sought to build a grand European anti-Ottoman league. While his ideas met with cool reception in most European centers of power, except for the

2396:

fronts, the Commonwealth incurred significant territorial losses, even though for the time being its existence was not realistically threatened. The Commonwealth was regarded by main European states, including France of

2092:

fighters soon left. Khmelnytsky regrouped and with Tatar reinforcements resumed his military harassment. As the combined Crown and Lithuanian armies were not able to follow up the Berestechko victory in the inconclusive

1097:

The magnates themselves or magnate clans formed groupings, or factions, with common regional or other interests. In the 17th century, the factions were usually confined to a region, such as the Lithuanian cliques of the

7125:(A free voice in defense of freedom), with a comprehensive program of political and social reform. The publication advocated personal freedom for peasants and taking steps to secure their greater economic independence. 4543:, the struggle for power and the rather feeble, but still present attempts to reform the system took place within the changing alliances of powerful magnates and royal courts. From the time of John Casimir and his wife 5377:

The reversals suffered by Poland and Saxony in the course of the Great Northern War reflected a new configuration of forces in Europe and were of lasting nature, of which the contemporaries were not immediately aware.

5806: 5361:

The Commonwealth military force was practically limited to 18,000 soldiers, but was secured by permanent taxing arrangements. The state budget, while enlarged, was set at only a fraction of that of Russia or Prussia.

5345:

The Treaty of Warsaw and the Silent Sejm settled numerous contentious issues and resulted in limited reform of the state, encompassing a part of what was demanded by the more enlightened szlachta political publicists

7355:, until the 15th century. After the early modern precipitous decline, significant improvements in the lives of this large majority of the country's population took place only in the middle and later 19th century, in 3402:(not magnates), which would constitute the principal Ukrainian elite with a strong interest in the establishment of the Duchy of Ruthenia, was after ten years of warfare physically eliminated almost in its entirety. 1535:

townspeople continued Polish language educational and cultural activities, including literary work and publications, in several cities. Toward the middle of the 18th century the Polish and German burghers of Danzig,

6475:

Higher education institutions remained stagnant for a prolonged period of time. Interested young members of the upper nobility or wealthy burghers went to study in Italy or other West European countries. The Jesuit

3084:. Rákóczi's initially successful offensive had in the end favorable for Poland consequences, as it led to a new configuration of international interests, which prevented the Treaty of Radnot from being implemented. 2120:. After Vasile's refusal the Hetman sent to Moldavia a strong Cossack-Tatar army. This force was confronted in May 1652 by Hetman Kalinowski and his over ten thousand men Crown army. At the disastrous for the Poles 5632:

A large majority of the Polish nobility, in a rare show of unity, elected Leszczyński on September 12, 1733. The former king however lacked strong support even from France and had to sneak into Warsaw in disguise.

1305:, when the Prussian army was brought to bear. Highway robbery band activity was another form of peasant resistance; some of its leaders, especially from mountainous regions, have become immortalized in folk tales. 6852:

in Warsaw was rebuilt by Augustus II in that manner. Numerous magnate residencies, in Warsaw and throughout the country, where the former fortifications were replaced with parks and pavilions, followed the trend.

4221:, in addition to strengthening them with his own forces. The Swedish intervention became badly delayed and ended in another defeat. Only Louis XIV's diplomatic activities prevented the Swedes from losing Stettin. 3291:. There was one more and the most significant, even if belated and in the end botched, attempt to resolve the Cossack conflict in an amicable way, by including Ukraine as a partner in the Commonwealth federation. 1632: 5219:

also during the Charles' Moscow offensive, when the Russian troops left Poland. Stanisław Leszczyński's forces, charged with protecting the rear end, were defeated by his and Charles' Polish adversaries at the

4165:

The French-Polish intentions were to be thwarted by both the international and Commonwealth internal obstacles. Austria and Brandenburg in turn provided funds for the King's rivals to tie his hands. Vienna and

4973:, which might have been Augustus' objective. But the matter was resolved through negotiations and Frederick's withdrawal from the city in 1700, only to be followed by partial reoccupation of the area in 1703. 5157:, with the purpose of facilitating a common front against Sweden, giving Russia the right to fight Swedish armies on the Commonwealth's territory. The Commonwealth was promised a (never realized) recovery of 4438:. Queen Marie Casimire, promoting an alliance with France, signed herself in 1692 a treaty with Louis XIV, but was unable to persuade her husband, who felt bound by the Holy League loyalties, to do likewise. 3989:

and the approaching Polish rescue stopped the enemy's main force, subsequently withdrawn into Moldavia. Another factor contributing to the Ottoman pullout were the successes of the Russians, leading to their

2216:

in January 1654 and the Cossack council deliberating there accepted (not without grave misgivings and futile attempts to negotiate concessions) the supremacy of the Tsar. The Cossacks were offered an elected

955:, greatly deteriorated the economy of the country which had not yet recovered from the damage incurred two generations earlier. Internal warfare and looting by unpaid Commonwealth troops added to the damage. 4860:

The last years of the reign of the ailing king saw the disorder, lawlessness, factional infighting and anarchy overcoming the Commonwealth. The monarch was not even able to control the feud between his wife

4592:

and royal succession issues. Although during the sejm of 1661 John Casimir predicted and warned of partition of the Commonwealth by Russia, Brandenburg and Austria if unsettled successions cause significant

4784:

After Michał Wiśniowiecki's death, the election of 1674 elevated John Sobieski, who because of the recent field successes on the Ottoman front was able to outdistance other early favorites, including Duke

6966:

in Warsaw, a high caliber secondary education institution for nobility youth. The school promoted civic duties through such means as debates and the school theater, for which he wrote a tragedy and where

2284: 1733:

overlords') interest in disabling the Commonwealth's offensive military capabilities. The Cossack-Tatar alliance, a new factor in the regional civil warfare, turned out to be militarily highly effective.

1602:). These modest signs of industrial progress occurred within the Commonwealth with a nearly half-century delay not only in comparison to Poland's western and southern neighbors, but also with respect to 6614:

in general. Preference was typically given to elaborate form. Publishing material that was original and creative was difficult, because of strict church censorship; many aspiring works had remained in

4748:

had become entrenched further when the sejm of 1669 was broken before its statutory term expired. In 1672, after more legislative attempts were thwarted and as the Commonwealth was facing an imminent

4401:

on the various Ottoman provinces. The coordination turned out to be poor and the large force gathered by John III for a Danube offensive conducted no significant military operations. This and another

2641:. The Commonwealth nobility hoped that acquiring the Swedish monarch's protection, or even accepting his rule, would help them recover the eastern lands lost in the warfare of the past several years. 1474:'s flooding of Poland with fake Polish currency, resulted in massive devaluations and economic losses. With the townspeople increasingly employed in agriculture, where there was demand for labor, the 5172:

The developments on the military front did not however proceed as hoped for by the pro-Saxon majority. The common Russian-Saxon-Polish offensive had failed, as Charles forced the Russians to abandon

5848:

the sejm of 1744. From the 1750s and for the remainder of the reign of Augustus III, the Commonwealth descended into anarchy, corrupt private pursuits and unrestrained violation by foreign forces.

7092: 7131: 5228:(commander of the Swedish units left in Poland), thwarted by the Sandomierz confederates again, were unable to break through to join Charles who was stuck in Ukraine, where the Cossack hetman 4061:

had become the greatest European power and seeking further hegemony was looking for alliances against its competitors. The Ottoman Empire and Sweden were already important for France as anti-

5946:, and the third (1756–63). Saxony participated in all three, hoping for a territorial connection with the Commonwealth. The Saxon army, allied with Prussia, was destroyed during Frederick's 1520: 1442:"privilege", which meant that they were able to exclude Jews from the area under the town's jurisdiction. Many Jews were often still able to remain within city limits, while others lived in 1351:

era were weakened or wiped out, which irreversibly retarded the short- and long-term aspects of economic development in absolute terms or in comparison with Poland's neighbors, or even with

943:

Unlike the previously fought wars, which had affected mostly the peripheries of the huge state, from the mid-17th century onward central Poland was being ravaged by warfare as well. The two

4457:. The Commonwealth ended up recovering Podolia with Kamieniec Podolski and the Bratslav region. The Austrian Habsburg Monarchy, expanded by Hungary and Transylvania, had become the leading 1042:

loyalty was being replaced with loyalty based on regional ties, as for the nobility the weak state institutions provided neither attractive career opportunities, nor sufficient protection.

5112:

in which the outcome was imposed by a foreign ruler, and the chosen, young and well-educated Polish magnate, was completely subservient to Charles. Stanisław's elevation was followed by a

4259:

to its own fate or forming with it a coalition to defeat the Ottoman invaders, Sobieski chose the second option, distancing himself from and acting internally against the pro-French camp.

2088:

Berestechko, "one of the greatest achievements of the Polish military", removed the threat to the Commonwealth present since 1648, but brought no resolution to the Ukrainian conflict. The

6840:

is an impressive monumental structure. Afterwards, however, residential forms more convenient and intimate, while still preserving much of the former grandeur, were given preference. The

4329: 4276:

The limited mutual defense alliance with Austria was approved in the Sejm and signed on April 1, 1683. It provided for mutual rescue obligation in the event of an enemy attack on either

1898:

was chosen with his support. John Casimir and the peace nobility faction made offers and engaged in fruitless talks with Khmelnytsky, who had withdrawn into Ukraine. In February 1649 in

3331: 5923:

gave Prussia the majority of the Silesian territory. Prussia became Poland's only western neighbor and the Prussian advances threatened the (thus far strong) ethnically Polish, often

5076:

and entered the Commonwealth, at that time not an official participant of the war. The Swedes took Warsaw and moved toward Kraków, which also fell as the Saxon and Polish forces were

978:

class had become the only social group capable of significant economic and political activity, which led to their more total domination of what was left of the Commonwealth politics.

3431:

help. During disturbances among the Cossack masses that followed, Jerzy Niemirycz was killed. But Moscow's pressure continued and in the fall Ivan Vyhovsky was forced to give up his

2225:

and possession of landed estates. Khmelnytsky and his entire Zaporizhian army pledged being faithful followers of the Russian ruler and Ukraine was taken under the protection of the

7199: 6424: 2964:

was also cleared of the Swedes following Czarniecki's and Lubomirski's raid there. At the end of June Warsaw, defended by Wittenberg, was stormed and retaken by the popular forces.

1598:

in 1723. Manufacturing businesses were created by a number of magnates in various regions. Among the most important was the developing iron industry in southern and central Poland (

555: 545: 236: 216: 4224:

In addition to conducting this last assertive Commonwealth attempt in the Baltic area, John III for a time was also involved in anti-Habsburg diversion in Hungary, engulfed by the

3261:

forced to leave the country. The international standing of the Commonwealth power had become much diminished, especially (with the loss of control over a major part of Livonia and

2877:

surrendered without a fight, Marienburg after resisting the siege. Danzig, supported by the Netherlands, remained unconquered. The Swedish king was able to obtain concessions from

1575:

the earlier period some technical advances were made and contributed to improved agriculture and, more importantly, the nature of rural social relations was changing. Beginning in

2401:, as a regional power and valuable partner, necessary component of the European balance of power. This perception was being reinforced by military victories, especially under the 9005: 9000: 7204: 6643: 4193:

or Marysieńka, with children. The politically active queen governed the country during the last several years of the King's life and pushed for a close alliance with France of

1786:. Thousands of Registered Cossacks, sent into combat with the Polish forces, were persuaded by the rebels to change sides. As a result of the dramatic events, vast expanses of 997: 6435:. In the early 18th century the illiteracy levels may have ranged from about 28% of upper nobility, to 92% of petty nobility, with over 40% for middle nobility and burghers. 2308:

the Russians destroyed the small Lithuanian force under Janusz Radziwiłł. The country laid open to the conquerors. Belarusian towns surrendered one after another and in 1654

7031: 5999:

in the area in 1763. While the Saxon defeats precluded a continuation (beyond Augustus III) of the Wettin personal union with the Commonwealth, the disarmed and defenseless

4491:

The wars fought by the Commonwealth during the second half of the 17th century fulfilled their main role of protecting as much as possible of the eastern possessions, where

928:

breakdown in the Commonwealth in the second half of the 17th century has often been seen as a result of the destruction of the country caused by wars. There were also other

7000:, one of the largest in Europe. Józef Załuski gathered scientists and charged them with reviving and expanding the Polish scientific and other cultural achievements of the 5453:, who fought the royal court, themselves protected by Tsar Peter. They broke successive parliamentary sessions and by 1724 forced the King to remove his trusted minister, 4928:"absolutist" tendencies in both states and his pursuit of the Wettin family dynastic domination. The ambitious and able Augustus, who aspired to follow in the footsteps of 4578:

John Casimir's poor relations with the magnates contributed to his initial alienation from the Commonwealth's nobility and armed forces in 1655 at the time of the Swedish

1906:", negotiated with Adam Kisiel, but only a temporary suspension of hostilities was agreed to. Both sides pursued armaments and in spring military activities were resumed. 207: 4700:

excluded all candidates that in some way had violated the legal process, the rowdy crowd demonstrated its preference for mediocrity by choosing the incompetent and inept

4586:

in 1658 and considered by the Sejm, which in 1659 established a committee for implementing new procedures, but the reforms soon became a victim of disagreements over the

3893:

This outcome had a sobering effect in Poland. Bickering stopped, the 1673 sejm funded a 50,000 strong army, diplomatic arrangements were made to assure neutrality of the

8251: 7145: 2237: 6856:

Gentry manors were built of wood and so were many country churches. Their builders were local and interesting native styles are still represented in extant structures.

6423:

The predominance of Sarmatism and Counter-Reformation and the weak cultural development of the Commonwealth were closely related to the lowered, in comparison with the

3080:, Prince of Transylvania, whose forces entered the Commonwealth in early 1657 on a pillaging spree, reaching in cooperation with the Swedes as far north as Warsaw and 951:. The protracted role of the country as a battlefield, the quartering of troops and armies, combined with the policy of exacting contributions and pillage during the 3530:

in October 1660. Yurii Khmelnytsky, also defeated, agreed there to submit to John Casimir and approved a weaker (for the Cossacks) version of the Treaty of Hadiach.

2256:, an act of "unification of Ukraine with Russia", was from the Commonwealth's point of view an instance of rebellion combined with foreign meddling. It led to a new 1594:

experienced also a moderate awakening in the area of industrial activities and urban business enterprises. A major trading house was established in Warsaw by French

538: 5133:

The majority of the Polish nobility opposed the Warsaw Confederation and considered Leszczyński's election illegal. The predominant pro-Augustus party convened the

1847:, a magnate influential with the Ukrainian population, advocated making the concessions necessary to placate the Cossacks. Other magnates, especially Wiśniowiecki, 1180:

ideology of a chosen nation and contempt for everything foreign. Nonconformity was not tolerated, corruption was at its highest, while public morale at the lowest.

1139:

The lack of legal distinction among various ranks of the nobility gave many noblemen a false sense of equality and opportunity. The majority of the nobility of the

1062: 5284:

Under the circumstances Augustus wanted to terminate his participation in the war and free himself from his dependence on Peter I, previously formalized under the

3310:

and then the Commonwealth, where some of the leaders understood and wanted to amend the erroneousness of the past policies. An appropriate treaty was prepared by

7080: 5781: 4480:

families and hundreds of thousands of Polish peasants arrived and resettled the devastated and depopulated Ukrainian lands. The left-bank Hetmanate fought under

4347:

and Moldavia. Actively pursuing these relations would require confronting the Habsburg Monarchy. Not willing or able to do so, King John III decided to join the

3387:

status was to be granted to many better off Cossacks ("...so measured, however, that out of each regiment one hundred can be granted nobility"). But the Cossack

2540:, which ignored the recent Polish military contributions and Polish interests alike, was just one example of the Commonwealth's diplomacy lack of effectiveness. 7455: 6152:

had become dominant, which paralleled the rising political importance of France in Europe and the flowering of its arts and literature. The two queens who were

3549:

also conducting its own politics, the whole division of Ukraine resulted in a highly volatile situation and internal warfare, known in Ukrainian history as the

3140:. The treaties considerably strengthened the Prussian side, as Frederick William, in return for agreeing to abandon Charles Gustav, became a sovereign ruler in 7524: 7070: 6568: 3248:

prepared an armed insurrection. The opposition formed a league in 1662 and appealed to the Commonwealth for assistance. The Commonwealth, preoccupied with the

981:

The war and economic pressures intensified the already present fragmentation processes and class conflicts between the social classes and within each of them.

6234: 6209:

influences became clearly discernible and had been increasing throughout the 17th century. The nobility of the Commonwealth developed a preference for Tatar,

3170:

obligation when a new duke is inaugurated, and an eternal alliance required a Prussian ruler to provide modest assistance to the Commonwealth in case of war.

5954:

was invaded by Prussia) and the third war Saxony switched to supporting the Habsburgs, seeking unsuccessfully to involve Poland during the sejm of 1744. The

1121: 633: 3006:

against Polish and Lithuanian troops aided by the Tatars, won by the Swedish-Brandenburg coalition. Frederick William however soon had to retreat after his

7098: 4431: 2956:, Charles Gustav was able to escape the predicament, but the massive Polish uprising by then seized the initiative and broke the Swedish defenses. Most of 2163: 4624:

protection in Silesia, where he gathered an army and conducted diplomatic activities aimed at forming an international coalition against the Polish King.

2481:

with heavy participation of peasant masses. Afterwards the last great Polish battlefield successes were made possible by the universal military talent of

985:

and intolerance became prevalent, different social and territorial groups stressed their separate statuses and traditions. The nation building efforts of

7064:

Publications and periodicals were increasing in number and served the purpose of educating and informing the public. The earliest ones were published in

2520:

The fiscal difficulties affected also the Commonwealth diplomacy and foreign policy. John III kept resident diplomats in several major capitals, but the

1240:) experienced the greatest rural decline, and correspondingly the greatest decrease in the percentage of farms under peasant family hereditary holding. 6954:, Stanisław Leszczyński established a corps of cadets, a school for the Polish and local nobility. The most crucial turned out to be the initiative of 2033: 1094:

experienced also material gains, such as profitable land leases, and legal protection in times of common and often reckless and disruptive litigation.

1074:(renters), free but landless and poor, whose status in reality resembled that of the peasants: they were completely dependent on a wealthy patron. The 970:

epidemic disease outbreaks (especially during 1659–63) reduced the population by a third to 6–7 million. As the peasants, the townspeople and ordinary

618: 5565:, the Primate. The partisan, ruthless competition for top offices prevented central parliamentary function toward the end of the rule of Augustus II. 4608:

was the central figure among the opposition responsible for the defeat of the royal couple's undertakings and attempted reforms. With his inspiration

4531:

brought further downgrading and loss of effectiveness of governmental authority, both in the domain of royal control and in the areas of legislative (

4108:

politicians well, since protected on the southeastern flank by the Commonwealth's involvement, they were able to commit fully to the war with France.

1454:. Jewish residents of cities participated in the upkeep of public infrastructure, and made other contributions, including to common military defense. 1078:(pavement people) had no property and engaged in a variety of trades. Domestic szlachta functioned as servants in magnate family households. Szlachta 868:, a period seen by the contemporaries as a passing eclipse, may have been the decisive blow that critically weakened the Polish-Lithuanian state. The 8956: 7599: 7520: 7086: 6651:

expressed no such misgivings, but even he could not conceal the progressive degeneration of his class. In the era of constant warfare the writing of

4777:

the Commonwealth faced also a civil war, as Sobieski, dismissed from his office by the Gołąb Confederation, established a competing Confederation of

3319: 2465:

throughout the country. A majority and increasing proportion of soldiers were now of native, rather foreign origin, with decreasing participation of

525: 189: 6360:

The "Arian registry", established after the sect's exodus, included in reality a variety of cases under religious persecution and prosecution, such

5518:, expressed patriotic concerns, displayed political activism, was of modern outlook and was connected to Augustus II. Its powerful members included 3947:, the trapped Ottoman army was destroyed on Nov. 11, 1673. The battle was the greatest by that time land victory over the Ottoman Empire in Europe. 2799:

calling for national resistance against the Swedes, and then on December 18 embarked on a return trip to Poland. The Commonwealth's remaining ally,

7017: 5776:

Augustus III's deteriorating health caused him eventually to give up and transfer political activity to his powerful courtiers, including Minister

4999:, through which the signatories sought to recover territories previously appropriated by Sweden, was concluded in 1699 and became a prelude to the 3185:

until the end of the war. Charles Gustav moved his main military operation to Denmark. In 1658 a joint Polish-Brandenburg-Austrian expedition into

3589:

forces were being withdrawn from right-bank Ukraine, the pro-Polish orientation among the Cossacks was greatly diminished and Teteria lost power.

3144:, ending the historic dependency of East Prussia upon the Commonwealth. The Prussian ruler was also a recipient of other, including territorial ( 2260:

that lasted from 1654 to 1667. Powerful Russian armies entered the Commonwealth and the conflict with the Cossacks became a war with the Tsardom.

7852: 6161: 6133: 5730:

in the West, lost its (never very strong) interest in supporting Stanisław Leszczyński and signed an armistice in Vienna in 1735, which became a

5618:

to be the future king of Poland. Augustus II's last minute desperate machinations and schemes were interrupted by his death on February 1, 1733.

4862: 4190: 4139: 2429:

or rebellions, through which the army "collected" its own pay typically from royal and church estates, were getting increasingly common. Hetman

7103: 6962:, and upon returning via France, Germany and Austria committed himself to pedagogic, scientific and publicist work. In 1740 he established the 3773: 3603: 1215:

The deep agricultural crisis lasted from the 1650s through the 1720s. Under the plight of constant warfare and adverse economic conditions the

774: 725: 6314:

censorship of dissenting views. The one clear instance of active persecution undertaken against a religious minority was the expulsion of the

7924: 6108: 4850: 4020:

was determined by the campaign of 1676, in conjunction with the negotiations and diplomatic activity that followed. The Ottoman army entered

1343:

The fall of the cities and towns was the most pronounced aspect of the economic breakdown of the Commonwealth. The nascent manifestations of

1271:

artistic creativity, and places of occasional contacts with traveling representatives of the largely unknown to the peasants, outside world.

623: 613: 6017:, was one of the Poles active in Saxony. The personal union times were to be remembered as a period of positive Polish-German interactions. 5660: 4932:

without regard for the practical limitations of his particular situation, weakened by his adventurous undertakings both Poland and Saxony.

2574:. In 1655 the Commonwealth's survival had become endangered, when the huge federation, already critically weakened by the offensive of the 2151: 781:, and as a result declined. The once powerful Commonwealth had become vulnerable to internal warfare and foreign intervention. In 1648 the 8194: 5015:

to direct his attention to the north, and Augustus II represented the Polish claim to Livonia, where his protection had been requested by

1457:

The weakness of central government prevented an introduction of a uniform statewide economic policy, even as feeble attempts to implement

7121: 6804: 5337:, and on November 3, 1716 a treaty between the King and the Polish nobility was signed in Warsaw. The treaty was ratified by the one-day 5263:. Augustus' expeditions into Western Pomerania in 1711–13 with the Danes and Russians resulted only in the Prussian takeover of Stettin. 4435: 4147: 2878: 398: 5685:

for four months, but when the attempted rescue by the Crown army was thwarted by the Russians, Danzig had to surrender on May 29, 1734.

4036:

with Kamieniec, Bratslav and other areas in Turkish hands. Ukrainian fortresses had to be given up in light of Ottoman successes in the

6296:

and executions for example, although not as common as in Germany, had been a continuous practice until the middle of the 18th century.

4620:

and sentenced by the sejm court to banishment, confiscation of property, infamy and removal from state offices held. Lubomirski sought

4154:, doubled in case of a war also with Austria. Poland was going to cooperate militarily with Sweden and be rewarded in the end with the 1070:

or elections, according to directions given. Most commonly the basic "clientele" of the magnates constituted the lowest ranked nobles,

179: 6183:. Jewish burgher circles in the Commonwealth were important in trade and cultural contacts. Some Jews were educated abroad at the few 5096:

nobility, was convened, and, following the wishes of Charles XII, proclaimed a dethronement of Augustus on Feb. 14, 1704. On July 12,

5491:), followed by a verdict of the state court, which sentenced ten Protestants to death. The affair reflected general deterioration of 3545:(under Yurii Khmelnytsky) tied to the Commonwealth, and the left bank to Russia under the terms of the Pereyaslav treaties. With the 3694:

were still going to take place, but the eastern and northern Polish–Lithuanian borders had mainly stabilized, until the time of the

7230:

This compromise deal was not truly accepted by Poles, who thought of eastern Ukraine as being wrongfully taken from its, since the

5874:. While for the time being Russia prevented the realization of these plans, Frederick II directed his attention to the takeover of 2814: 1548:. The typically parochial climate of ignorance, backwardness and prejudice in many small towns found its expression in a number of 8819:(Illustrated History of Poland) by Dariusz Banaszak, Tomasz Biber, Maciej Leszczyński, p. 53. 1996 Podsiedlik-Raniowski i Spółka, 6594:

The development of literature brought many new genres and themes, with the intended substance of a work often buried within heavy

5527: 5464: 4394:

population. Russia's negotiated obligations fell short of a full anti-Ottoman involvement. In 1686 Russia joined the Holy League.

1960:, who was becoming worried about the Cossacks' growing power. Since the Lithuanian forces under Janusz Radziwiłł also entered the 1818: 9010: 4209:

again. The attempt to take over the Duchy of Prussia fell likewise. In 1677, a secret Polish–Swedish understanding was signed in

2953: 1848: 1188:

and feasting social life style of the szlachta attempted to imitate the surroundings and lives of the rich, famous and powerful.

6175:

prevalent, but also present was the influence of other Protestant West European cultures, among which at the earlier stages the

5991:

in 1756; Saxony found itself under Prussian occupation. Despite the far reaching Prussian and Russian expansionist designs, the

4302:

on September 12, 1683. Heavily involved in the fighting were the Commonwealth infantry, artillery and cavalry. Thousands of the

3939:

was won when Sobieski's infantry and cavalry stormed and took over the reinforced enemy positions, at the former camp of Hetman

846:

with established territorial domains, the urban population and infrastructure fell into ruin, together with most peasant farms.

754:

became the theater of wars and invasions fought on a great scale in the middle of the 17th century, to the time just before the

5468: 3061:

the Swedish king granted sovereign rights in Prussia and possession of Greater Poland to Frederick William. In December 1656 a

2927:

The Poles were still at a disadvantage facing the Swedish army in the open field, and Czarniecki's forces were defeated at the

5698:

Leszczyński's supporters captured there were forced to recognize Augustus, while the King himself escaped and found refuge in

5236:, and thus the actions of the Sandomierz Confederation alliance significantly contributed to Charles' ultimate failure at the 3970:

were soon forced out by the Turks, who were able to reconnect with their other concentration of troops in Kamieniec Podolski.

3283:

The Polish–Lithuanian magnates were preoccupied with the issue of recovery of their old feudal lands in the east, lost to the

8986: 8007: 7971: 4370:

King Sobieski, euphoric after the Vienna victory, lacked a sense of realistic political judgment. Neglecting the recovery of

3026: 2788: 123: 5851:

Significant rearrangements were taking place among the powers surrounding the Commonwealth. The now sovereign in the former

5366:

level chief military commanders had their privileges reduced. Limitations were also imposed on legal competence of regional

9015: 7135:, where he strongly criticized the social and economic plight of the lower classes and promoted economic policies based on 7051:. Scientists of German origin were responsible for and catalyzed much of the early scientific revival in the Commonwealth. 6480:

was established in 1702 and attracted students form the Commonwealth. The existing native institutions in Kraków, Vilnius,

4749: 4402: 4291: 4146:

was signed a year later between the Polish king and Louis XIV, providing for French compensation for a planned war against

4101: 4017: 3855: 3491: 628: 510: 326: 271: 158: 7126: 6368:, official separation from the Church. Apostasy was banned in 1668. From 1673 only Catholics could be granted nobility or 6335:. Many Silesian Protestants entered the Commonwealth in order to avoid recatholization in the Holy Roman Empire after the 4232:. The Hungarian rebels were helped with volunteers and supply, and in 1677 with a military expedition led into Hungary by 3519: 1512: 1396:, reduced to 10 thousand inhabitants, remaining depressed. Most smaller towns suffered badly, except for those in western 6764: 4878: 4767: 4713: 4550: 3829:

and their Tatar allies, but the Tatars were defeated twice by Sobieski, who in 1671 removed them and Doroshenko from the

3459:. Russia's progressive incorporation of all of Ukraine was however prevented by the military developments that followed. 3456: 2676: 2241: 1852: 1549: 7153:

and political reorganization of the Commonwealth, which included aiding the monarch with a permanent governing council.

5232:

largely failed to deliver on his promised support for the Swedes. The Swedish supply train approaching from Livonia was

4696:

of 1669 the gathered szlachta unexpectedly flexed their muscle and acted against the leading magnate parties. After the

3866:. The Commonwealth being in a state of internal disorder and incapable of effective defense, the foremost stronghold of 1482: 7194: 6602:

form was predominant, mainly as religious, but also historical or fantasy story telling, in both poetry and prose. The

6395:

The much-reduced Protestants remained significant. They cooperated among the several denominations and appealed to the

4893: 4170:

signed their own treaty against Sobieski's policies, in which for the first time the external powers pledged to defend

3742:, interpreted the Ukrainian disorder as an opportunity for its own expansion in the region. The Commonwealth's friend, 2563: 2373: 2274: 1760: 1027: 767: 751: 718: 560: 6647:(of 1621) and was deeply troubled by the social injustice in the Commonwealth and its decline. The szlachta apologist 6544: 6510: 4917: 1705:

had been mobilized and put in a state of military readiness. The appearance of an outstanding leader, a scribe in the

8940: 8824: 8684: 8247: 8066: 7848: 7792: 7771: 7611: 7467: 7424: 7398: 7356: 7209: 6010: 4980: 4900:

The situation in the Commonwealth had changed to some degree after the election of 1697 and the unexpected ascent of

2108:

With the Sultan's support Hetman Khmelnytsky then attempted to subjugate Moldavia by demanding a marriage of his son

301: 291: 281: 261: 7078:

of Saxony postulated economic innovations and edited and published Poland related periodicals in German in 1753–56 (

6938:

philosophy. They and many progressive Polish Catholics followed the Saxons and accepted the moderate rationalism of

6679:, was frequently used in writing. The mid 18th century movement to clear Polish from the Latin admixture was led by 6567:

in 1745–46, was not scientifically current. Of the popular agricultural handbooks the most complete was produced by

5611: 4092:

was its member. Their plans of electing a French minded candidate for the Commonwealth crown became frustrated when

3858:. The war was officially declared and a great Turkish, Tatar and Cossack invasion force under Mehmed IV entered the 3021:, while Czarniecki conducted further clearing activities in Greater Poland followed by a revenge incursion into the 2135: 947:

turned out particularly destructive. Several massive foreign armies traversed the Commonwealth in the course of the

7390: 6379:

Protestants no longer enjoyed meaningful political rights. Actual cases of religion-inspired violence, such as the

5844: 5645: 5607: 5515: 5294: 4741: 4635: 4390:) territorial gains, and granted Russia the right to intervene in the Commonwealth to protect the interests of its 3814: 3380: 843: 608: 6637:, converted to Catholicism. His poetry depicts the life of Polish landed gentry and historic events. He wrote the 5088:, which split the Commonwealth nobility and intensified the anti-Saxon opposition led by Cardinal Radziejowski. A 4178:", the guarantees of the Commonwealth's weakness. Most importantly the Swedes failed in their military endeavors. 1737: 6927: 6350: 6346: 6292:

had at that time little constructive influence on the nation's spiritual life or level of popular education. The

5931:

pressures. The Habsburg state had a much better record of tolerating minority cultures than the Hohenzollerns in

5256: 5113: 4248: 4037: 3991: 3981:. Sobieski militarily supported Russia, recovering the Bratslav area from the Turks in process. In 1675 Sobieski 3870:(Kamianets-Podilskyi) capitulated, the Turkish army moved toward Lwów, while the Tatars raided west reaching the 3234: 2733: 598: 391: 165: 99: 7026: 5621: 5472: 5193: 5054:(Olkieniki) in November 1700) and the oligarchs appealed to Charles for protection and the removal of Augustus. 4701: 4686: 4524: 4093: 4047:

Peace with Turkey was however the aim of John III Sobieski, who, faced with a new situation in Europe after the

3951: 2524:

imposed limits on what they could undertake. The Sejm also banned long-term resident foreign representations in

1790:

became engulfed in the spreading social upheaval and the region's separation from the Polish kingdom had begun.

759: 7235: 6989: 5912: 5753: 5703: 5500: 5379: 5022:

The hostilities were initiated early in 1700, when the Danes attacked Holstein and Augustus tried to take over

4723:

contributed to drawing the Commonwealth to its sphere of alliances and into conflicts with the Ottoman Empire.

4397:

The decisive reckoning with the Ottoman Empire was supposed to have taken place in 1686, through a coordinated

3586: 3479: 3469: 3249: 3202: 3116: 2691: 2442: 2297: 2257: 2001: 1772: 1031: 665: 6898:(Tatar, Russian, Wallachian, Moldavian, German) circles and uses. This cultural attraction contributed to the 2910: 7962: 6939: 6742:

is of the highest quality. Many instrumental and vocal ensembles were active at various church institutions.

6573: 6535:

Social and political thought produced little that was new. Its main representatives in the 17th century were

6129: 5770: 5523: 5519: 5483:

to his political advantage. The tumult was a religious disturbance and confrontation involving Catholics and

5181: 5109: 4825: 4693: 4631: 4295: 3822: 3757: 3739: 3306:. Vyhovsky represented the Cossack upper strata and sought independence from Russia through an alliance with 3303: 3233:

Frederick William's sovereign takeover met with resistance in the Duchy of Prussia. A nobility faction under

2469:, who however monopolized the command and dominated the officer corps. The highest ranks belonged to wealthy 2094: 2057:

In February 1651, Hetman Kalinowski advanced against the Cossacks, but suffered heavy losses and withdrew to

1891: 1431: 711: 416: 104: 92: 5885: 4921: 3806:), the Tatars agreed to renew the alliance with the Commonwealth and Doroshenko acknowledged its authority. 3273: 1568: 1228:

acute by ruining the peasant farming operation. Not all the regions suffered equally, as northern Poland's (

884:, however, gave rise to the emergence of the reform movement in the Commonwealth, and the beginnings of the 6260:, which during that century were fused into one powerful current of Catholic national mission. The Polish, 6184: 5727: 5672: 5439: 4835: 4553:, the most powerful magnate of Lithuania, is credited with being responsible for the first instance of the 4379: 4233: 4010: 3691: 3671:(the last entity for a short while remained under joint Russian-Polish supervision). "Polish Livonia", the 3550: 3523: 2598:, intended precisely to take advantage of Poland's grave difficulties, hoping to easily take over at least 2335:

The Commonwealth's failure to emancipate the Cossacks led to a shift in the regional balance of power (the

1619: 1599: 7021:. Andrzej Stanisław Załuski extended his patronage to the most outstanding historian in the Commonwealth, 5169:, but the treaty opened opportunities for Russia's future involvement in the affairs of the Commonwealth. 4969:

in 1698. The strong negative reaction in the Commonwealth provided one more opportunity for attacking the

4757: 3997: 3921: 6963: 6859: 6607: 5745: 5545:

and united the majority of historically most outstanding families, including the Lithuanian clans of the

5454: 5089: 5047: 4786: 3798:

confronted them with a small force. After the Polish troops withstood two weeks of enemy assaults at the

3108: 3043: 2672: 2024: 1808: 1117: 674: 669: 593: 135: 7787:(1648–1763) (The Commonwealth in the era of golden liberty (1648–1763)), pp. 24-26, Fogra, Kraków 2001, 6577:

of 1661, the first printed periodical, lasted for a year (41 issues). The first permanent newspaper was

6552: 6548: 5351: 5347: 5317: 5138: 5081: 3415:

The Treaty of Hadiach became also a major factor leading to the Commonwealth's renewed warfare with the

1717:, a Polish nobleman, and unable to obtain redress through official channels, Khmelnytsky headed for the 1049: 7932: 7640: 7113: 7108: 6993: 6540: 6495:(1611–87) of Danzig, noted for the accurate observations of the sky with the equipment he constructed. 6469: 6323: 6176: 5625: 5599: 5306: 5270: 5189: 5127: 5101: 5061: 4996: 4801: 4605: 4571: 4151: 3515: 3307: 3132:

Austrian intermediaries facilitated the decisively important negotiations between Frederick William of

3104: 3022: 2971: 2941: 2886: 2698:

did not resist the invaders and was thoroughly plundered. John Casimir fought, but was defeated at the

2622: 2514: 2362: 1516: 1090:; among the lower ranks they alone enjoyed something of a, at least symbolic, privileged noble status. 808:, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more. In one decisive engagement he helped in 1683 to 384: 346: 170: 87: 21: 7382: 6496: 6380: 5480: 5446: 5410: 5370:

assemblies, which turned out to be difficult to implement because of continuous inadequacy of central

5302: 5274: 5057: 2680: 2174:

Tatar slave-taking raids into Poland), for the Poles the Berestechko victory was by that time wasted.

7149:(On an effective way of councils, 1760–63), he unveiled a far-reaching reform program for the Polish 5383: 4916:

to ensure his election, but the voting process did not give him a clear victory. The early favorite,

4446: 4097: 3799: 3695: 3561:

was elected Cossack hetman, but his authority was not recognized in left-bank Ukraine, where in June

3014: 2265: 2162:. John Casimir negotiated with the Tatar Khan İslâm Giray again and in December 1653 accepted in the 2012: 1290: 755: 660: 603: 109: 7039:. Related work was done in the first half of the 18th century by a number of researchers in Danzig, 4865:

and their son Jakub. John III's death in 1696 commenced the longest, most contentious and corrupted

4567: 3958:'s refusal to fight under Sobieski's orders forced Sobieski to abandon his intended move toward the 6289: 6261: 6233:) origins of Polish nobles. Literary and linguistic interests were also pursued in that direction. 5765: 5569:, a prominent pioneering reformer, condemned the breaking of the Sejm proceedings and defended the 5435: 5225: 5134: 3851: 3534: 3424: 3364: 2579: 2438: 2293: 1964:

region, Khmelnytsky consented to ceasing of hostilities on favorable for him, the Cossacks and the

1755:

The disastrous consequences of the erroneous and short-sighted, during the reigns of the first two

1008: 958: 842:) and manipulation by foreign interests. The nobility class fell under the control of a handful of 800:

divided; the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, became a dependency of the Tsardom of Russia.

747: 515: 6598:

and other stylistic embellishments. There were hardly any authors ranking with Europe's best. The

6477: 5815: 4760:, ostensibly for the country's defense, but in fact to protect and promote the monarch's faction. 4084:

The pro-French camp was formed in Poland already in the 1660s, in part upon the prodding by Queen

3982: 2913:. Charles Gustav then moved south, with the intention of breaking the Polish military opposition. 7075: 6722: 6385: 5955: 5920: 5840: 5731: 5422:, which was opposed both domestically and by foreign powers. Augustus was seeking the support of 5117: 4730: 4391: 3936: 3932: 3840: 3714: 3466: 3372: 3268: 3096: 3032:

The international balance of power was also shifting in favor of the Commonwealth because of the

3003: 2499: 2434: 2301: 2268:

against combined Russian and Ukrainian forces. Later that year Khmelnytsky counterattacked, took

2197: 1965: 1949: 1925: 1815:; its indecisive outcome allowed Wiśniowiecki and his units to continue their westward movement. 1668: 1545: 1471: 885: 763: 82: 6734:

Music served mostly the needs of the Church and had remained under primarily Italian influence.

5810:) expounded the comprehensive reform program of the Czartoryski party, including a promotion of 5711: 5530:, a highly accomplished general and diplomat, formerly in the service of Charles XII of Sweden. 5069: 2986:, interested in preserving a balance of power in the north, against the Commonwealth during the 2810: 2755:, who disillusioned with Charles Gustav often switched sides and took the lead of the fighting. 2737: 2671:

briefly fought, but soon capitulated and sought Charles Gustav's protection for their province.

2510:

region and the south-east, where there were powerful, even if neglected fortresses, such as the

1633:

History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648) § Cossacks and Cossack rebellions

1004: 8198: 7840: 6743: 6712: 6491:

Scientific achievements were accordingly generally modest. The one accomplished astronomer was

6303: 6089: 5992: 5749: 5692: 5682: 5678: 5668: 5649: 5587: 5562: 5427: 5419: 5285: 5142: 5039: 4950: 4939: 4901: 4647: 4609: 4442: 4319: 4312: 4048: 3359:

The provisions of the treaty, and of the proposed union, included the creation of the Duchy of

3077: 3051: 2866: 2862: 2426: 2305: 2098: 1694: 1690:

attacks caused destruction of crops and hunger in Ukraine, adding to the region's instability.

1503:

subjected to arbitrary obligations imposed by feudal owners. In the 18th century royal city of

1332: 1262:

The tendency was for each village, or a small cluster of villages, possibly corresponding to a

1204: 929: 909: 861: 857: 833: 825: 77: 8700: 6996:

became great patrons of science. In 1747 they opened a public library in Warsaw, known as the

6536: 6506: 5386:

worked out an alliance with Augustus II in Vienna in 1719, aimed at checking the expansion of

5321: 2822: 2740: 2047: 1794: 8676: 7001: 6863: 6826: 6662: 5855: 5546: 5247:

and the rule of Augustus II was restored, as Leszczyński sought refuge in Swedish-controlled

5027: 4988: 4962: 4427: 4266: 4181: 3940: 3706: 3451:

with Russia on October 27. The articles substantially reduced the Ukrainian autonomy and the

3339: 3107:'s forces raided Transylvania and retreating Rákóczi was defeated by the Poles and Tatars at 2699: 2630: 2131: 2117: 2077: 1764: 1125: 986: 638: 6982: 6955: 6680: 6005:

was ripe for more definite territorial encroachments on the part of the neighboring powers.

5858:

rulers consolidated their control of the Baltic coast areas also west of the Commonwealth's

5777: 5566: 4378:'s diplomacies he agreed, to motivate Russia to join the war with the Ottoman Empire, to an 3002:. The combined armies of the two monarchs approached Warsaw and fought at the end of July a 2684: 2234:

autonomy was specified) and obtain the promise of Russian intervention in the Commonwealth.

1855:, demanded taking whatever radical punitive steps were required to quench the disorder. The 1185: 1045: 788:

engulfed the south and east of the vast Polish–Lithuanian state, and was soon followed by a

7294: 7280: 7239: 6972: 6922: 6684: 6656: 6621: 6588: 6564: 6332: 6157: 6102: 6053:

influence and native styles and traditions, all fully combined within the broader regional

6046: 5969: 5951: 5825: 5804:

Stanisław Konarski embarked on an educational reform, Stanisław Poniatowski's publication (

5800: 5793: 5734:

there in 1738. Leszczyński had to relinquish the Polish crown and was compensated with the

5492: 5123: 5026:

by a sudden action. But the Swedish army was prepared and under the exceptional command of

4909: 4846: 4544: 4520: 4513: 4509: 4123: 4085: 3883: 3830: 3810: 3541:

was left in Russian hands and Ukraine became divided, with the right (western) bank of the

3537:, however successful, had not resulted in the recovery of all the lands lost in the 1650s. 3327: 2999: 2987: 2928: 2760: 2730:. The bulk of the Polish nobility and the armed forces declared loyalty to Charles Gustav. 2626: 2458: 2369: 2344: 2336: 2253: 2245: 1953: 1921: 1895: 1680: 1638: 1427: 1244: 1208: 1200: 963: 905: 850: 829: 785: 685: 565: 520: 425: 6786: 5839:

The magnate factions utilized foreign help: The Potocki group was supported by Prussia of

5595: 5499:

prevented a foreign military intervention prepared in response, with the participation of

5105: 4111: 4041: 4029: 4025: 3878:

and freeing 44,000 of the enslaved, but that was not enough to prevent the signing of the

3487: 3126: 2784: 2756: 2548: 1714: 8: 8932: 8054: 6958:. The young Piarist taught in schools conducted by his order, went to study and teach in 6648: 6336: 6277: 6257: 6198: 5984: 5878:, a region which had been under the Bohemian and Austrian control for several centuries. 5789: 5460: 5445:

In the Commonwealth Augustus was frustrated by the dogged opposition of the Crown Hetman

5309:

as its marshal was formed, having the goal of removing the Saxons from the Commonwealth.

5260: 5221: 5177: 5008: 4958: 4929: 4599:

periods, by that time the reform program had been defeated and the army remained unpaid.

4450: 4386:, signed in Moscow in 1686. The treaty confirmed and adjusted further Russia's previous ( 4371: 4194: 4078: 4058: 3986: 3867: 3581:

withdrawal unavoidable. The Commonwealth's failures encouraged anti-Polish sentiments in

3448: 3388: 3227: 3133: 2652: 2591: 2571: 2511: 2461:

and to a lesser degree after 1655, the armed forces had to be rebuilt almost completely.

2398: 2376:. The external situation also deteriorated, because of the increased strength of Sweden, 2359: 2222: 2109: 2058: 1864: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1697:

carried out preparations for the Turkish expedition that he had planned, by the time the

1168: 948: 466: 140: 6833: 6666: 6500: 6030: 5881: 4820:

John III initially intended to implement his various plans, including a conquest of the

4789:. Sobieski was an educated and well-traveled man of many interests and pursuits, son of 3882:

in October 1672, on humiliating for the Commonwealth terms. The Ottoman Empire took the

2936:

and the planned attack on Lwów. His attempt to hold off the enemy along the line of the

2660: 1837: 1768: 1614: 7896:(1648–1763) (The Commonwealth in the era of golden liberty (1648–1763)), pp. 38, 42, 43 7316: 7298: 7022: 6915: 6867: 6837: 6672: 6439: 6416: 6375: 6180: 6171: 5908: 5871: 5699: 5591: 5504: 5334: 5166: 5097: 5035: 5000: 4753: 4616:

Marie Louise tried to force Lubomirski to leave the country. In 1664 he was accused of

4387: 4348: 4281: 3917: 3874:, taking huge numbers of civilian captives. Sobieski counterattacked moving south from 3765: 3761: 3725: 3656: 3635: 3624: 3582: 3573: 3562: 3440: 3295: 3137: 2726:'s command, but had to capitulate when a rescue force was crushed by the Swedes in the 2668: 2595: 2583: 2537: 2446: 2273:

upon the Commonwealth, but also considered an improvement of the relationship with the

2073: 1741: 1642: 1624: 1107: 952: 869: 865: 7058: 6997: 6700: 4374:, he unsuccessfully attacked the Turks in Moldavia. Then pressed by the Emperor's and 4325: 2590:, was subjected to a massive attack by Sweden. The Swedish leaders, emboldened by the 2288:

One of the unique granite columns with which Ukrainian Cossacks marked their territory

2065:, where he joined the gathering of the Crown army. In June, both the regular army and 2019:

region. The peasant rebels, influenced by Khmelnytsky and his uprising, took over the

1779: 1609: 8936: 8935:(Encyclopedia of Poland), Wydawnictwo Ryszard Kluszczyński (publisher), Kraków 1996, 8820: 8704: 8680: 8062: 8003: 7967: 7957: 7844: 7788: 7767: 7607: 7463: 7420: 7415: 7394: 7247: 7243: 6951: 6875: 6799: 6629: 6492: 6412: 6253: 6210: 6149: 6096: 6073: 5973: 5943: 5916: 5907:

in 1740. The Austrians tried to recover the conquered area, but were defeated at the

5896: 5641: 5533: 5423: 5244: 5237: 5233: 5216: 5185: 5146: 5077: 5012: 4854: 4806: 4794: 4774: 4737: 4720: 4709: 4621: 4528: 4473: 4454: 4423: 4398: 4383: 4364: 4340: 4256: 4252: 4229: 4186: 4167: 4143: 4089: 4070: 4062: 4002: 3974: 3898: 3879: 3818: 3795: 3710: 3660: 3643: 3527: 3495: 3483: 3452: 3444: 3436: 3416: 3353: 3343: 3288: 3210: 3190: 3186: 3103:, and an Austrian diplomatic initiative aimed at separating Brandenburg form Sweden. 3088: 3037: 3018: 2827: 2727: 2723: 2645: 2613:

Worried about the Russian strength and advances in the East Baltic region and toward

2575: 2552: 2495: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2454: 2450: 2430: 2406: 2377: 2278: 2226: 2218: 1996:

in 1650. The Cossack Hetman's emissaries also established contacts with Commonwealth

1973: 1887: 1804: 1783: 1384:

The slow rebuilding after 1720 took place unevenly, with some of the largest cities,

1220: 877: 801: 793: 656: 588: 570: 30: 8781:(1648–1763) (The Commonwealth in the era of golden liberty (1648–1763)), pp. 191–192 8548:(1648–1763) (The Commonwealth in the era of golden liberty (1648–1763)), pp. 238–239 8461:(1648–1763) (The Commonwealth in the era of golden liberty (1648–1763)), pp. 109–110 8424:(1648–1763) (The Commonwealth in the era of golden liberty (1648–1763)), pp. 183–184 8365:(1648–1763) (The Commonwealth in the era of golden liberty (1648–1763)), pp. 181–185 6841: 6692: 6634: 6273: 5554: 5289:

because Charles, having returned from his exile, embarked on building of an army in

5266: 4814: 4244:

and Vienna, Turkey's own military undertakings worked in favor of Sobieski's plans.

2967: 1274: 7290: 7186: 6525: 6428: 6319: 6281: 6238: 6061: 5852: 5735: 5418:

undertakings curtailed, concentrated on ensuring the Polish succession for his son

5391: 5255:, under the Ottoman rule, and was still a cause of unrest in the Commonwealth. The 5211: 5203: 4976: 4970: 4831: 4821: 4727: 4697: 4579: 4412: 4375: 4356: 4299: 4284: 4218: 4155: 4131: 4006: 3909: 3887: 3753: 3668: 3642:, according to which eastern Ukraine now belonged to Russia (with a high degree of 3607: 3596: 3546: 3503: 3163: 3141: 3062: 3058: 3007: 2991: 2898: 2890: 2656: 2603: 2567: 2445:

troops left. The Commonwealth was able to field a 60,000 army (plus the unreliable

2381: 2325: 2206: 2167: 2102: 1969: 1944: 1856: 1718: 1687: 1676: 1552:. Many magnate residencies were built and public improvement projects completed in 1491: 1466: 1446:, areas typically under feudal jurisdiction outside city walls. Jews also lived in 1248: 1172: 864:, brought the Commonwealth more political damage and little meaningful reform. The 809: 789: 701: 492: 130: 8023:(1648–1763) (The Commonwealth in the era of golden liberty (1648–1763)), pp. 44–45 7870:(1648–1763) (The Commonwealth in the era of golden liberty (1648–1763)), pp. 37-38 7823:(1648–1763) (The Commonwealth in the era of golden liberty (1648–1763)), pp. 31-35 7807:(1648–1763) (The Commonwealth in the era of golden liberty (1648–1763)), pp. 29-31 6738:

were brought from abroad and constructed locally; the instrument built in 1682 in

5829: 5558: 4339:

At this juncture, a protectorate by the Commonwealth was sought by the leaders of

2687:

treaty, under which Lithuania was to form a union with Sweden, instead of Poland.

932:

factors present that affected at that time large portions of Europe, to which the

8968: 7836: 7352: 7231: 7065: 6880: 6822: 6503:

were Jesuit mathematicians and astronomers; the latter one was also an engineer.

6396: 6315: 6311: 6214: 6165: 6034: 5664: 5496: 5252: 5150: 4913: 4905: 4646:

In 1665 Lubomirski entered the Commonwealth in an act of open rebellion known as

4485: 4115: 4066: 3894: 3777: 3749: 3743: 3611: 3376: 3315: 3258: 3245: 3218: 3167: 3091:

Commonwealth's ally became worried about a stronger Transylvania threatening its

2979: 2949: 2831: 2803: 2800: 2796: 2649: 2529: 2417: 2355: 2121: 2028: 1957: 1822: 1812: 1787: 1722: 1508: 1423: 1370: 1336: 1308:

On a grand scale peasant armed resistance became a crucial factor in the eastern

1156: 1035: 853: 6117: 5788:, still involved in the infighting of the magnate parties. Saxon defeats in the 4262: 4051:, wished to pursue an ambitious policy in the more crucial for the Commonwealth 3927:

Sobieski decided to attack the largest of the three Turkish corps, stationed at

3462: 2675:'s army crossed into Lithuania with promises of help in resisting the Russians. 1713:, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, was another decisive factor. Having suffered a wrong from 8794:(1648–1763) (The Commonwealth in the era of golden liberty (1648–1763)), p. 192 8604:(1648–1763) (The Commonwealth in the era of golden liberty (1648–1763)), p. 273 8591:(1648–1763) (The Commonwealth in the era of golden liberty (1648–1763)), p. 267 7595: 7512: 7510: 7508: 7506: 7504: 7312: 6871: 6818: 6716: 6703:

were being shown. School theaters were maintained by the Jesuits, Piarists and

6389: 6001: 5988: 5656: 5637: 5550: 5508: 5387: 5355: 5093: 5043: 5031: 4984: 4954: 4790: 4752:, Prażmowski demanded the King's abdication and Michał responded by calling up 4504: 4468:

left (the few survivors of the many wars sought refuge on the left-bank of the

4458: 4308: 4303: 4175: 3847: 3826: 3721: 3631: 3620: 3482:

in 1660. The Commonwealth mustered all its military resources and in Lithuania

3420: 3081: 3033: 2983: 2975: 2961: 2882: 2711: 2664: 2559: 2385: 2340: 2329: 2189: 2037: 1981: 1730: 1726: 1664: 1603: 1580: 1397: 1282: 1233: 1164: 1111: 1103: 1087: 901: 881: 813: 805: 372: 72: 67: 8222:(1648–1763) (The Commonwealth in the era of golden liberty (1648–1763)), p. 82 7986:(1648–1763) (The Commonwealth in the era of golden liberty (1648–1763)), p. 69 7883:(1648–1763) (The Commonwealth in the era of golden liberty (1648–1763)), p. 42 7116:

were the first "moral" periodicals, dedicated to the new ideology and ethics.

7035:, an outstanding description of the Polish political system, and a history of 6771:

has survived. Secular (court bands) and folk music was also practiced and the

6584: 6299: 5312: 5161:

and the Tsardom obliged itself to help in suppressing the Cossack uprising of

3269:

Treaty of Hadiach, war with Russia, Truce of Andrusovo and division of Ukraine

2818: 1763:

were about to make their impact, first of many. In April and May 1648, in the

1196: 8994: 7995: 7763: 7410: 7170: 7036: 6975:, who, revising the out of dated repertoire, wrote or adapted many comedies. 6931: 6485: 6465: 6153: 6124: 5939: 5928: 5924: 5904: 5900: 5859: 5757: 5663:. Willing Polish nobles were found, Russian soldiers were brought in and the 5484: 5450: 5398: 5016: 4828:

system (Russia and Austria joined in similar understanding already in 1675).

4778: 4469: 4416: 4069:, became the next candidate. Poland had however traditionally been linked to 4028:. The outnumbered Poles withstood two weeks of enemy assaults, after which a 3558: 3542: 3409: 3311: 3299: 3277: 3174: 2957: 2835: 2707: 2127: 1961: 1756: 1645:. It was a great national and social movement, as the increasingly exploited 1584: 1541: 1532: 1462: 1252: 1237: 1160: 944: 913: 896: 873: 461: 456: 451: 360: 145: 7501: 7048: 5719: 5707: 5636:

The Saxon court in the meantime was able to arrive at an understanding with

4935: 4651: 4445:

attempted another anti-Ottoman Commonwealth campaign, during which only the

4142:, appeared to have strengthened the pro-French faction decisively. A secret 3955: 3701: 3238: 2906: 2841: 2209:

to abandon his policy of non-involvement and move against the Commonwealth.

436: 7723: 7263: 7150: 7136: 7012: 7005: 6899: 6890: 6849: 6791: 6756: 6708: 6628:

current. He wrote romantic poetry and expert translations of foreign work.

6611: 6599: 6450:. There were accomplished Polish Protestant schools in Silesia, led by the 6342: 6041:

In the realm of culture the 1648–1764 period was dominated by the style of

5958:

failed to substantially strengthen Augustus' position in the Commonwealth.

5932: 5867: 5811: 5371: 4617: 4588: 4583: 4560: 4555: 4532: 4344: 3781: 3746: 3736: 3510:

was recovered by the Poles the following year. Of great importance was the

3368: 3262: 3070: 2634: 2521: 2488: 2043: 1929: 1698: 1660: 1458: 1328: 1301:

the ethnically Polish peasantry rebelled during 1722–29 and in 1750 around

1152: 838: 62: 8865:(Chronology of Polish History), ed. Andrzej Chwalba, p. 138, Jakub Basista 8377:(Chronology of Polish History), ed. Andrzej Chwalba, p. 145, Jakub Basista 8291:(Chronology of Polish History), ed. Andrzej Chwalba, p. 139, Jakub Basista 7462:(History of Poland in a Pill), p. 157. Agencja Benkowski, Białystok 1998, 7068:

and many were intended for foreign consumption, beginning with Lengnich's

6978: 6947: 6438:

Protestant middle schools fared somewhat better, led by the well regarded

6374:, a recognition (transfer) of foreign nobility status. In 1717, after the 5889: 3568: 3533:

The Commonwealth's defense and the retaking of the greater portion of the

2764: 2748: 2412: 1026:, huge networks of landed estates. Latifundia were present throughout the 6935: 6638: 6625: 6481: 6065: 5671:

on October 5. The crown of the Commonwealth, in dispute again, was to be

5488: 5431: 5407: 5338: 5278: 5229: 5162: 5051: 4793:, an accomplished parliamentarian and diplomat. A great military leader, 4726:

Displeased by the growing Austrian influence, the pro-French camp led by

4595: 4539:) ability to function and power. With the diminished fortunes of regular 4492: 4481: 3901:

cooperation. Hetman Sobieski's military offensive commenced in the fall.

3679: 3499: 3443:'s son. Khmelnytsky, in an attempt to preserve the unity of Ukraine (the 3391:

was limited to thirty thousand and with the allowed return of the Polish

3367:, would have its own state offices and participate in the Commonwealth's 3241: 3122: 2937: 2933: 2772: 2683:

there accepted the Swedish king's supremacy and on October 20 signed the

2158:. The main Polish forces led by John Casimir became stuck at a camp near 2147: 2113: 1913: 1872: 1860: 1844: 1830: 1799: 1683:

Voivodeships and the Ukrainian urban people joined the uprising as well.

1408: 1348: 1140: 933: 57: 6284:

were belatedly and gradually implemented. The enormous proliferation of

5862:

and were seeking annexations of parts of Polish Pomerania, including a "

5818:

of the competing camp likewise postulated fundamental internal reforms.

5710:

Stanisław issued a manifesto in November 1734, in response to which the

5199: 4949:

At the outset of his reign Augustus II arrived at an understanding with

4666: 4280:

or Vienna. Indeed, in July, the over 100,000 strong Ottoman army led by

4024:

and moving up the Dniester River was confronted by King Sobieski at the

3836: 3447:

Cossack regiments had already joined the Russian side), concluded a new

3047: 2532:

dominated European diplomacy, in Poland the official language was still

1952:, but Ossoliński saved the Polish army by successfully negotiating with 1564: 1490:

churches were built despite the country's depressed economy (originally

1324: 1236:) agriculture maintained moderate profitability, while southern Poland ( 777:, experienced devastating wars and fell into internal disorder and then 8708: 7331:

The extreme deterioration of the condition of the Polish and Ruthenian

6752: 6735: 6615: 6559: 6293: 6269: 6230: 6218: 5821: 5715: 5688: 5495:

in the Commonwealth, was widely condemned abroad and only the death of

4052: 3875: 3769: 3683: 3432: 3223: 3194: 2618: 2607: 2389: 2339:

marks the turning point) and gave rise to the western expansion of the

2213: 2201: 2181: 2082: 1903: 1899: 1667:(especially in western Ukraine) at the expense of the often persecuted 1344: 1144: 1099: 1023: 1014:

The predominant 16th century agricultural production organization, the

982: 792:, which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and 483: 7760:

The Polish Way: A Thousand-Year History of the Poles and Their Culture

6739: 6727: 6707:

and there were religious spectacles for the general public, including

6459: 5403: 5333:

forces, the confederates were defeated by the Saxons at the Battle of

4920:, had many supporters and was proclaimed a king-elect by the Primate, 4810: 3592: 3115:. The combined Polish and Austrian forces had retaken Kraków. Denmark 2861:

withdrew their previous support of Charles Gustav and established the

8955:(There was no democracy of nobles), Jarosław Kurski's interview with 7920: 7918: 7916: 7914: 7912: 7910: 7908: 7906: 7904: 7902: 7519:(There was no democracy of nobles), Jarosław Kurski's interview with 6747: 6704: 6696: 6595: 6370: 6285: 6226: 6054: 5863: 5290: 5153:

was concluded on August 30, 1704 in the recently won by the Russians

5064:'s first "election" (1704) was enforced by the Swedish troops present 4763: 4499: 4408: 4202: 3871: 3803: 3732: 3652: 3615: 3159: 2850: 2638: 2312:

fell after a three-month-long siege. The next year the Russians took

2020: 1997: 1993: 1745: 1615:

Khmelnytsky Uprising, peasant movements, Cossack alliance with Russia

1595: 1374: 1366: 1356: 1289:

duties, or, rarely in ethnically Polish lands, armed rebellions. The

1278: 1267: 1229: 1177: 476: 7044: 6443: 6408: 5987:

brought a demise of the Saxon army, which attacked by the Prussians

5961: 5259:, instigated by Charles, ended in the defeat of Tsar Peter, who was 4966: 4912:. He invested large sums, obtained foreign support and converted to 4277: 4213:, according to which John III agreed to let the Swedes pass through 4210: 3349: 3182: 3145: 2806:, who had just defeated Khmelnytsky, was offering help and support. 2776: 2719: 2703: 2177: 1902:

the self-confident Hetman, now speaking of total liberation of the "

1576: 1504: 1495: 1393: 1389: 1378: 1114:

established Commonwealth-wide magnate factions of great importance.

836:), corrupted legislative processes (such as the infamous use of the 820:

existence. The government became ineffective because of large scale

7886: 7731: 7308: 7303: 7119:

From the circle of Stanisław Leszczyński came in 1743 (dated 1733)

6968: 6911: 6603: 6547:. They postulated limited social reform. In the early 18th century 6529: 6517: 6432: 6365: 6327: 6265: 6138: 5784:. After 1754 Augustus' court supported reformist activities of the 5653: 5615: 5073: 5004: 4705: 4671: 4540: 4465: 4352: 4171: 4021: 3978: 3967: 3944: 3859: 3687: 3648: 3639: 3634:–Tatar intervention, the Commonwealth and Russia signed in 1667 an 3576:(dark green) forever changed the balance of power in Eastern Europe 3554: 3538: 3511: 3399: 3393: 3384: 3360: 3284: 3181:

capitulated after a long siege, but the Swedes kept Marienburg and

2873:

Charles Gustav concentrated on completing the takeover of Prussia.

2752: 2599: 2466: 2309: 2229:. Ukrainians of all ranks gathered, or were compelled to gather in 2193: 2159: 2067: 1985: 1940: 1933: 1876: 1834: 1672: 1655: 1650: 1646: 1610:

Wars fought to protect territorial integrity, decline of government

1443: 1313: 1309: 1302: 1216: 1053: 1015: 971: 782: 7899: 7040: 6886: 6447: 5085: 5080:

in July 1702. Further Saxon defeats took place the following year

4716:, who became well regarded for her tenure as the Queen of Poland. 4655: 3178: 3149: 2874: 2625:

was also encouraged by the Polish magnate opposition unhappy with

1537: 7862: 7860: 7815: 7813: 7348: 7336: 7332: 7301:, despite the increasing proportion of the Polish and Lithuanian 7262:

Because of the (completed by the first half of the 18th century)

6862:

was a prominent painter, one of several who worked for John III.

6772: 6760: 6652: 6455: 6451: 6361: 6042: 6014: 5965: 5947: 5875: 5603: 5248: 5158: 4333: 4214: 4206: 4159: 4127: 4074: 4065:

components, and the Commonwealth, in peace with Sweden after the

4033: 3913: 3904: 3863: 3676: 3672: 3507: 3335: 3198: 3156: 3112: 3092: 2945: 2916: 2846: 2792: 2780: 2715: 2614: 2587: 2507: 2470: 2393: 2321: 2155: 2051: 2016: 2005: 1917: 1880: 1841: 1528: 1487: 1419: 1401: 1352: 1298: 1294: 1256: 1224: 1148: 1128: 1019: 975: 937: 925: 917: 797: 778: 8946: 6659:

was one of the leading in Europe representatives of this genre.

6168:

was by then in common use, but mostly within the magnate class.

4426:

hesitated between a pro-Habsburg and pro-French policy. His son

3963: 3405: 2543: 1868: 1022:

gave way by the middle of the 17th century to the magnate-owned

7285: 6845: 6844:

of King John III is an early representative of this trend. The

6812: 6780: 6768: 6206: 6050: 5833: 5598:, the chances of her father, the former king of short duration 5367: 5363: 5173: 4734: 4650:. The main military confrontation took place in July 1666 near 4602: 4536: 4476:

no longer existed. During the 18th century thousands of Polish

4360: 4138:

The 1674 election of John Sobieski, married to the French-born

4105: 3959: 3950:

Detrimental to further military progress was the death of King

3935:

with the Ottoman Empire took place half a century earlier. The

3928: 3792: 3729: 3630:

Under the pressure of the Ukrainian unrest and the threat of a

3428: 3100: 3066: 3011: 2920: 2902: 2894: 2858: 2695: 2525: 2492: 2402: 2350: 2317: 2269: 1989: 1776: 1591: 1553: 1451: 1447: 1385: 1263: 1067: 1030:, but developed most extensively in the eastern reaches of the 1001: 821: 743: 7857: 7810: 7797: 7777: 7719: 7717: 7715: 7713: 7527:'s polemic. Ornatowski genealogy www.ornatowski.com 27-01-2006 7389:(History of Poland 1505–1764), Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe ( 5030:, a guarantor of Holstein independency along with England and 4464:

After the turn of the century, in Polish Ukraine there was no

3065:

involving several monarchs and other parties was concluded in

2775:

resisted both the Cossack and the Swedish assaults, similarly

1909: 41: 7966:, p. 24, 2003 New Haven & London, Yale University Press, 6848:

style was triumphant under the Wettin rulers and the present

6776: 6695:, where Stanisław Lubomirski staged his comedies, and one at 6676: 6242: 6222: 6221:

artistic tastes, which had to do with the wars fought on the

6069: 5176:

and the Saxon-led coalition army was defeated in 1706 at the

5154: 4225: 3724:, which had previously been involved in Ukrainian affairs by 3713:, the Commonwealth's last great victorious commander, at the 3455:'s authority. The Kiev patriarch became a subordinate of the 3214: 2533: 2372:

was the beginning of a long period of internal crisis in the

2313: 2143: 2062: 1475: 1412: 487: 471: 7742: 7740: 7578: 7576: 7574: 7572: 7570: 7568: 7566: 7539: 7537: 7535: 7533: 7490: 7488: 7486: 7484: 7482: 7480: 7478: 7476: 6581:, published from 1729 by the Piarists and then the Jesuits. 6388:

hierarchy in the Commonwealth were all forced to accept the

6190: 5644:, and through the concessions extended, including giving up 5514:

The party of the newly-prominent Czartoryskis, known as the

5210:

Prior to the treaty ratification, Augustus still managed to

4205:

the Swedish forces were defeated and Frederick William took

3136:

and the Commonwealth, which in fall of 1657 resulted in the

2940:

was unsuccessful, as his forces were trapped by Czarniecki,

2783:

in case of the Swedes. Some of the Lithuanian forces, under

2277:

that he shook up ("fatally wounded", according to historian

1319: 8197:. Unitarian Universalist Historical Society. Archived from 7873: 7710: 7606:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd edition 2006, 7242:

though of all of Ukraine as rightfully belonging under the

6959: 6624:, a magnate active in royal court circles, represented the 6354: 6246: 5739: 5023: 4639: 4627: 4270: 4241: 4119: 3788: 3664: 3473: 3323: 3152: 2768: 2617:, the Swedes blocked their further progress by taking over 2477:, a nobleman of more humble origins. Czarniecki introduced 2230: 2150:. Tymofiy, defending his father-in-law, died at the Polish- 1749: 1507:, 55% of the grounds within the city walls belonged to the 7307:

settled there. Among the one hundred researched Ruthenian

7054: 6836:

built in Warsaw in the second half of the 17th century by

6783:

were staged in Warsaw under Augustus II and Augustus III.

6201:

proclaimed the special mission of Poles as a chosen nation

5792:

that followed caused complete political stagnation of the

5610:

of 1732. This treaty involved also Austria and designated

5541:

The Potockis camp attempted to counteract the rise of the

5399:

Later Wettin rule, Polish Succession War, magnate factions

4251:, was getting ready to take up the defense of Thököly and 4032:

was agreed on through French mediation. It had still left

2763:

foothills region units were highly successful, liberating

2264:

raid into Ukraine and fought in early 1655 the victorious

2076:

moved decisively against the Tatar-Cossack forces. At the

1863:

incompetent, which resulted in a disastrous defeat at the

897:

War destruction, economic breakdown, social disintegration

7737: 7563: 7530: 7473: 7200:

History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1648)

7004:

era. Foundations were laid for the development of Polish

5799:

The internal political fight was influenced by the early

3702:

Period of wars with the Ottoman Empire, John III Sobieski

2694:

by that time had also surrendered to the King of Sweden.

1771:

the joined Cossack-Tatar forces completely destroyed the

8962: 6225:

front and the spoils brought back and with the presumed

5942:

was followed by the second (1744–45), terminated by the

5354:). Poland-Saxony relationship was strictly limited to a 4883: 4405:

mark the twilight of the Commonwealth's military might.

4073:, and trying to break this relationship, which had many 3890:

voivodeships and accepted a big yearly monetary "gift".

2998:

Seeking help the Swedish king made Frederick William an

2787:, had remained faithful to John Casimir. They fought in 2328:

disasters the Commonwealth had to accede in 1656 to the

1803:

and its people, began retreating at the end of May from

1191: 992: 8971:

newspaper wyborcza.pl 2012-08-22, Arkadiusz Pacholski,

7335:

caused the degeneration of their status into a form of

7205:

History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1764–95)

5192:. Augustus II had to agree to humiliating terms of the 5180:. As a result of the favorable for him outcomes at the 5003:. The Danes were worried by the Swedish penetration of 4670:

Election close-up shows the senators surrounded by the

3173:

Efforts to remove Swedish garrisons from the cities of

1829:

The death of Władysław IV on May 20 and the discordant

1465:(widely then practiced in Europe) were being made. The 1159:. Some minority Protestant nobility remained active in 1060:

The magnate control over the lesser or petty szlachta (

8973:

Jak Polak zhańbił Polaka, czyli niewolnictwo po polsku

6563:(The New Athens), the first encyclopedia published by 5899:

dynastic crisis after the assumption of the throne by

5764:

In the Commonwealth the situation stabilized with the

5606:

between Russia and Prussia, which culminated with the

4908:, the ruler (as Frederick Augustus I) of the affluent 4888: 4559:

act, which was used to break the deliberations of the

4040:. Therefore, from the Commonwealth point of view, the 3659:

regions were for Poland from now lost, in addition to

2722:

was defended with determination for three weeks under

2606:, and thus to enforce their total domination over the 2586:'s Cossacks holding fast to the lands they overran in 2300:

ended with a total defeat of the Commonwealth. At the

1867:

in September. This allowed Khmelnytsky to move toward

8654: 8652: 8403: 8344: 8342: 8340: 8338: 8336: 8334: 8109: 8107: 8105: 8103: 8101: 8099: 8097: 8095: 7699: 7697: 7695: 7693: 7691: 7689: 7687: 7685: 7639:(Not tolerated, but present) by Janusz R. Kowalczyk, 7096:(New information economical and learned) in 1758–61. 6811:

are examples of the Baroque's richly decorative (see

6555:

proposed legislative, treasury and military reforms.

6339:

of 1648. Further restrictions however soon followed.

6185:

European universities that accepted Jewish candidates

6132:

of Our Lady – detail with King John III Sobieski and

6045:, with the final decades constituting also the early 5586:

s support regarding the Polish succession of his son

5576:

Conversation of a Country Gentleman with His Neighbor

5573:

s point of view in his debut as a publicist in 1732 (

5243:

After Poltava von Krassow and his forces withdrew to

4872: 4853:, resulted in moderate improvement of relations with 2644:

The Swedish armies entered the Commonwealth from the

2457:

were capable of an effort twice that size. After the

2050:, noted for ruthlessness, was a great magnate in the 1797:, who embarked on the defense of his huge threatened 1339:

establishment long before this 1657 image was created

8959:, Ornatowski genealogy www.ornatowski.com 27-01-2006 8915: 8913: 8911: 8909: 8907: 8905: 8903: 8889: 8887: 8885: 8883: 8881: 8879: 8877: 8875: 8873: 8871: 8845: 8843: 8841: 8839: 8837: 8835: 8833: 8760: 8758: 8756: 8754: 8752: 8750: 8748: 8746: 8744: 8730: 8728: 8726: 8724: 8722: 8720: 8718: 8716: 8650: 8648: 8646: 8644: 8642: 8640: 8638: 8636: 8634: 8632: 8618: 8616: 8614: 8612: 8610: 8570: 8568: 8566: 8564: 8562: 8560: 8558: 8556: 8554: 8527: 8525: 8523: 8483: 8481: 8479: 8477: 8475: 8473: 8471: 8469: 8467: 8440: 8438: 8436: 8434: 8432: 8430: 8401: 8399: 8397: 8395: 8393: 8391: 8389: 8387: 8385: 8383: 8332: 8330: 8328: 8326: 8324: 8322: 8320: 8318: 8316: 8314: 8176: 8174: 8172: 8170: 8168: 8166: 8164: 8162: 8093: 8091: 8089: 8087: 8085: 8083: 8081: 8079: 8077: 8075: 8037: 8035: 8033: 8031: 8029: 8002:, Eights Edition, pp. 176–177. London: Times Books. 7683: 7681: 7679: 7677: 7675: 7673: 7671: 7669: 7667: 7665: 7651: 7649: 7176: 7160: 6809:

Church of St. Anthony of Padua at Czerniaków, Warsaw

6775:

folk dance crystallized during that period. Foreign

6025: 5814:and economic development, before the sejm of 1744. 4719:

The resulting closer relationship with the Austrian

3099:

negotiated with the Commonwealth representatives in

2952:

the approaching Swedish rescue force under Margrave

1086:(homestead people) was the very numerous propertied 8242:Various authors, ed. Marek Derwich and Adam Żurek, 7586:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 198–202, 210–214 7547:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 195–198, 205–209 7498:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 193–195, 214–219 7438: 7436: 7434: 7432: 6528:, which provides a wealth of information on Polish 3784:reduced the country's army to 20,000 nevertheless. 3213:pressed for peace negotiations, which commenced in 3209:France worried about Sweden being removed from the 3119:against Sweden and became the Commonwealth's ally. 2944:and Sapieha at the fork formed by the San with the 2000:and disaffected peasants in several regions of the 1886:The situation made it possible for the self-styled 1297:region in 1670 and in other regions in 1735–38. In 9006:18th century in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 9001:17th century in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 6241:missionary, traveled extensively and published in 5261:obliged to remove his forces from the Commonwealth 4500:Magnate oligarchies, decline of central government 2795:. John Casimir himself still in Silesia, issued a 1312:lands of the Commonwealth, where it combined with 8900: 8868: 8830: 8741: 8713: 8629: 8607: 8551: 8520: 8464: 8427: 8380: 8311: 8159: 8146: 8072: 8026: 7662: 7646: 5807:Letter of a Country Gentleman to a Certain Friend 5196:of 1706, in which he renounced the Polish crown. 4351:, an anti-Ottoman alliance and the last European 3774:Tatars eliminated the Commonwealth military units 3419:, which considered the accord a violation of the 2655:, the Pomeranian force crossing the border under 2124:most of them, including Kalinowski, were killed. 1293:took place in 1651, there were rebellions in the 8992: 8675:Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 7429: 6245:, including a 1733 account of his experience in 5457:, from the command of a key military formation. 4044:constituted no more than a temporary armistice. 3265:) in the crucially important Baltic Sea region. 3193:distinguished themselves during the takeover of 3189:and then Denmark took place. Polish units under 2751:. Partisan groups included also townspeople and 2345:loss of the Commonwealth's independent existence 1976:was officially recognized by the Commonwealth). 1859:was likewise indecisive and the newly appointed 1407:The changes altered the ethnic character of the 1221:increasingly burdened with excessive obligations 566:Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 8187: 6516:For history research the most important is the 5145:and the integrity of the state and seeking the 3627:'s dream of building a strong Ukrainian state. 2142:The marriage did take place, but the Moldavian 1034:, having expanded in that direction before the 912:'s half brother, was the third and last of the 8368: 8308:(Atlas of Polish History), 14th edition, p. 26 8282: 2388:. Being forced to simultaneously fight on the 1392:among them, faring the best, while other like 1184:cities and on their rural estates; the wooden 891: 742:(1648–1764) covers a period in the history of 7989: 7246:'s rule; and by Ukrainians, who fought for a 5141:as marshal, declaring their intent to defend 5019:, a representative of the Livonian nobility. 4318:The pursuit of the enemy resulted in the two 3606:, on Dec. 19, 1666 the new right-bank hetman 2544:Swedish invasion, empowerment of East Prussia 1590:The same two regions and the capital city of 740:history of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 719: 392: 8926: 7008:and many publishing actions were initiated. 6403: 6252:From the early 17th century, the culture of 5395:politically and potential for self-defense. 4077:supporters, filled the time of the reign of 3787:In 1667, when Tatar-Cossack forces attacked 3205:, where the Swedes suffered a heavy defeat. 3017:managed to defeat the combined enemy at the 2948:. When Czarniecki left the site to face and 2351:Defense and foreign policy in time of crisis 1945:defend their fortified encampment at Zbarazh 8301: 8299: 8297: 8238: 8236: 8234: 8232: 8230: 8228: 7378: 7376: 7374: 7372: 6883:are an important subcategory of this type. 6767:wrote instrumental music of which only one 6326:. The sejm of 1658 sentenced the so-called 6101:Portrait of John III Sobieski with his son 5950:campaign in 1742. For the second (when the 5479:At this point Augustus was able to use the 4997:treaty involving Saxony, Russia and Denmark 4983:was defeated by Lithuanian rivals in 1700; 3813:abdicated and was replaced by the helpless 3498:. The Russians had to abandon the siege of 2637:court, was the magnates' representative in 1811:in late July against Cossack forces led by 1556:during the first half of the 18th century. 8923:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 297–301 8897:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 290–297 8853:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 287–290 8797: 8768:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 281–287 8738:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 275–280 8662:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 270–275 8626:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 266–270 8578:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 261–266 8535:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 258–261 8491:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 252–258 8448:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 248–252 8411:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 244–248 8352:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 240–244 8269: 8184:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 237–239 8156:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 239–240 8117:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 230–237 8045:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 225–230 7707:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 220–224 7659:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 202–205 7617: 7560:(History of Poland in a Pill), pp. 156–157 7446:(History of Poland 1505–1764), pp. 190–193 7419:, p. 582, 1998 New York, HarperPerennial, 7339:, referred to in Polish historiography as 7311:from the region, most were opposed to the 5426:and had imperial political ambitions. Son 4488:by the Russians and eventually destroyed. 4455:Holy League's wars with the Ottoman Empire 3825:post. Doroshenko appealed for help to the 3036:in fall of 1656, motivated in part by the 916:kings. He was also the last descendant of 726: 712: 399: 385: 8699:Polish Book Importing Company, New York, 7951: 7931:(Cossack Country, the Republic, Moscow), 7404: 7011:Konarski undertook to compile all of the 6798:The finest artistic manifestation of the 6256:was ideologically based on Sarmatism and 6013:, the founder of a scientific society in 5038:and routed Peter I's larger force at the 3427:in July 1659 by Vyhovsky with Polish and 3010:was attacked by Polish and Tatar forces. 1701:halted the undertaking, large numbers of 1559: 1531:, where Polish gentry no longer existed, 1320:Disintegration of towns and urban classes 804:, who fought protracted wars against the 8294: 8225: 7369: 7053: 6977: 6910: 6885: 6817: 6785: 6721: 6661: 6583: 6505: 6464: 6407: 6341: 6298: 6189: 6029: 6020: 5960: 5880: 5820: 5744: 5687: 5620: 5532: 5459: 5402: 5316:The Sieniawski family of Polish nobles; 5311: 5265: 5198: 5122: 5056: 4975: 4934: 4887: 4830: 4800: 4762: 4680: 4665: 4626: 4566: 4503: 4407: 4324: 4261: 4247:Mehmed IV, having concluded in 1681 the 4180: 4110: 3996: 3903: 3835: 3705: 3591: 3572:The loss of lands to Russia in the 1667 3567: 3461: 3404: 3348: 3272: 3121: 3042: 2966: 2915: 2840: 2732: 2633:, expelled form the Commonwealth by the 2547: 2512:Kamieniec Podolski (Kamianets-Podilskyi) 2487: 2411: 2360:Kamieniec Podolski (Kamianets-Podilskyi) 2354: 2283: 2236: 2176: 2126: 2042: 1908: 1817: 1736: 1618: 1563: 1481: 1418: 1365: 1323: 1273: 1195: 1116: 1044: 996: 957: 900: 8000:The Times Complete History of the World 7351:were basically free people, capable of 4403:failed expedition into Moldavia in 1691 3973:John Sobieski, elected in 1674 as King 3962:. The Polish units that had taken over 3690:) were to be kept by the Commonwealth. 2570:, took place within the context of the 2116:, the Moldavian ruler connected to the 1663:, catholicizing, state support for the 8993: 8792:Rzeczpospolita w dobie złotej wolności 8779:Rzeczpospolita w dobie złotej wolności 8602:Rzeczpospolita w dobie złotej wolności 8589:Rzeczpospolita w dobie złotej wolności 8546:Rzeczpospolita w dobie złotej wolności 8459:Rzeczpospolita w dobie złotej wolności 8422:Rzeczpospolita w dobie złotej wolności 8363:Rzeczpospolita w dobie złotej wolności 8220:Rzeczpospolita w dobie złotej wolności 8021:Rzeczpospolita w dobie złotej wolności 7984:Rzeczpospolita w dobie złotej wolności 7894:Rzeczpospolita w dobie złotej wolności 7881:Rzeczpospolita w dobie złotej wolności 7868:Rzeczpospolita w dobie złotej wolności 7821:Rzeczpospolita w dobie złotej wolności 7805:Rzeczpospolita w dobie złotej wolności 7785:Rzeczpospolita w dobie złotej wolności 7132:The Anatomy of the Polish Commonwealth 6906: 5927:, Silesian populations with increased 5659:, secured their support in the secret 4740:, became very active undermining King 3850:, having successfully concluded their 3379:, with Orthodox bishops seated in the 3375:was to be given equal rights with the 2960:was liberated, except for Kraków, and 2897:of the Commonwealth (in regard to his 2449:) at the very most, at times when the 2420:changed hands on a number of occasions 1759:kings, Cossack policies of the Polish 8987:Bibliography of the history of Poland 8695:Corwin, Edward Henry Lewinski (1917) 8143:(History of Poland in a Pill), p. 169 8130:(History of Poland in a Pill), p. 168 7948:(History of Poland in a Pill), p. 173 7750:(History of Poland in a Pill), p. 177 6699:, where the historic plays of Hetman 5911:and then became preoccupied with the 5068:Charles defeated the Saxon army at a 4884:Early Wettin rule, Great Northern War 4290:Hieronim Lubomirski had already been 4158:, possibly also some acquisitions in 3636:agreement in the village of Andrusovo 1686:The unusually dry summer of 1648 and 1579:region and then elsewhere in western 1192:Agricultural regression and peasantry 993:Further stratification among nobility 8262:Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadzki, 8244:Rzeczpospolita Szlachecka, 1586–1795 7835:(Chronology of Polish History), ed. 7093:Nowe Wiadomości Ekonomiczne i Uczone 6268:nobilities were thus reduced to one 5184:, Charles XII was able to enter the 4663:the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. 2759:led the uprising in Greater Poland. 1988:'s rule for himself upon swearing a 1201:Ludwika Maria (Marie Louise) Gonzaga 629:Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic 7766:, 1994 New York: Hippocrene Books, 7643:rp.pl internet edition May 12, 2008 6870:of the Polish Brethren, painted in 6655:had become an often practiced art. 5293:, threatening Saxony and Poland. A 5273:was the influential marshal of the 4879:Personal union of Poland and Saxony 4768:Eleanor of Austria, Queen of Poland 4512:died before the abdication of King 3768:unity of Ukraine, accepted Ottoman 3423:. The approaching Russian army was 3326:, who represented Vyhovski, and on 3217:near Danzig in the early 1660. The 2343:, which eventually resulted in the 1875:, while the uprising expanded into 1106:families. In the 18th century, the 974:each lost their economic base, the 872:became a strong regional power and 13: 8980: 7929:Kozaczyzna, Rzeczpospolita, Moskwa 7325: 7273: 7256: 7224: 6934:came early under the influence of 6606:style was popular, for example in 4873:Commonwealth–Saxony personal union 4813:near Warsaw, where he had built a 3604:Polish–Cossack–Tatar War (1666–71) 3346:was signed on September 16, 1658. 3076:One of the treaty signatories was 2845:Battle near the confluence of the 1335:activities, was taken over by the 14: 9027: 7734:www.polityka.pl, November 4, 2009 7122:Głos wolny wolność ubezpieczający 6794:Church in Warsaw no longer exists 6026:Sarmatism and Counter-Reformation 5673:decided through the force of arms 4991:in an attempt to regain influence 4756:turned into the Confederation of 4255:. Facing a choice of leaving the 3983:defeated the Turkish-Tatar forces 3565:was chosen with Russian support. 1932:, favored accommodation with the 1400:, where the remarkable ascent of 1124:represented the great Lithuanian 8953:Demokracji szlacheckiej nie było 7517:Demokracji szlacheckiej nie było 7391:Polish Scientific Publishers PWN 7179: 7163: 6719:, typically with folk elements. 6148:In the 18th century the growing 6116: 6088: 5870:and the western portions of the 5796:and its Polish supporters camp. 5608:Treaty of the Three Black Eagles 5149:'s protection. Accordingly, the 4399:attack of the Holy League allies 4355:project, consisting also of the 3764:, seeking the threatened by the 2990:and in support of it during the 2791:against the Radziwiłłs and took 2473:, with the notable exception of 2023:castle, from where their leader 1943:under Wiśniowiecki were able to 920:on the Polish–Lithuanian throne. 695: 435: 366: 354: 40: 8856: 8810: 8784: 8771: 8697:The political History of Poland 8689: 8673:Imperial Russian foreign policy 8665: 8594: 8581: 8538: 8507: 8494: 8451: 8414: 8355: 8256: 8212: 8133: 8120: 8048: 8013: 7976: 7938: 7826: 7753: 7630: 7589: 6805:St. Peter and St. Paul's Church 6545:Stanisław Herakliusz Lubomirski 6511:Stanisław Herakliusz Lubomirski 6351:Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church 5628:had his second chance as a king 5108:, took place. It was the first 4918:François Louis, Prince of Conti 4704:. Wiśniowiecki, advised by the 3994:and subjugation of Doroshenko. 3235:Christian Ludwig von Kalckstein 3177:and Livonia continued. In 1658 3097:an auxiliary military agreement 3050:defended against the forces of 1432:disproportionately heavy losses 849:The reigns of two kings of the 9011:Political history of Lithuania 7550: 7449: 7326: 7274: 7257: 7225: 7195:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 6765:Stanisław Sylwester Szarzyński 6730:has been rebuilt several times 6064:, which originated during the 5913:War of the Austrian Succession 5754:Frederick William I of Prussia 5612:Infante Manuel, Count of Ourém 5511:, were the main participants. 5501:Frederick William I of Prussia 5380:Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor 4894:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 4849:, the King's eldest son, with 3943:. With a broken bridge on the 3856:wage a war on the Commonwealth 3728:, now under the leadership of 3332:Stanisław Kazimierz Bieniewski 3087:The so-far rather indifferent 2690:Other provinces of the Polish 2374:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 2136:Saint-Germain-des-Prés (abbey) 2061:; in May he fought his way to 1211:, whom she strongly influenced 768:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 666:List of early Lithuanian dukes 561:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 1: 7963:The Reconstruction of Nations 7363: 7238:; by Russians, who since the 7210:History of Poland (1569–1795) 7025:of Danzig, future teacher of 6644:The Conduct of the Khotyn War 6574:Merkuriusz Polski Ordynaryjny 5756:, who aspired to protect the 5520:August Aleksander Czartoryski 5182:War of the Spanish Succession 5034:, who soon forced Denmark to 5009:peace with the Ottoman Empire 4441:After Sobieski's death, King 4422:For the rest of his life the 3614:alliance and eliminated near 3201:fortress, and in 1659 in the 2594:gains, including the western 2212:A Russian mission arrived in 1968:conditions negotiated in the 1890:Khmelnytsky to influence the 1825:, a peasant Cossack commander 1641:began in 1648 and was led by 1251:, approx. 35% of villages in 7315:and almost all fought under 7297:deliberated in the majority 7027:Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski 6458:and the municipal school in 6123:Eastern European tradition ( 6095:Western European tradition ( 6062:cultural contacts with Italy 6011:Józef Aleksander Jabłonowski 5473:Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski 5295:siege of Stralsund (1711–15) 4687:Michael Korybut Wiśniowiecki 4574:glorified as a military hero 4525:Michael Korybut Wiśniowiecki 4130:counterpart originated as a 4011:Gonzales Franciscus Casteels 3985:heading for Lwów, while the 3846:At that point, however, the 2702:and sought refuge, first in 2433:was unable to follow up his 2015:erupted in June 1651 in the 1939:The Polish units protecting 1833:had made the matters worse. 1600:Old-Polish Industrial Region 1540:and other municipalities of 1028:Polish–Lithuanian federation 760:Stanisław August Poniatowski 7: 9016:Political history of Poland 8264:A Concise History of Poland 8061:, 2004 Palgrave Macmillan, 7728:Ogniem, mieczem i podatkiem 7604:A Concise History of Poland 7156: 7032:Ius publicum Regni Poloniae 7015:legislative records in his 6860:Jerzy Siemiginowski-Eleuter 6392:in the early 18th century. 5773:of the country's monarchs. 5582:Augustus II counted on the 5557:; among their leaders were 5524:Fryderyk Michał Czartoryski 5471:; they were the parents of 5455:Jacob Heinrich von Flemming 5257:Russo-Turkish War (1710–11) 5251:. Charles XII found his in 4702:Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki 4636:Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki 4094:Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki 3815:Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki 3766:Polish-Russian negotiations 3138:Treaties of Wehlau-Bromberg 2901:rule), who in exchange for 2578:, who occupied most of the 2437:in part because the unpaid 2097:, the two sides signed the 1809:Battle of Starokostiantyniv 1544:were among the pioneers of 1438:Some Polish cities had the 1359:, areas lost by the Crown. 1259:were destroyed completely. 1167:. After the triumph of the 1056:, was a political publicist 892:Economic and social decline 773:From the 17th century, the 675:List of Lithuanian monarchs 670:List of rulers of Lithuania 124:Prehistory and protohistory 10: 9032: 8984: 8919:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8893:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8863:Kalendarium dziejów Polski 8849:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8790:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8777:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8764:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8734:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8658:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8622:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8600:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8587:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8574:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8544:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8531:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8487:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8457:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8444:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8420:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8407:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8375:Kalendarium dziejów Polski 8361:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8348:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8289:Kalendarium dziejów Polski 8218:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8180:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8152:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8113:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8041:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 8019:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 7982:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 7892:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 7879:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 7866:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 7833:Kalendarium dziejów Polski 7819:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 7803:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 7783:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 7730:(By fire, sword and tax), 7703:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 7655:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 7641:Rzeczpospolita (newspaper) 7582:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 7543:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 7494:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 7442:Józef Andrzej Gierowski – 7267:part of the 19th century. 7114:Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski 6541:Andrzej Maksymilian Fredro 6470:Andrzej Maksymilian Fredro 6179:was more significant than 5995:preserved the territorial 4922:Michał Stefan Radziejowski 4876: 4869:in the country's history. 4606:Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski 4572:Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski 4152:Margraviate of Brandenburg 3852:war with Venice over Crete 3095:possessions, which led to 2623:Charles X Gustav of Sweden 1725:, taking advantage of the 1649:peasant masses joined the 1630: 1569:Church of St. Anne, Kraków 1122:Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł 989:era reformers was undone. 880:. The Commonwealth-Saxony 347:Timeline of Polish history 8921:Historia Polski 1505–1764 8895:Historia Polski 1505–1764 8851:Historia Polski 1505–1764 8817:Ilustrowane dzieje Polski 8766:Historia Polski 1505–1764 8736:Historia Polski 1505–1764 8660:Historia Polski 1505–1764 8624:Historia Polski 1505–1764 8576:Historia Polski 1505–1764 8533:Historia Polski 1505–1764 8489:Historia Polski 1505–1764 8446:Historia Polski 1505–1764 8409:Historia Polski 1505–1764 8350:Historia Polski 1505–1764 8252:Teresa Chynczewska-Hennel 8182:Historia Polski 1505–1764 8154:Historia Polski 1505–1764 8141:Historia Polski w pigułce 8128:Historia Polski w pigułce 8115:Historia Polski 1505–1764 8043:Historia Polski 1505–1764 7946:Historia Polski w pigułce 7935:www.rp.pl, August 6, 2012 7748:Historia Polski w pigułce 7705:Historia Polski 1505–1764 7657:Historia Polski 1505–1764 7637:Nietolerowani, ale obecni 7584:Historia Polski 1505–1764 7558:Historia Polski w pigułce 7545:Historia Polski 1505–1764 7496:Historia Polski 1505–1764 7460:Historia Polski w pigułce 7444:Historia Polski 1505–1764 7387:Historia Polski 1505–1764 7146:O skutecznym rad sposobie 7029:. Lengnich wrote in 1742 6990:Andrzej Stanisław Załuski 6942:and were inspired by it. 6930:. Protestant burghers of 6488:theology and philosophy. 6404:Culture of Mature Baroque 6150:French cultural influence 5384:George I of Great Britain 5234:destroyed by the Russians 4447:Battle of Podhajce (1698) 4098:Eleonora Maria of Austria 2911:become a vassal of Sweden 2857:On December 29 the Crown 2112:to Ruxandra, daughter of 2013:Kostka-Napierski Uprising 1793:Ukrainian land potentate 1440:de non tolerandis Judaeis 1291:Kostka-Napierski Uprising 661:Coat of arms of Lithuania 624:1944 Soviet re-occupation 8306:Atlas historyczny Polski 7215: 6759:and the first in Poland 6553:Stanisław Dunin-Karwicki 6549:Stanisław Antoni Szczuka 6322:strongly supported King 6172:German cultural patterns 5895:Taking advantage of the 5702:under the protection of 5352:Stanisław Dunin-Karwicki 5318:Stanisław Ernest Denhoff 5135:Sandomierz Confederation 4201:Coming from the west in 3752:was removed in 1666 and 3535:Grand Duchy of Lithuania 3502:and withdraw beyond the 3500:Lachowicze (Lyakhavichy) 3365:Grand Duchy of Lithuania 2982:forces were used by the 2718:, outside of the Crown. 2580:Grand Duchy of Lithuania 2324:. With the simultaneous 2294:Grand Duchy of Lithuania 1050:Stanisław Antoni Szczuka 748:Grand Duchy of Lithuania 516:Grand Duchy of Lithuania 7383:Józef Andrzej Gierowski 7076:Lorenz Christoph Mizler 6484:and Lwów taught mostly 5956:Treaty of Warsaw (1745) 5921:Treaty of Berlin (1742) 5728:victorious over Austria 5481:Tumult of Thorn (Toruń) 5303:Tarnogród Confederation 5275:Tarnogród Confederation 5118:Treaty of Warsaw (1705) 5090:confederation in Warsaw 5048:defeated in a civil war 4102:Polish-Ottoman fighting 3841:Battle of Khotyn (1673) 3772:. In fall of 1666, the 3715:Battle of Khotyn (1673) 3480:Russian armies advanced 3421:previously agreed truce 3373:Eastern Orthodox Church 3000:offer of Greater Poland 2712:Duchy of Oppeln (Opole) 2500:Battle of Khotyn (1673) 2302:Battle of Shklow (1654) 2296:the first phase of the 1966:Eastern Orthodox Church 1849:Aleksander Koniecpolski 546:Early elective monarchy 217:Early elective monarchy 184:10th century–1385 8671:Ragsdale, Hugh (1993) 8513:Anita J. Prażmowska – 8500:Anita J. Prażmowska – 7841:Wydawnictwo Literackie 7061: 6985: 6918: 6894: 6829: 6795: 6731: 6675:, Polish mingled with 6669: 6591: 6513: 6472: 6420: 6357: 6347:St. George's Cathedral 6306: 6202: 6038: 5993:Treaty of Hubertusburg 5980: 5892: 5836: 5761: 5695: 5693:Siege of Danzig (1734) 5650:Ernst Johann von Biron 5629: 5563:Teodor Andrzej Potocki 5538: 5537:Konstancja Czartoryska 5476: 5469:Konstancja Czartoryska 5449:and Lithuanian Hetman 5438:, daughter of Emperor 5414: 5329: 5281: 5207: 5130: 5114:country-wide civil war 5065: 4992: 4971:former Prussian vassal 4942: 4940:Augustus II the Strong 4902:Augustus II the Strong 4897: 4838: 4817: 4770: 4689: 4674: 4643: 4575: 4516: 4453:concluded in 1699 the 4449:was fought. The final 4443:Augustus II the Strong 4419: 4380:"eternal" peace treaty 4336: 4313:fate of Constantinople 4285:laid a siege to Vienna 4273: 4198: 4135: 4122:, established by King 4049:Treaty of the Pyrenees 4013: 3924: 3843: 3717: 3599: 3577: 3476: 3470:Saint Sophia Cathedral 3412: 3356: 3280: 3129: 3054: 3004:three-day heavy battle 2995: 2978:allies of Poland. The 2924: 2854: 2767:and many other towns. 2743: 2555: 2502: 2421: 2365: 2306:Battle of Shepelevichy 2289: 2248: 2184: 2146:conspired against the 2139: 2099:Treaty of Bila Tserkva 2095:Battle of Bila Tserkva 2054: 1936: 1826: 1775:army, capturing Crown 1752: 1628: 1571: 1560:Beginnings of recovery 1499: 1435: 1430:the Jews had suffered 1381: 1340: 1333:Protestant Reformation 1285: 1281:(Bromberg) in 1657 by 1212: 1132: 1057: 1011: 966: 921: 858:Augustus II the Strong 750:, from the time their 614:1940 Soviet occupation 8250:: 1586–1795), p. 73, 7081:Warschauer Bibliothek 7057: 6994:Józef Andrzej Załuski 6981: 6928:philosophical thought 6914: 6889: 6864:Krzysztof Lubieniecki 6821: 6789: 6725: 6665: 6587: 6509: 6468: 6411: 6345: 6302: 6193: 6103:Jakub Ludwik Sobieski 6033: 6021:Sarmatism era culture 5964: 5884: 5866:" connection between 5824: 5748: 5691: 5626:Stanisław Leszczyński 5624: 5600:Stanisław Leszczyński 5536: 5528:Stanisław Poniatowski 5465:Stanisław Poniatowski 5463: 5406: 5315: 5307:Stanisław Ledóchowski 5271:Stanisław Ledóchowski 5269: 5202: 5194:Treaty of Altranstädt 5128:Stanisław Leszczyński 5126: 5102:Stanisław Leszczyński 5060: 4989:Charles XII of Sweden 4981:Kazimierz Jan Sapieha 4979: 4938: 4891: 4847:Jakub Ludwik Sobieski 4845:The 1691 marriage of 4834: 4804: 4766: 4684: 4669: 4630: 4570: 4507: 4472:) and the right-bank 4428:Jakub Ludwik Sobieski 4411: 4328: 4265: 4184: 4114: 4000: 3907: 3839: 3709: 3595: 3571: 3553:. In January 1663 in 3465: 3408: 3352: 3276: 3125: 3046: 3034:agreement with Russia 2970: 2919: 2844: 2838:) to their struggle. 2736: 2706:district and then in 2631:Hieronim Radziejowski 2619:Dünaburg (Daugavpils) 2551: 2536:. The 1684 treaty of 2491: 2415: 2358: 2287: 2240: 2180: 2132:Battle of Berestechko 2130: 2078:Battle of Berestechko 2046: 1912: 1821: 1765:Battle of Zhovti Vody 1740: 1622: 1567: 1485: 1422: 1369: 1327: 1277: 1199: 1120: 1048: 1000: 961: 904: 639:Republic of Lithuania 634:Independence restored 609:Independence declared 604:Lithuanian–Soviet War 100:Territorial evolution 8139:Piotr Pieśniarczyk, 8126:Piotr Pieśniarczyk, 7944:Piotr Pieśniarczyk, 7746:Piotr Pieśniarczyk, 7556:Piotr Pieśniarczyk, 7525:Andrzej Wielowieyski 7295:Bratslav Voivodeship 7281:Khmelnytsky Uprising 7248:country of their own 7240:Treaty of Pereyaslav 7151:parliamentary system 7071:Polnische Bibliothek 6973:Franciszek Bohomolec 6726:The church organ in 6685:Franciszek Bohomolec 6657:Jan Chryzostom Pasek 6622:Jan Andrzej Morsztyn 6589:Jan Andrzej Morsztyn 6569:Jakub Kazimierz Haur 6565:Benedykt Chmielowski 6333:Warsaw Confederation 5989:capitulated at Pirna 5826:Jan Klemens Branicki 5712:Dzików Confederation 5434:and in 1719 married 5322:Elżbieta Sieniawska 5046:magnate faction was 4961:, which allowed the 4910:Electorate of Saxony 4521:John II Casimir Vasa 4514:John II Casimir Vasa 4510:Marie Louise Gonzaga 4330:St. Casimir's Church 4253:move against Austria 3992:takeover of Chyhyryn 3987:Defense of Trembowla 3954:. Lithuanian Hetman 3831:Bratslav Voivodeship 3811:John II Casimir Vasa 3610:renewed the Cossack- 3449:Pereyaslav agreement 3435:and was replaced by 3342:, among others. The 2811:Jasna Góra Monastery 2738:Jasna Góra Monastery 2370:Khmelnytsky Uprising 2337:Khmelnytsky Uprising 2298:war with the Tsardom 2254:Treaty of Pereyaslav 2246:Bartholomeus Strobel 2101:, which reduced the 1761:Republic of Nobility 1546:Polish Enlightenment 1428:Khmelnytsky Uprising 1245:Khmelnytsky Uprising 1063:szlachta zaściankowa 1005:Michał Kazimierz Pac 964:John II Casimir Vasa 886:Polish Enlightenment 786:Khmelnytsky Uprising 702:Lithuania portal 599:Wars of Independence 594:Kingdom of Lithuania 521:Kingdom of Lithuania 8933:Encyklopedia Polski 8515:A History of Poland 8502:A History of Poland 8059:A History of Poland 8055:Anita J. Prażmowska 6907:Early Enlightenment 6649:Wespazjan Kochowski 6537:Krzysztof Opaliński 6419:making observations 6337:Peace of Westphalia 6278:Wespazjan Kochowski 6258:Counter-Reformation 6199:Wespazjan Kochowski 5760:of the Commonwealth 5493:religious tolerance 5328:third from the left 5222:Battle of Koniecpol 5178:Battle of Fraustadt 5072:in 1701, took over 4965:ruler to take over 4836:Hieronim Lubomirski 4787:Charles of Lorraine 4648:Lubomirski's Rokosz 4486:ruthlessly pacified 4451:Treaty of Karlowitz 4234:Hieronim Lubomirski 4016:The outcome of the 3623:in vain pursuit of 3457:patriarch of Moscow 3425:defeated at Konotop 3228:Louis XIV of France 3162:), privileges. The 3134:Brandenburg-Prussia 2879:Frederick William I 2673:Magnus De la Gardie 2659:on July 25. At the 2592:Peace of Westphalia 2572:Second Northern War 2221:, a sixty thousand 2052:eastern borderlands 2048:Jeremi Wiśniowiecki 1930:Commonwealth senate 1865:Battle of Pyliavtsi 1795:Jeremi Wiśniowiecki 1711:Registered Cossacks 1169:Counter-Reformation 1151:origin, had become 949:Second Northern War 826:Lubomirski's Rokosz 526:Jagiellonian period 467:Corded Ware culture 190:Jagiellonian period 136:Bronze and Iron Age 7456:Piotr Pieśniarczyk 7393:), Warszawa 1986, 7357:partitioned Poland 7341:wtórna pańszczyzna 7317:Bohdan Khmelnytsky 7299:Ruthenian language 7099:The Polish Patriot 7062: 7023:Gottfried Lengnich 6986: 6983:Stanisław Konarski 6964:Collegium Nobilium 6956:Stanisław Konarski 6919: 6916:Gottfried Lengnich 6895: 6868:Teodor Lubieniecki 6838:Tylman van Gameren 6830: 6796: 6732: 6681:Stanisław Konarski 6673:Macaronic language 6670: 6592: 6514: 6473: 6421: 6358: 6307: 6203: 6039: 5981: 5909:Battle of Mollwitz 5893: 5872:Kingdom of Prussia 5837: 5778:Heinrich von Brühl 5762: 5696: 5679:Frederick Augustus 5630: 5592:Louis XV of France 5588:Frederick Augustus 5567:Stanisław Konarski 5539: 5505:Czartoryski family 5477: 5428:Frederick Augustus 5415: 5330: 5282: 5208: 5167:right-bank Ukraine 5137:in May 1704 under 5131: 5092:, based mainly on 5066: 5001:Great Northern War 4993: 4943: 4898: 4839: 4818: 4773:Humiliated by the 4771: 4754:pospolite ruszenie 4731:Mikołaj Prażmowski 4714:Eleanor of Austria 4690: 4675: 4644: 4576: 4517: 4466:Ruthenian nobility 4420: 4388:Truce of Andrusovo 4349:Holy League (1684) 4337: 4320:Battles of Párkány 4292:fighting the Turks 4282:Kara Mustafa Pasha 4274: 4199: 4136: 4014: 3952:Michał Wiśniowecki 3925: 3918:Vilnius University 3868:Kamieniec Podolski 3844: 3800:Battle of Podhajce 3762:right-bank Ukraine 3726:Bohdan Khmelnytsky 3718: 3682:and area north of 3657:Novhorod-Siverskyi 3600: 3583:right-bank Ukraine 3578: 3574:Truce of Andrusovo 3563:Ivan Briukhovetsky 3547:Zaporizhian center 3477: 3413: 3400:Ruthenian nobility 3363:, which, like the 3357: 3302:was chosen as the 3281: 3130: 3055: 2996: 2954:Friedrich of Baden 2925: 2855: 2744: 2685:Union of Kėdainiai 2681:Bogusław Radziwiłł 2669:pospolite ruszenie 2596:Duchy of Pomerania 2556: 2503: 2459:Cossack-Tatar wars 2447:pospolite ruszenie 2422: 2366: 2290: 2266:Battle of Okhmativ 2249: 2190:historic tradition 2185: 2164:Treaty of Zhvanets 2140: 2074:pospolite ruszenie 2059:Kamieniec Podolski 2055: 1937: 1827: 1753: 1742:Bohdan Khmelnytsky 1673:Ukrainian nobility 1643:Bohdan Khmelnytsky 1629: 1625:Bogdan Khmelnytsky 1572: 1500: 1436: 1382: 1341: 1286: 1213: 1133: 1058: 1012: 967: 953:Great Northern War 922: 918:Władysław Jagiełło 870:Kingdom of Prussia 866:Great Northern War 822:internal conflicts 551:Deluge and decline 511:Duchy of Lithuania 373:History portal 262:Partitioned Poland 227:Deluge and decline 8805:Europe: A History 8277:Europe: A History 8195:"Jerzy Niemirycz" 8008:978-0-00-788089-8 7972:978-0-300-10586-5 7839:, Copyright 1999 7625:Europe: A History 7416:Europe: A History 7345:wtórne poddaństwo 7127:Stefan Garczyński 7090:), and in Polish 6876:Szymon Czechowicz 6800:Baroque in Poland 6744:Bartłomiej Pękiel 6630:Zbigniew Morsztyn 6497:Adam A. Kochański 6493:Johannes Hevelius 6413:Johannes Hevelius 6318:, who during the 6235:Tadeusz Krusiński 6105:in Roman costumes 5974:Bernardo Bellotto 5968:, the capital of 5944:Treaty of Dresden 5917:Treaty of Breslau 5766:Pacification Sejm 5736:Duchy of Lorraine 5704:Frederick William 5667:was "elected" as 5661:Löwenwolde Treaty 5596:Marie Leszczyńska 5411:executed in Thorn 5348:Stanisław Szczuka 5245:Swedish Pomerania 5238:Battle of Poltava 5217:Peter I of Russia 5186:Holy Roman Empire 5139:Stanisław Denhoff 5106:Voivode of Poznań 5078:beaten at Kliszów 5013:Peter I of Russia 4851:Hedwig of Neuburg 4807:John III Sobieski 4795:John III Sobieski 4775:Treaty of Buchach 4710:Andrzej Olszowski 4529:John III Sobieski 4474:Cossack Hetmanate 4432:Hedwig of Neuburg 4365:Holy Roman Empire 4311:, was spared the 4300:battle took place 4148:Frederick William 4144:Treaty of Yavoriv 4100:. The protracted 4026:Battle of Żurawno 4003:John III Sobieski 3880:Treaty of Buchach 3821:for Doroshenko's 3819:Mykhailo Khanenko 3661:left-bank Ukraine 3528:Battle of Chudniv 3524:Vasily Sheremetev 3520:Stanisław Potocki 3496:Battle of Polonka 3488:Paweł Jan Sapieha 3484:Stefan Czarniecki 3437:Yurii Khmelnytsky 3354:Yurii Khmelnytsky 3344:Treaty of Hadiach 3211:Holy Roman Empire 3191:Stefan Czarniecki 3187:Swedish Pomerania 3127:Paweł Jan Sapieha 3078:George II Rákóczi 3052:George II Rákóczi 3027:Farther Pomerania 3023:Brandenburg March 3019:Battle of Prostki 2905:region agreed in 2828:Augustyn Kordecki 2785:Paweł Jan Sapieha 2757:Krzysztof Żegocki 2728:Battle of Wojnicz 2724:Stefan Czarniecki 2553:Stefan Czarniecki 2479:guerrilla warfare 2475:Stefan Czarniecki 2455:Tsardom of Russia 2451:Habsburg monarchy 2418:Khotyn stronghold 2407:John III Sobieski 2227:Tsardom of Russia 1974:Cossack Hetmanate 1896:John Casimir Vasa 1805:left-bank Ukraine 1784:Marcin Kalinowski 1715:Daniel Czapliński 1669:Orthodox religion 1637:The long-lasting 1347:practices of the 878:Habsburg monarchy 844:powerful families 802:John III Sobieski 775:nobles' democracy 736: 735: 657:Name of Lithuania 571:Swedish Lithuania 409: 408: 361:Poland portal 338: 337: 310: 309: 245: 244: 198: 197: 166:Early Middle Ages 9023: 8975: 8966: 8960: 8950: 8944: 8930: 8924: 8917: 8898: 8891: 8866: 8860: 8854: 8847: 8828: 8814: 8808: 8801: 8795: 8788: 8782: 8775: 8769: 8762: 8739: 8732: 8711: 8693: 8687: 8669: 8663: 8656: 8627: 8620: 8605: 8598: 8592: 8585: 8579: 8572: 8549: 8542: 8536: 8529: 8518: 8511: 8505: 8498: 8492: 8485: 8462: 8455: 8449: 8442: 8425: 8418: 8412: 8405: 8378: 8372: 8366: 8359: 8353: 8346: 8309: 8303: 8292: 8286: 8280: 8273: 8267: 8260: 8254: 8240: 8223: 8216: 8210: 8209: 8207: 8206: 8191: 8185: 8178: 8157: 8150: 8144: 8137: 8131: 8124: 8118: 8111: 8070: 8052: 8046: 8039: 8024: 8017: 8011: 7993: 7987: 7980: 7974: 7955: 7949: 7942: 7936: 7922: 7897: 7890: 7884: 7877: 7871: 7864: 7855: 7830: 7824: 7817: 7808: 7801: 7795: 7781: 7775: 7757: 7751: 7744: 7735: 7721: 7708: 7701: 7660: 7653: 7644: 7634: 7628: 7621: 7615: 7593: 7587: 7580: 7561: 7554: 7548: 7541: 7528: 7514: 7499: 7492: 7471: 7453: 7447: 7440: 7427: 7408: 7402: 7380: 7330: 7291:Kiev Voivodeship 7278: 7261: 7229: 7189: 7187:Lithuania portal 7184: 7183: 7182: 7173: 7168: 7167: 7166: 6881:Coffin portraits 6834:Krasiński Palace 6750:music including 6667:Krasiński Palace 6526:Kasper Niesiecki 6522:The Polish Crown 6501:Stanisław Solski 6282:Council of Trent 6196:Psalmodia polska 6134:Queen Marysieńka 6120: 6092: 5985:Seven Years' War 5790:Seven Years' War 5714:was set up near 5652:, a favorite of 5420:Friedrich August 5392:Treaty of Nystad 5224:. Stanisław and 5212:defeat at Kalisz 5204:Battle of Kalisz 5070:battle near Riga 4822:Duchy of Prussia 4750:Ottoman invasion 4698:convocation sejm 4551:Janusz Radziwiłł 4459:Central European 4434:, sister of the 4413:Battle of Vienna 4392:Eastern Orthodox 4294:to help Emperor 4228:uprising led by 4156:Duchy of Prussia 3937:Battle of Khotyn 3854:, were ready to 3754:Petro Doroshenko 3669:Zaporizhian Sich 3608:Petro Doroshenko 3597:Petro Doroshenko 3516:Jerzy Lubomirski 3203:Battle of Nyborg 3166:ended up with a 3164:Prussian estates 3063:partition treaty 3059:Treaty of Labiau 2942:Jerzy Lubomirski 2700:Battle of Żarnów 2661:Battle of Ujście 2657:Arvid Wittenberg 2562:invasion of the 2330:Truce of Vilnius 2258:Russo-Polish war 2242:Janusz Radziwiłł 2168:Treaty of Zboriv 2134:1651, relief at 2118:Radziwiłł family 2103:Treaty of Zboriv 2034:Piotr Grzybowski 1970:Treaty of Zboriv 1950:Battle of Zboriv 1926:Eastern Orthodox 1857:convocation sejm 1853:Janusz Radziwiłł 1838:Jerzy Ossoliński 1769:Battle of Korsuń 1719:Zaporizhian Sich 1703:Cossack warriors 1639:Cossack uprising 1623:The Entrance of 1467:balance of trade 1230:Gdańsk Pomerania 1203:was the wife of 962:The crowning of 790:Swedish invasion 728: 721: 714: 700: 699: 698: 556:Three partitions 539:Early Modern era 493:Lithuania proper 439: 429: 411: 410: 401: 394: 387: 371: 370: 369: 359: 358: 357: 334: 323: 322: 302:Communist Poland 258: 257: 237:Three partitions 213: 212: 176: 175: 171:Christianization 88:Military history 44: 34: 16: 15: 9031: 9030: 9026: 9025: 9024: 9022: 9021: 9020: 8991: 8990: 8989: 8983: 8981:Further reading 8978: 8969:Gazeta Wyborcza 8967: 8963: 8957:Daniel Beauvois 8951: 8947: 8931: 8927: 8918: 8901: 8892: 8869: 8861: 8857: 8848: 8831: 8815: 8811: 8803:Norman Davies, 8802: 8798: 8789: 8785: 8776: 8772: 8763: 8742: 8733: 8714: 8694: 8690: 8670: 8666: 8657: 8630: 8621: 8608: 8599: 8595: 8586: 8582: 8573: 8552: 8543: 8539: 8530: 8521: 8512: 8508: 8499: 8495: 8486: 8465: 8456: 8452: 8443: 8428: 8419: 8415: 8406: 8381: 8373: 8369: 8360: 8356: 8347: 8312: 8304: 8295: 8287: 8283: 8275:Norman Davies, 8274: 8270: 8261: 8257: 8241: 8226: 8217: 8213: 8204: 8202: 8193: 8192: 8188: 8179: 8160: 8151: 8147: 8138: 8134: 8125: 8121: 8112: 8073: 8053: 8049: 8040: 8027: 8018: 8014: 7994: 7990: 7981: 7977: 7956: 7952: 7943: 7939: 7923: 7900: 7891: 7887: 7878: 7874: 7865: 7858: 7837:Andrzej Chwalba 7831: 7827: 7818: 7811: 7802: 7798: 7782: 7778: 7758: 7754: 7745: 7738: 7722: 7711: 7702: 7663: 7654: 7647: 7635: 7631: 7623:Norman Davies, 7622: 7618: 7600:Hubert Zawadzki 7594: 7590: 7581: 7564: 7555: 7551: 7542: 7531: 7521:Daniel Beauvois 7515: 7502: 7493: 7474: 7454: 7450: 7441: 7430: 7409: 7405: 7381: 7370: 7366: 7361: 7353:upward mobility 7232:Union of Lublin 7218: 7185: 7180: 7178: 7169: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7087:Acta Litteraria 7059:Załuski Library 6998:Załuski Library 6940:Christian Wolff 6909: 6893:and its gardens 6717:nativity scenes 6701:Wacław Rzewuski 6478:Breslau Academy 6425:previous period 6406: 6397:Treaty of Oliva 6386:Orthodox Church 6316:Polish Brethren 6166:French language 6146: 6145: 6144: 6143: 6142: 6121: 6113: 6112: 6093: 6084: 6083: 6037:of a noblewoman 6035:Coffin portrait 6028: 6023: 5905:invaded Silesia 5886:Branicki Palace 5447:Adam Sieniawski 5401: 5388:imperial Russia 5286:Treaty of Thorn 5190:occupied Saxony 5151:Treaty of Narva 5040:Battle of Narva 5032:the Netherlands 4967:Elbing (Elbląg) 4906:House of Wettin 4886: 4881: 4875: 4815:splendid palace 4706:Vice-Chancellor 4502: 4267:Latin Cathedral 4249:war with Russia 4189:'s wife, Queen 4067:Treaty of Oliva 4038:war with Russia 3922:Stephen Báthory 3914:Wilno (Vilnius) 3895:Crimean Khanate 3886:, Bratslav and 3780:, but the 1667 3778:Dnieper Ukraine 3750:Mehmed IV Giray 3704: 3696:First Partition 3557:the pro-Polish 3377:Catholic Church 3271: 3263:Eastern Prussia 3259:Polish Brethren 3250:war with Russia 3246:Hieronymus Roth 3219:Treaty of Oliva 3208: 3197:Island and the 3183:Elbing (Elbląg) 2980:Crimean Khanate 2929:Battle of Gołąb 2815:Pauline Fathers 2804:Mehmed IV Giray 2777:Danzig (Gdańsk) 2566:, known as the 2546: 2353: 2318:Grodno (Hrodna) 2170:'s conditions. 2122:Battle of Batoh 2105:Cossack gains. 1984:protection and 1954:İslâm III Giray 1894:, during which 1861:military chiefs 1823:Maksym Kryvonis 1813:Maksym Kryvonis 1788:Dnieper Ukraine 1780:Mikołaj Potocki 1723:Crimean Khanate 1653:to fight their 1635: 1627:to Kiev in 1649 1617: 1612: 1562: 1424:Lesko Synagogue 1409:burgher classes 1390:Danzig (Gdańsk) 1371:Izaak Synagogue 1322: 1194: 1036:Union of Lublin 995: 899: 894: 832:and rebellious 830:John II Casimir 732: 696: 694: 680: 679: 668: 659: 652: 644: 643: 619:Nazi occupation 584: 576: 575: 541: 531: 530: 506: 498: 497: 447: 427: 420: 405: 367: 365: 355: 353: 349: 340: 339: 332: 320: 312: 311: 306:1945–1989 296:1939–1945 286:1918–1939 282:Second Republic 276:1914–1918 266:1795–1918 255: 247: 246: 241:1764–1795 231:1648–1764 221:1572–1648 210: 200: 199: 194:1385–1572 161: 151: 150: 126: 116: 115: 114: 52: 32: 25: 12: 11: 5: 9029: 9019: 9018: 9013: 9008: 9003: 8985:Main article: 8982: 8979: 8977: 8976: 8961: 8945: 8925: 8899: 8867: 8855: 8829: 8809: 8796: 8783: 8770: 8740: 8712: 8688: 8664: 8628: 8606: 8593: 8580: 8550: 8537: 8519: 8506: 8493: 8463: 8450: 8426: 8413: 8379: 8367: 8354: 8310: 8293: 8281: 8268: 8255: 8248:Noble Republic 8224: 8211: 8186: 8158: 8145: 8132: 8119: 8071: 8047: 8025: 8012: 7988: 7975: 7958:Timothy Snyder 7950: 7937: 7933:Rzeczpospolita 7898: 7885: 7872: 7856: 7825: 7809: 7796: 7776: 7752: 7736: 7709: 7661: 7645: 7629: 7616: 7596:Jerzy Lukowski 7588: 7562: 7549: 7529: 7500: 7472: 7448: 7428: 7403: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7313:Union of Brest 7309:noble families 7236:mother country 7219: 7217: 7214: 7213: 7212: 7207: 7202: 7197: 7191: 7190: 7175: 7174: 7158: 7155: 7129:wrote in 1750 7018:Volumina legum 6908: 6905: 6842:Wilanów Palace 6823:Chinese Palace 6807:in Vilnius or 6693:Ujazdów Castle 6635:Wacław Potocki 6405: 6402: 6324:Charles Gustav 6320:Swedish Deluge 6274:Wacław Potocki 6254:Polish Baroque 6162:Marie Casimire 6122: 6115: 6114: 6094: 6087: 6086: 6085: 6082:Two traditions 6081: 6080: 6079: 6078: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6002:Rzeczpospolita 5816:Antoni Potocki 5782:Jerzy Mniszech 5657:Anna of Russia 5638:St. Petersburg 5509:Potocki family 5400: 5397: 5356:personal union 5094:Greater Poland 4885: 4882: 4877:Main article: 4874: 4871: 4863:Marie Casimire 4791:Jakub Sobieski 4721:Habsburg state 4642:fields in 1669 4610:confederations 4519:The reigns of 4501: 4498: 4257:Habsburg state 4191:Marie Casimire 4116:The university 4042:Żurawno treaty 3945:Dniester River 3933:another battle 3758:Cossack hetman 3722:Ottoman Empire 3703: 3700: 3644:local autonomy 3621:Ottoman Empire 3504:Berezina River 3492:Ivan Khovansky 3308:Charles Gustav 3304:Cossack Hetman 3270: 3267: 3117:joined the war 2984:Ottoman Empire 2972:Charles Gustav 2962:Greater Poland 2950:crush at Warka 2665:Greater Poland 2545: 2542: 2435:Khotyn victory 2427:confederations 2405:and then King 2386:Ottoman Empire 2352: 2349: 2341:Russian Empire 2279:Timothy Snyder 2038:Greater Poland 1982:Ottoman Empire 1928:member of the 1892:royal election 1888:Cossack Hetman 1616: 1613: 1611: 1608: 1581:Greater Poland 1561: 1558: 1398:Greater Poland 1331:, a center of 1321: 1318: 1283:Erik Dahlbergh 1249:Swedish Deluge 1234:Greater Poland 1193: 1190: 1165:Greater Poland 1088:petty nobility 1052:, a member of 994: 991: 898: 895: 893: 890: 882:personal union 854:Wettin dynasty 834:confederations 810:deliver Vienna 806:Ottoman Empire 734: 733: 731: 730: 723: 716: 708: 705: 704: 691: 690: 682: 681: 678: 677: 672: 663: 653: 650: 649: 646: 645: 642: 641: 636: 631: 626: 621: 616: 611: 606: 601: 596: 591: 585: 582: 581: 578: 577: 574: 573: 568: 563: 558: 553: 548: 542: 537: 536: 533: 532: 529: 528: 523: 518: 513: 507: 504: 503: 500: 499: 496: 495: 490: 481: 480: 479: 469: 464: 459: 454: 448: 445: 444: 441: 440: 432: 431: 422: 421: 414: 407: 406: 404: 403: 396: 389: 381: 378: 377: 376: 375: 363: 342: 341: 336: 335: 329: 327:Third Republic 321: 318: 317: 314: 313: 308: 307: 304: 298: 297: 294: 288: 287: 284: 278: 277: 274: 268: 267: 264: 256: 253: 252: 249: 248: 243: 242: 239: 233: 232: 229: 223: 222: 219: 211: 206: 205: 202: 201: 196: 195: 192: 186: 185: 182: 174: 173: 168: 162: 157: 156: 153: 152: 149: 148: 143: 138: 133: 127: 122: 121: 118: 117: 113: 112: 107: 105:Jewish history 102: 97: 96: 95: 85: 80: 75: 70: 65: 60: 54: 53: 50: 49: 46: 45: 37: 36: 27: 26: 19: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9028: 9017: 9014: 9012: 9009: 9007: 9004: 9002: 8999: 8998: 8996: 8988: 8974: 8970: 8965: 8958: 8954: 8949: 8942: 8941:83-86328-60-6 8938: 8934: 8929: 8922: 8916: 8914: 8912: 8910: 8908: 8906: 8904: 8896: 8890: 8888: 8886: 8884: 8882: 8880: 8878: 8876: 8874: 8872: 8864: 8859: 8852: 8846: 8844: 8842: 8840: 8838: 8836: 8834: 8826: 8825:83-7212-020-X 8822: 8818: 8813: 8806: 8800: 8793: 8787: 8780: 8774: 8767: 8761: 8759: 8757: 8755: 8753: 8751: 8749: 8747: 8745: 8737: 8731: 8729: 8727: 8725: 8723: 8721: 8719: 8717: 8710: 8706: 8702: 8698: 8692: 8686: 8685:0-521-44229-X 8682: 8678: 8674: 8668: 8661: 8655: 8653: 8651: 8649: 8647: 8645: 8643: 8641: 8639: 8637: 8635: 8633: 8625: 8619: 8617: 8615: 8613: 8611: 8603: 8597: 8590: 8584: 8577: 8571: 8569: 8567: 8565: 8563: 8561: 8559: 8557: 8555: 8547: 8541: 8534: 8528: 8526: 8524: 8516: 8510: 8503: 8497: 8490: 8484: 8482: 8480: 8478: 8476: 8474: 8472: 8470: 8468: 8460: 8454: 8447: 8441: 8439: 8437: 8435: 8433: 8431: 8423: 8417: 8410: 8404: 8402: 8400: 8398: 8396: 8394: 8392: 8390: 8388: 8386: 8384: 8376: 8371: 8364: 8358: 8351: 8345: 8343: 8341: 8339: 8337: 8335: 8333: 8331: 8329: 8327: 8325: 8323: 8321: 8319: 8317: 8315: 8307: 8302: 8300: 8298: 8290: 8285: 8278: 8272: 8265: 8259: 8253: 8249: 8245: 8239: 8237: 8235: 8233: 8231: 8229: 8221: 8215: 8201:on 2008-04-14 8200: 8196: 8190: 8183: 8177: 8175: 8173: 8171: 8169: 8167: 8165: 8163: 8155: 8149: 8142: 8136: 8129: 8123: 8116: 8110: 8108: 8106: 8104: 8102: 8100: 8098: 8096: 8094: 8092: 8090: 8088: 8086: 8084: 8082: 8080: 8078: 8076: 8068: 8067:0-333-97253-8 8064: 8060: 8056: 8051: 8044: 8038: 8036: 8034: 8032: 8030: 8022: 8016: 8009: 8005: 8001: 7997: 7996:Richard Overy 7992: 7985: 7979: 7973: 7969: 7965: 7964: 7959: 7954: 7947: 7941: 7934: 7930: 7926: 7921: 7919: 7917: 7915: 7913: 7911: 7909: 7907: 7905: 7903: 7895: 7889: 7882: 7876: 7869: 7863: 7861: 7854: 7853:Jakub Basista 7850: 7849:83-08-02855-1 7846: 7842: 7838: 7834: 7829: 7822: 7816: 7814: 7806: 7800: 7794: 7793:83-85719-56-3 7790: 7786: 7780: 7773: 7772:0-7818-0200-8 7769: 7765: 7764:Adam Zamoyski 7761: 7756: 7749: 7743: 7741: 7733: 7729: 7725: 7720: 7718: 7716: 7714: 7706: 7700: 7698: 7696: 7694: 7692: 7690: 7688: 7686: 7684: 7682: 7680: 7678: 7676: 7674: 7672: 7670: 7668: 7666: 7658: 7652: 7650: 7642: 7638: 7633: 7626: 7620: 7613: 7612:0-521-61857-6 7609: 7605: 7601: 7597: 7592: 7585: 7579: 7577: 7575: 7573: 7571: 7569: 7567: 7559: 7553: 7546: 7540: 7538: 7536: 7534: 7526: 7522: 7518: 7513: 7511: 7509: 7507: 7505: 7497: 7491: 7489: 7487: 7485: 7483: 7481: 7479: 7477: 7469: 7468:83-907633-9-7 7465: 7461: 7457: 7452: 7445: 7439: 7437: 7435: 7433: 7426: 7425:0-06-097468-0 7422: 7418: 7417: 7412: 7411:Norman Davies 7407: 7401:, pp. 174–301 7400: 7399:83-01-03732-6 7396: 7392: 7388: 7384: 7379: 7377: 7375: 7373: 7368: 7360: 7358: 7354: 7350: 7346: 7342: 7338: 7334: 7329: 7328: 7324: 7320: 7318: 7314: 7310: 7306: 7305: 7300: 7296: 7292: 7288: 7287: 7282: 7277: 7276: 7272: 7268: 7265: 7260: 7259: 7255: 7251: 7249: 7245: 7241: 7237: 7233: 7228: 7227: 7223: 7211: 7208: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7192: 7188: 7177: 7172: 7171:Poland portal 7161: 7154: 7152: 7148: 7147: 7140: 7138: 7134: 7133: 7128: 7124: 7123: 7117: 7115: 7111: 7110: 7106:of Thorn and 7105: 7101: 7100: 7095: 7094: 7089: 7088: 7083: 7082: 7077: 7073: 7072: 7067: 7060: 7056: 7052: 7050: 7046: 7042: 7038: 7037:Royal Prussia 7034: 7033: 7028: 7024: 7020: 7019: 7014: 7009: 7007: 7003: 6999: 6995: 6991: 6984: 6980: 6976: 6974: 6970: 6965: 6961: 6957: 6953: 6949: 6943: 6941: 6937: 6933: 6932:Royal Prussia 6929: 6924: 6923:Enlightenment 6917: 6913: 6904: 6901: 6892: 6888: 6884: 6882: 6877: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6861: 6857: 6854: 6851: 6847: 6843: 6839: 6835: 6828: 6824: 6820: 6816: 6814: 6810: 6806: 6801: 6793: 6788: 6784: 6782: 6778: 6774: 6770: 6766: 6762: 6758: 6755: 6754: 6749: 6745: 6741: 6737: 6729: 6724: 6720: 6718: 6714: 6710: 6709:mystery plays 6706: 6702: 6698: 6694: 6688: 6686: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6668: 6664: 6660: 6658: 6654: 6650: 6646: 6645: 6640: 6636: 6631: 6627: 6623: 6619: 6617: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6597: 6590: 6586: 6582: 6580: 6579:Kurier Polski 6576: 6575: 6570: 6566: 6562: 6561: 6556: 6554: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6533: 6531: 6527: 6523: 6519: 6512: 6508: 6504: 6502: 6498: 6494: 6489: 6487: 6483: 6479: 6471: 6467: 6463: 6461: 6457: 6453: 6449: 6445: 6441: 6436: 6434: 6430: 6426: 6418: 6415:and his wife 6414: 6410: 6401: 6398: 6393: 6391: 6387: 6382: 6377: 6373: 6372: 6367: 6363: 6356: 6352: 6348: 6344: 6340: 6338: 6334: 6329: 6325: 6321: 6317: 6313: 6305: 6301: 6297: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6250: 6248: 6244: 6240: 6236: 6232: 6228: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6212: 6208: 6200: 6197: 6192: 6188: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6173: 6169: 6167: 6163: 6159: 6155: 6151: 6140: 6136: 6135: 6131: 6126: 6125:Byzantine art 6119: 6110: 6106: 6104: 6098: 6091: 6077: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6063: 6058: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6047:Enlightenment 6044: 6036: 6032: 6018: 6016: 6012: 6006: 6004: 6003: 5998: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5979: 5975: 5972:, as seen by 5971: 5967: 5963: 5959: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5936: 5934: 5930: 5929:Germanization 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5901:Maria Theresa 5898: 5891: 5887: 5883: 5879: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5860:Royal Prussia 5857: 5854: 5853:Ducal Prussia 5849: 5846: 5842: 5835: 5831: 5830:Józef Potocki 5827: 5823: 5819: 5817: 5813: 5809: 5808: 5802: 5801:Enlightenment 5797: 5795: 5794:Dresden court 5791: 5787: 5783: 5779: 5774: 5772: 5771:free election 5767: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5724: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5684: 5683:brave defense 5680: 5676: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5634: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5617: 5613: 5609: 5605: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5580: 5578: 5577: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5559:Józef Potocki 5556: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5535: 5531: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5512: 5510: 5506: 5502: 5498: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5475:, future king 5474: 5470: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5456: 5452: 5451:Ludwik Pociej 5448: 5443: 5441: 5437: 5436:Maria Josepha 5433: 5430:converted to 5429: 5425: 5421: 5412: 5409: 5405: 5396: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5381: 5375: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5359: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5343: 5340: 5336: 5327: 5325: 5319: 5314: 5310: 5308: 5304: 5298: 5296: 5292: 5287: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5250: 5246: 5241: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5205: 5201: 5197: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5183: 5179: 5175: 5170: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5110:free election 5107: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5086:Thorn (Toruń) 5083: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5020: 5018: 5017:Johann Patkul 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4951:Frederick III 4947: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4931: 4925: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4895: 4890: 4880: 4870: 4868: 4864: 4858: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4843: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4827: 4826:free election 4823: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4803: 4799: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4782: 4780: 4779:Szczebrzeszyn 4776: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4736: 4732: 4729: 4724: 4722: 4717: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4688: 4683: 4679: 4673: 4668: 4664: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4623: 4619: 4614: 4611: 4607: 4604: 4600: 4598: 4597: 4591: 4590: 4585: 4581: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4562: 4558: 4557: 4552: 4548: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4515: 4511: 4506: 4497: 4494: 4489: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4470:Dnieper River 4467: 4462: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4439: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4418: 4417:Frans Geffels 4414: 4410: 4406: 4404: 4400: 4395: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4368: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4321: 4316: 4314: 4310: 4305: 4304:Polish Hussar 4301: 4297: 4293: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4279: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4245: 4243: 4237: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4222: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4183: 4179: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4163: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4082: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4054: 4050: 4045: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4012: 4008: 4004: 3999: 3995: 3993: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3971: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3948: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3906: 3902: 3900: 3896: 3891: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3807: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3796:John Sobieski 3794: 3790: 3785: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3748: 3745: 3741: 3740:Ahmed Köprülü 3738: 3734: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3716: 3712: 3711:John Sobieski 3708: 3699: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3628: 3626: 3622: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3588: 3584: 3575: 3570: 3566: 3564: 3560: 3559:Pavlo Teteria 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3543:Dnieper River 3540: 3536: 3531: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3475: 3471: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3411: 3410:Pavlo Teteria 3407: 3403: 3401: 3396: 3395: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3312:Yuri Nemyrych 3309: 3305: 3301: 3300:Ivan Vyhovsky 3297: 3292: 3290: 3286: 3279: 3278:Ivan Vyhovsky 3275: 3266: 3264: 3260: 3254: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3240: 3236: 3231: 3229: 3225: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3206: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3179:Thorn (Toruń) 3176: 3175:Royal Prussia 3171: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3158: 3154: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3142:Ducal Prussia 3139: 3135: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3109:Czarny Ostrów 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3085: 3083: 3079: 3074: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3057:First in the 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3039: 3035: 3030: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2974:fighting the 2973: 2969: 2965: 2963: 2959: 2958:Lesser Poland 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2930: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2875:Thorn (Toruń) 2871: 2868: 2867:confederation 2864: 2860: 2852: 2848: 2843: 2839: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2807: 2805: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2742: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2688: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2651: 2647: 2642: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2611: 2609: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2554: 2550: 2541: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2518: 2516: 2513: 2509: 2501: 2497: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2462: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2419: 2414: 2410: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2364: 2361: 2357: 2348: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2333: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2286: 2282: 2280: 2276: 2271: 2267: 2261: 2259: 2255: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2215: 2210: 2208: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2152:Transylvanian 2149: 2145: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2106: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2091: 2086: 2084: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2069: 2064: 2060: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2039: 2035: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2009: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1977: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1946: 1942: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1924:and the last 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1884: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1843: 1839: 1836: 1832: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1801: 1796: 1791: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1732: 1729:' (and their 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1691: 1689: 1684: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1665:Uniate Church 1662: 1658: 1657: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1634: 1626: 1621: 1607: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1588: 1586: 1585:Royal Prussia 1582: 1578: 1570: 1566: 1557: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1542:Royal Prussia 1539: 1538:Thorn (Toruń) 1534: 1530: 1524: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1484: 1480: 1477: 1473: 1468: 1464: 1463:protectionism 1460: 1455: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1433: 1429: 1426:. During the 1425: 1421: 1417: 1414: 1410: 1405: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1358: 1355:and parts of 1354: 1350: 1346: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1317: 1315: 1311: 1306: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1269: 1265: 1260: 1258: 1254: 1253:Royal Prussia 1250: 1246: 1241: 1239: 1238:Lesser Poland 1235: 1231: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1189: 1187: 1181: 1179: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1161:Royal Prussia 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1137: 1130: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1095: 1091: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1064: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1010: 1006: 1003: 999: 990: 988: 984: 979: 977: 973: 965: 960: 956: 954: 950: 946: 945:Northern Wars 941: 939: 935: 931: 927: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 889: 887: 883: 879: 875: 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 852: 847: 845: 841: 840: 835: 831: 827: 823: 817: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 784: 780: 776: 771: 769: 765: 761: 757: 753: 749: 745: 741: 729: 724: 722: 717: 715: 710: 709: 707: 706: 703: 693: 692: 689: 688: 684: 683: 676: 673: 671: 667: 664: 662: 658: 655: 654: 648: 647: 640: 637: 635: 632: 630: 627: 625: 622: 620: 617: 615: 612: 610: 607: 605: 602: 600: 597: 595: 592: 590: 587: 586: 580: 579: 572: 569: 567: 564: 562: 559: 557: 554: 552: 549: 547: 544: 543: 540: 535: 534: 527: 524: 522: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 508: 502: 501: 494: 491: 489: 485: 482: 478: 475: 474: 473: 472:Baltic tribes 470: 468: 465: 463: 462:Neman culture 460: 458: 457:Narva culture 455: 453: 452:Kunda culture 450: 449: 443: 442: 438: 434: 433: 430: 424: 423: 418: 413: 412: 402: 397: 395: 390: 388: 383: 382: 380: 379: 374: 364: 362: 352: 351: 350: 348: 344: 343: 330: 328: 325: 324: 316: 315: 305: 303: 300: 299: 295: 293: 290: 289: 285: 283: 280: 279: 275: 273: 270: 269: 265: 263: 260: 259: 251: 250: 240: 238: 235: 234: 230: 228: 225: 224: 220: 218: 215: 214: 209: 204: 203: 193: 191: 188: 187: 183: 181: 178: 177: 172: 169: 167: 164: 163: 160: 155: 154: 147: 146:Polish tribes 144: 142: 139: 137: 134: 132: 129: 128: 125: 120: 119: 111: 108: 106: 103: 101: 98: 94: 91: 90: 89: 86: 84: 81: 79: 76: 74: 71: 69: 66: 64: 61: 59: 56: 55: 48: 47: 43: 39: 38: 35: 29: 28: 23: 18: 17: 8972: 8964: 8952: 8948: 8928: 8920: 8894: 8862: 8858: 8850: 8816: 8812: 8804: 8799: 8791: 8786: 8778: 8773: 8765: 8735: 8701:page 286–288 8696: 8691: 8672: 8667: 8659: 8623: 8601: 8596: 8588: 8583: 8575: 8545: 8540: 8532: 8514: 8509: 8501: 8496: 8488: 8458: 8453: 8445: 8421: 8416: 8408: 8374: 8370: 8362: 8357: 8349: 8305: 8288: 8284: 8276: 8271: 8263: 8258: 8243: 8219: 8214: 8203:. Retrieved 8199:the original 8189: 8181: 8153: 8148: 8140: 8135: 8127: 8122: 8114: 8058: 8050: 8042: 8020: 8015: 7999: 7991: 7983: 7978: 7961: 7953: 7945: 7940: 7928: 7893: 7888: 7880: 7875: 7867: 7832: 7828: 7820: 7804: 7799: 7784: 7779: 7759: 7755: 7747: 7727: 7724:Jerzy Besala 7704: 7656: 7636: 7632: 7624: 7619: 7603: 7591: 7583: 7557: 7552: 7544: 7516: 7495: 7459: 7451: 7443: 7414: 7406: 7386: 7344: 7340: 7327: 7322: 7321: 7319:'s command. 7302: 7284: 7275: 7270: 7269: 7264:Polonization 7258: 7253: 7252: 7226: 7221: 7220: 7144: 7141: 7137:mercantilism 7130: 7120: 7118: 7107: 7104:Teodor Bauch 7097: 7091: 7085: 7079: 7074:in 1718–19. 7069: 7063: 7030: 7016: 7010: 7006:bibliography 6988:The bishops 6987: 6944: 6920: 6900:Polonization 6896: 6891:Saxon Palace 6858: 6855: 6850:Saxon Palace 6831: 6797: 6792:Bridgettines 6751: 6733: 6689: 6671: 6642: 6620: 6612:lyric poetry 6593: 6578: 6572: 6558: 6557: 6534: 6521: 6515: 6490: 6474: 6437: 6422: 6394: 6381:Thorn Tumult 6376:Northern War 6369: 6359: 6308: 6304:Augustus III 6294:witch trials 6251: 6204: 6195: 6170: 6158:Marie Louise 6147: 6128: 6100: 6059: 6040: 6007: 6000: 5996: 5982: 5977: 5940:Silesian war 5937: 5933:East Prussia 5894: 5868:East Prussia 5856:Hohenzollern 5850: 5841:Frederick II 5838: 5812:mercantilism 5805: 5798: 5785: 5780:and Marshal 5775: 5763: 5732:peace treaty 5725: 5697: 5677: 5669:Augustus III 5635: 5631: 5583: 5581: 5574: 5570: 5542: 5540: 5513: 5478: 5444: 5416: 5376: 5360: 5344: 5331: 5323: 5299: 5283: 5242: 5209: 5171: 5132: 5098:the election 5067: 5036:accept peace 5021: 4994: 4963:Hohenzollern 4948: 4944: 4926: 4899: 4866: 4859: 4844: 4840: 4819: 4783: 4772: 4746:Liberum veto 4745: 4738:Jan Sobieski 4725: 4718: 4691: 4676: 4660:vivente rege 4659: 4645: 4618:high treason 4615: 4601: 4594: 4589:vivente rege 4587: 4577: 4556:liberum veto 4554: 4549: 4545:Marie Louise 4518: 4490: 4477: 4463: 4440: 4421: 4396: 4369: 4345:Transylvania 4338: 4317: 4289: 4275: 4246: 4238: 4230:Imre Thököly 4223: 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1209:John Casimir 1207:and then of 1205:Władysław IV 1182: 1138: 1134: 1108:Czartoryskis 1096: 1092: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1072:czynszownicy 1071: 1061: 1059: 1040: 1013: 980: 968: 942: 923: 910:Władysław IV 906:John Casimir 874:took Silesia 862:Augustus III 848: 839:liberum veto 837: 818: 772: 739: 737: 686: 651:Other topics 589:Russian rule 550: 345: 319:Contemporary 292:World War II 226: 208:Early Modern 180:Piast period 78:Coat of arms 63:Polonization 7925:Piotr Kroll 7279:Before the 7002:Renaissance 6936:rationalist 6736:Pipe organs 6626:conceptismo 6618:form only. 6288:of several 6286:monasteries 6219:East Slavic 6137:by unknown 6109:Jan Tricius 6097:Baroque art 6066:Renaissance 5888:gardens in 5758:Protestants 5750:Augustus II 5485:Protestants 5432:Catholicism 5339:Silent Sejm 5279:Silent Sejm 5277:and of the 5230:Ivan Mazepa 5226:von Krassow 5163:Semen Paliy 5116:and by the 5100:as king of 5062:Leszczyński 5052:Valkininkai 5050:(Battle of 5028:Charles XII 4959:Brandenburg 4914:Catholicism 4867:interregnum 4692:During the 4654:(Battle of 4596:interregnum 4482:Ivan Mazepa 4424:ailing king 4357:papal state 4126:, like its 4120:Lwów (Lviv) 3941:Chodkiewicz 3920:under King 3912:College in 3789:Lwów (Lviv) 3776:present in 3692:Adjustments 3625:Khmelnytsky 3602:During the 3514:victory of 3320:Chamberlain 3296:Khmelnytsky 2887:Brandenburg 2832:Catholicism 2823:under siege 2819:Częstochowa 2769:Lwów (Lviv) 2741:under siege 2584:Khmelnytsky 2538:Holy League 2326:Swedish war 2275:great power 2219:hetman post 2202:East Slavic 2114:Vasile Lupu 1914:Adam Kisiel 1904:Rus' nation 1845:Adam Kisiel 1831:interregnum 1800:latifundium 1707:Zaporizhian 1521:Leszczyński 1349:Renaissance 1255:and 60% in 1219:were being 1082:proper, or 1080:zaściankowa 987:Renaissance 816:onslaught. 752:joint state 505:Middle ages 426:History of 331:1989– 272:World War I 159:Middle Ages 58:Polonophile 31:History of 8995:Categories 8677:page 32–33 8205:2010-01-30 7851:, p. 135, 7364:References 7049:Königsberg 6753:a cappella 6748:polyphonic 6616:manuscript 6560:Nowe Ateny 6524:(1740) by 6486:scholastic 6454:school in 6440:gymnasiums 6262:Lithuanian 6074:Versailles 5997:status quo 5952:Electorate 5938:The first 5925:Protestant 5828:succeeded 5742:for life. 5720:Adam Tarło 5716:Tarnobrzeg 5708:Königsberg 5547:Radziwiłłs 5326:Lubomirska 5082:at Pułtusk 4744:'s rule. 4712:, married 4652:Inowrocław 4493:latifundia 4484:, but was 4053:Baltic Sea 3956:Michał Pac 3876:Krasnystaw 3809:Soon King 3770:suzerainty 3433:hetmanship 3239:Königsberg 3224:Daugavpils 3105:Lubomirski 2907:Königsberg 2836:Protestant 2781:Marienburg 2761:Carpathian 2708:Oberglogau 2646:Pomeranian 2608:Baltic Sea 2439:Lithuanian 2214:Pereiaslav 2194:linguistic 2182:Ivan Bohun 2083:Ivan Bohun 2029:universals 1998:dissidents 1958:Tatar Khan 1900:Pereiaslav 1835:Chancellor 1631:See also: 1533:Protestant 1513:Garczyński 1494:church in 1461:and state 1345:capitalist 1243:After the 1141:Lithuanian 1024:latifundia 983:Xenophobia 930:depressing 687:Chronology 583:Modern era 484:Amber Road 446:Prehistory 6948:Lunéville 6746:composed 6705:Theatines 6610:, as was 6571:in 1675. 6417:Elisabeth 6371:indygenat 6270:messianic 6266:Ruthenian 6231:Sarmatian 6227:Black Sea 6217:and also 6139:Ruthenian 6111:(Tretko). 6057:culture. 6055:Sarmatism 5978:Canaletto 5890:Białystok 5864:Via Regia 5832:as Crown 5738:, as his 5590:, but as 5489:Lutherans 5408:Lutherans 5291:Stralsund 5240:in 1709. 4930:Louis XIV 4708:, Bishop 4382:with the 4372:Kamieniec 4203:Pomerania 4195:Louis XIV 4176:liberties 4079:Louis XIV 3872:San River 3862:area and 3804:Pidhaitsi 3733:Mehmed IV 3653:Chernihiv 3616:Vinnytsia 3490:defeated 3445:left-bank 3340:Chernihiv 3298:'s death 3160:Starostwo 3093:Hungarian 3015:Gosiewski 2988:Ukrainian 2938:San River 2865:military 2834:and anti- 2797:universal 2789:Podlaskie 2765:Nowy Sącz 2749:Myślenice 2653:dominions 2639:Stockholm 2629:'s rule; 2582:, and by 2399:Louis XIV 2394:Ukrainian 2198:religious 2154:siege of 2025:Napierski 2021:Czorsztyn 1746:Tugay Bey 1675:from the 1596:Huguenots 1444:jurydykas 1375:Kazimierz 1357:Pomerania 1310:Ruthenian 1279:Bydgoszcz 1268:catechism 1178:sarmatism 1153:Polonized 1145:Ruthenian 1126:Radziwiłł 1084:zagrodowa 1009:Lithuania 888:culture. 876:from the 764:last king 477:Yotvingia 428:Lithuania 141:Antiquity 131:Stone Age 110:Statehood 8943:, p. 448 8807:, p. 581 8517:, p. 117 8504:, p. 114 8279:, p. 558 8266:, p. 100 8069:, p. 100 7998:(2010), 7843:Kraków, 7774:, p. 166 7732:Polityka 7627:, p. 338 7614:, p. 101 7349:Peasants 7304:szlachta 7157:See also 6969:Voltaire 6952:Lorraine 6872:the West 6827:Zolochiv 6761:cantatas 6713:passions 6697:Podhorce 6604:pastoral 6596:verbiage 6530:szlachta 6518:heraldry 6433:Piarists 6366:apostasy 6229:shores ( 6051:Oriental 5897:Habsburg 5726:France, 5718:, under 5654:Tsaritsa 5646:Courland 5616:Portugal 5594:married 5584:Familia' 5571:Familia' 5555:Ogińskis 5551:Sapiehas 5507:and the 5467:married 5440:Joseph I 5335:Kowalewo 5143:the King 5074:Courland 5011:allowed 5005:Holstein 4809:died in 4694:election 4672:szlachta 4634:of King 4632:Election 4622:imperial 4541:szlachta 4478:szlachta 4430:married 4415:1683 by 4363:and the 4309:the West 4187:Sobieski 4172:szlachta 4150:and his 4096:married 4063:Habsburg 4022:Pokuttya 3979:Chyhyryn 3975:John III 3968:Moldavia 3931:, where 3884:Podolian 3860:Bratslav 3848:Ottomans 3735:and his 3688:Latgalia 3684:Dünaburg 3649:Smolensk 3640:Smolensk 3555:Chyhyryn 3539:Smolensk 3512:Volhynia 3467:Orthodox 3394:szlachta 3389:register 3385:Nobility 3361:Ruthenia 3330:'s side 3318:and the 3285:Cossacks 3242:burghers 3089:Austrian 3048:Przemyśl 2899:Prussian 2863:Tyszowce 2753:szlachta 2650:Livonian 2600:Courland 2576:Russians 2471:magnates 2467:szlachta 2431:Sobieski 2384:and the 2363:fortress 2332:accord. 2310:Smolensk 2304:and the 2223:registry 2166:the old 2160:Zhvanets 2148:Hospodar 2138:in Paris 2090:szlachta 2068:szlachta 1986:Moldavia 1941:Volhynia 1934:Cossacks 1922:Bratslav 1877:Volhynia 1767:and the 1709:Army of 1681:Bratslav 1656:szlachta 1651:Cossacks 1337:Catholic 1316:unrest. 1303:Pszczyna 1247:and the 1217:peasants 1157:Catholic 1112:Potockis 1110:and the 1076:brukowcy 1054:szlachta 1016:Szlachta 972:szlachta 934:manorial 926:economic 828:against 756:election 746:and the 417:a series 415:Part of 83:Monarchs 22:a series 20:Part of 7337:slavery 7289:of the 7286:sejmiks 7244:Tsardom 7109:Monitor 6781:ballets 6773:mazurka 6740:Leżajsk 6728:Leżajsk 6653:memoirs 6608:romance 6532:clans. 6460:Breslau 6456:Teschen 6452:Pietist 6429:Jesuits 6362:atheism 6349:of the 6223:Islamic 6215:Persian 6211:Turkish 6207:Eastern 6181:English 6043:Baroque 6015:Leipzig 5976:called 5966:Dresden 5948:Olomouc 5876:Silesia 5845:Familia 5786:Familia 5706:. From 5700:Prussia 5604:Potsdam 5543:Familia 5516:Familia 5497:Peter I 5424:Austria 5413:in 1724 5320:first, 5305:, with 5249:Stettin 5165:in the 5159:Livonia 5147:Tsardom 5044:Sapieha 4987:served 4985:his kin 4955:Elector 4904:of the 4896:in 1701 4811:Wilanów 4728:Primate 4533:central 4461:power. 4436:Empress 4384:Tsardom 4353:crusade 4341:Hungary 4334:Vilnius 4296:Leopold 4219:Prussia 4215:Livonia 4207:Stettin 4160:Silesia 4134:college 4128:Vilnius 4104:suited 4075:magnate 4071:Austria 4034:Podolia 4018:warfare 3916:became 3899:Russian 3864:Podolia 3677:Vitebsk 3673:Polotsk 3632:Turkish 3526:in the 3508:Vilnius 3494:at the 3417:Tsardom 3336:Voivode 3244:led by 3199:Kolding 3157:Draheim 3113:Podolia 3038:Tsardom 2992:Swedish 2946:Vistula 2923:in 1656 2891:Prussia 2883:Elector 2859:hetmans 2847:Vistula 2813:of the 2793:Tykocin 2716:Silesia 2710:in the 2621:. King 2615:Livonia 2604:Prussia 2588:Ukraine 2560:Swedish 2508:Vistula 2498:at the 2453:or the 2382:Prussia 2322:Vilnius 2292:In the 2156:Suceava 2110:Tymofiy 2027:issued 2017:Podhale 2006:Silesia 1962:Dnieper 1918:Voivode 1881:Belarus 1842:Voivode 1777:Hetmans 1731:Ottoman 1529:Silesia 1488:Baroque 1452:ghettos 1448:shtetls 1402:Wschowa 1353:Silesia 1329:Pińczów 1314:Cossack 1299:Silesia 1295:Podhale 1257:Podolia 1225:folwark 1173:Jesuits 1129:magnate 1104:Sapieha 1068:sejmiks 1020:folwark 976:magnate 938:serfdom 814:Turkish 812:from a 798:Ukraine 783:Cossack 779:anarchy 766:of the 333:present 8939: 8823: 8709:626738 8707: 8683: 8065: 8006: 7970: 7847: 7791: 7770: 7610: 7466: 7423: 7397: 7283:, the 7066:German 7045:Elbing 6846:Rococo 6813:stucco 6777:operas 6769:sonata 6757:masses 6482:Zamość 6444:Danzig 6328:Arians 6312:Church 6290:orders 6247:Persia 6239:Jesuit 6154:French 6130:Pokrov 6060:Close 5970:Saxony 5915:. The 5843:, the 5834:Hetman 5665:Wettin 5642:Vienna 5368:sejmik 5364:Hetman 5253:Bender 5174:Grodno 5104:, the 4855:Vienna 4742:Michał 4735:Hetman 4603:Hetman 4584:Senate 4580:Deluge 4508:Queen 4361:Venice 4278:Kraków 4242:papacy 4211:Danzig 4168:Moscow 4132:Jesuit 4106:Vienna 4088:, and 4059:France 4055:area. 4007:Vienna 3960:Danube 3929:Khotyn 3910:Jesuit 3823:hetman 3793:Hetman 3756:, the 3730:Sultan 3453:hetman 3441:Bohdan 3381:Senate 3371:. 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Knowledge

History of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1648–1764)

Index