History of the Comoros (1978–1989)

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among Abdallah, the French government, and South Africa's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, a decision was made to expel Denard and his fellow officers of the GP by the end of 1989. Denard and his second in command were seen walking with Abdallah only hours before he died. Although the mercenary initially blamed the assassination on the Comoran army, he later conceded that he was in Abdallah's office when the president was killed, but called the shooting "an accident due to the general state of mayhem" in the Beit al Salama.

366: 1846: 421: 1021:—experienced a wrenching sequence of booms and collapses because of weather and market factors, or else steadily dwindled. The regime's principal form of response was to apply the president's considerable diplomatic skills to developing an extensive network of governments and international organizations willing to extend loans and donate aid. The main suppliers were France, South Africa, the European Community, the conservative Arab states, the 22: 1033:. Some assistance went to projects of indisputable value, such as efforts to create independent news media and improve telephone communications with the outside world. Much of the aid, however, was questionable—for example, loans and grants to help the republic meet the payroll for its oversized civil service. Other more plausible projects, such as the protracted development of a seaport at the town of 1671: 759:

republic into the 1978 constitution and by appointing a Mahorais as his government's minister of finance. Having established an administration that, in comparison with the Soilih years, seemed tolerable to his domestic and international constituencies, Abdallah proceeded to entrench himself through domestic and international policies that profoundly compromised the Comoros' independence.

1110:. More than 100 people were arrested following the election, and in subsequent weeks the international media described a deteriorating situation in the islands; the head of state claimed that France "authorizes terrorism in the Comoros", and leaders of the banned opposition in bold public statements questioned the legitimacy of the referendum. 811:, the erstwhile prime minister and a likely future candidate for president. Another 1985 amendment took away many of the powers of the president of the National Assembly, including his right to become interim head of state in the event of the incumbent's death. The amendment transferred the right of succession to the president of the 1045:, nonetheless tended to be instances of placing the cart before the horse. That is, capital-intensive improvements to infrastructure had not been coordinated with local development projects; hence, little, if any, domestic commerce existed to benefit from road networks, electrical power, and world-class port facilities. 1137:

1,000 students and workers were violently broken up by the protests. By then the islands' school system had shut down, and the civil service had gone on strike. Faced with an untenable situation, Denard surrendered to French forces without a fight on 15 December. Along with about two dozen comrades, he was flown to

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and put under house arrest. The French government later announced that Denard would remain in detention in South Africa pending the outcome of a French judicial inquiry into Abdallah's death. In February 1993 he returned to France, where he was initially arrested, tried, and exonerated of involvement

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Two days later, on 29 November, the real reasons for the assassination emerged when Denard and the GP seized control of the government in a coup. Twenty-seven police officers were killed, hundreds of people were arrested, and all journalists were confined to their hotels. The mercenaries disarmed the

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Under Abdallah's tutelage, the Comoran economy finished the 1980s much as it had started the decade—poor, underdeveloped, and dependent on export earnings from cash crops of unpredictable and generally declining value. The critical difference, with enormous implications for the republic's capacity to

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The importation of huge quantities of building materials and construction equipment provided immediate benefits to import-export firms in the islands, of which Établissements Abdallah et Fils was the largest. In the meantime, the projects were of little immediate use to Comorans and were likely to go

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The GP also arranged for South African commercial aircraft to fly in the Middle East and parts of Africa under the aegis of the Comoran national airline, in contravention of international sanctions against South Africa. Furthermore, the GP provided for South African use of Comoran territory as a base

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and the Arab states, the regime began to upgrade roads, telecommunications, and port facilities. The government also accepted international aid for programs to increase the cultivation of cash crops and food for domestic consumption. Abdallah endeavored to maintain the relations established by Soilih

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was elected president Denard lost the support of the French intelligence service, but he managed to strengthen the link between SA and the Comoros. Besides the Guard, Denard established his own company SOGECOM, in both the security and building business. He seemed to be pretty rich. In period 1985-87

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The immediate reaction of the republic's two main supporters, France and South Africa, was to isolate Denard. South Africa, admitting years of funding of the GP, cut off all aid. France began a military build-up on Mahoré and likewise suspended aid. On 7 December, anti-Denard demonstrations by about

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Perhaps the most notorious action of the GP on behalf of the Abdallah government occurred in November 1987. After an apparent attempt by dissidents to free some political prisoners, an event quickly labeled a coup attempt by the Abdallah regime, the GP arrested fourteen alleged plotters and tortured

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to enact a twelve-year ban on political parties, a move that guaranteed his reelection in 1984. In 1979 his government arrested Soilih regime members who had not already left or been killed during the 1978 coup. Four former ministers of the Soilih government disappeared and allegedly were murdered,

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Although Abdallah had been president when the Comoros broke away from France in 1975, he now moved to establish a relationship much more to France's liking. Upon Denard's departure, he gave a French military mission responsibility for training the Comoros' defense force. He also signed an agreement

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A weak, divided, and opportunistic opposition facilitated Abdallah's efforts to undermine the political process. The character of Comoran politics ensured that opposition would be sustained by an unwieldy group of strong personalities. As the personal stock of these would-be leaders rose and fell,

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Evidence emerged subsequently that Abdallah's assassination resulted from the late president's proposed actions with regard to the GP. In September 1989, Abdallah had engaged a French military consultant, who determined that the GP should be absorbed into the regular army. Following consultations

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Only weeks before the violent end of the Abdallah regime in late 1989, one observer noted that the "Comoros is still run like a village, with a handful of tough men in charge and supported by foreign aid." As Comorans prepared for a 4 November 1989, referendum on constitutional changes that would

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The GP's primary missions were to protect the president and to deter attempts to overthrow his government. During the July 1983 elections to the three islands' legislative councils, the GP beat and arrested demonstrators protesting the republic's one-party system. During elections to the National

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In regard to Mahoré, Abdallah offered little more than verbal resistance to a 1979 decision of the French government to postpone action on the status of the island until 1984. At the same time, he kept the door open to Mahoré by writing a large measure of autonomy for the component islands of the

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Although Denard had made a ceremonial departure from the Comoros following the 1978 coup, by the early 1980s he was again openly active in the islands. The GP, whose numbers were reported to range from 300 to 700 members, primarily indigenous Comorans, were led by about thirty French and Belgian

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Abdallah complemented his political maneuvers by employing a GP officered by many of the same mercenaries who had helped him take power in 1978. Denard led this force, and also became heavily involved in Comoran business activities, sometimes acting in partnership with President Abdallah or as a

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Despite international assistance, economic development was slow. Although some Comorans blamed the French, who had yet to restore technical assistance to pre-1975 levels, others suspected that Abdallah, who owned a large import-export firm, was enriching himself from development efforts with the

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At the end of the 1980s the South Africans did not want to continue to support a mercenary regime and France also wanted to get rid of the mercenaries. Finally, also President Abdallah wanted the mercenaries to leave. Their response was a (third) coup and the death of President Abdallah in which

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The official result of the referendum was a 92.5 percent majority in favor of the amendments proposed by Abdallah, which now created "the conditions for a life presidency", warned one opposition leader. Balloting was marked by the now customary manipulation by the government. Opposition groups

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concern, also profited from managing the importation of materials used by South African firms in developing tourist hotels. Little of the material used in building these resorts was of Comoran origin. Also, once completed, the resorts would be almost entirely owned and managed by non-Comorans.

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Mroudjae's subsequent career in the Abdallah government illustrated the way in which Abdallah used frequent reshufflings of his cabinet to eliminate potential challengers. Mroudjae's next job was to share duties as minister of state with four other people; he was removed from the government

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Abdallah also kept opponents from competing with him in the arena of legitimate politics by reshuffling his government and amending the 1978 constitution. As part of what one observer wryly called the process of "remov his most avid successors from temptation," Abdallah pushed through a

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Although tourism, mainly by South Africans who were unwelcome in other African resorts, was widely considered the only promising new industry in the Comoros, Abdallah guided its development so that resorts benefited few Comorans other than himself and his associates.

1117:(House of Peace). At first his death was seen as a logical outcome of the tense political situation following what was, in effect, his self-appointment as head of state for life. The recently dismissed head of the Comoran military was duly blamed for the murder. 917:

who had been arrested by the army. On 8 March 1985, one of the most serious attempts to overthrow the Abdallah government began as a mutiny by about thirty Comoran troops of the GP against their European officers. The disaffected guards had formed ties to the

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Looking to the end of his second (and, according to the constitution, final) term as head of state, Abdallah created a commission in 1988 to recommend changes to the constitution. These changes, among other things, would permit him to run yet again in 1990. A

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President Abdallah used the uprising as an opportunity to round up dissidents, primarily FD members, whose leadership denied involvement in the coup attempt. Later in 1985, seventy-seven received convictions; seventeen, including the FD's secretary general,

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Throughout the Abdallah period, rice imports drained as much as 50 percent of Comoran export earnings. Projects to increase food self-sufficiency, as one observer noted, "fail to respond to the largesse" provided by international sponsors such as the

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Given the absence of an ideological basis for resisting the regime, it was also not surprising that some opposition leaders were willing to ally themselves with the head of state if such a move appeared likely to advance them personally. For example,

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Although the restoration of good relations with France represented a sharp break with the policies of the previous regime, Abdallah built on Soilih's efforts to find new sources of diplomatic and economic support. Thanks in large part to aid from the

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reported that polling places lacked private voting booths, government officials blocked the entry of opposition poll watchers, and the army and police removed ballot boxes before voting ended. Reaction to these abuses was unusually angry. In

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enable President Abdallah to run for a third term in 1990, human rights remained in precarious condition, and the only avenue of economic advancement for most islanders—the civil service—faced cutbacks at the urging of the World Bank and the

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rule in the Comoros in 1841. Agreement was reached with France in 1973 for the Comoros to become independent in 1978. On 6 July 1975, but the Comorian parliament passed a unilateral resolution declaring independence. The deputies of

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government, established themselves as a conduit of South African investment and influence in the Comoros. An official South African trade representative conceded that a number of his country's investment projects, including a

861:, URDC), appeared with the president at independence day celebrations in July 1988 amid rumors that the URDC chief was being considered for a reconstituted prime minister's office. In September 1988 another opposition leader, 953:

With Abdallah's acquiescence and occasional participation, Denard and the other GP officers used their connections to the head of state to make themselves important players in the Comoran economy. Denard was a part owner of

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have some say in its own destiny, was its new status as a nation abjectly in debt. By 1988, the last full year of the Abdallah regime, 80 percent of annual public expenditures were funded by external aid.

958:, the Comoros' largest import-export firm, whose primary owner was President Abdallah. Denard also owned and operated a highly profitable commercial shuttle between South Africa and the Comoros, and owned 641:. The document combined federalism and centralism. It granted each island its own legislature and control over taxes levied on individuals and businesses resident on the island (perhaps with an eye to 1094:. Even those who would keep their government jobs, however, were not guaranteed economic security. As often occurred whenever export earnings slid, civil servants had not been paid since mid-summer. 926:, FD), one of the more nationalistic of the republic's many banned political parties. The mutiny was quickly squelched; three of the rebellious guards were killed, and the rest were taken prisoners. 1065:

and domestic taxes on imported rice. Abdallah's import-export firm was heavily involved in vanilla exports, as well as in the importation of Far Eastern rice at three times its price at the source.

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coalitions coalesced and just as quickly fell apart in a process that engendered distrust and cynicism. The ban on opposition political organizations at home—brutally upheld, when necessary, by the

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seemed interested in remaining in the Comoros, and he and his friends were given financially rewarding appointments with the new government. In reaction to Denard's involvement with Abdallah, the

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President Abdallah generally put his personal interests ahead of national interests in making economic policy. The result was the creation of a client state whose meager and unpredictable

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of 22 March 1987, the Abdallah regime arrested 400 poll watchers from opposition groups. A state radio announcement that one non-UCP delegate had been elected was retracted the next day.

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seven of them to death. Officials of the Comoran government apparently were not allowed to participate in the prisoners' interrogation. President Abdallah was on a state visit to

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and about 300 other Soilih supporters were imprisoned without trial. For the next three years, occasional trials were held, in many cases only after France had insisted on

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Denard and his men were probably involved. The SA and the French government subsequently forced Denard and his mercenaries to leave the islands in 1989.

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charges of illegal arrests, torture, and other abuses. France had also exerted pressure by temporarily withholding new aid projects and purchases of

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Opposition to the Abdallah regime began to appear as early as 1979, with the formation of an exile-dominated group that became known as the

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of Africa and Asia. Answerable only to the president, the GP operated outside the chain of command of the French-trained 1,000-member

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was commander of the Presidential Guard (PG) and de facto ruler of the country, trained, supported and funded by the white regimes in

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The credibility of Abdallah's opponents was also damaged by the efforts of one opposition leader, former ambassador to France

174: 1954: 755:). A failed coup in February 1981, led by a former official of the Soilih regime, resulted in arrests of about forty people. 579:

and to watch the war in Mozambique, in which SA played an active role. The Comoros was also used for evading arms sanctions.

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front for South African business interests, which played a growing role in the Comoran economy during the Abdallah regime.

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voters smashed ballot boxes rather than have them carted away by the army; the governor's office was set on fire in

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President Abdallah was shot to death on the night of 26–27 November, reportedly while asleep in his residence, the

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constitutional amendment in 1985 that abolished the post of prime minister, a move that made the president both

2077: 2003: 1830: 1786: 1716: 468: 430: 47: 1798: 1959: 1866: 905:, a situation that caused resentment among the regular military, Comoran citizens, and other African states. 623: 1871: 1845: 1740: 966: 934:, were sentenced to life imprisonment at hard labor. Most of the prisoners were released in 1986 following 990:. The GP was widely understood to be funded by South Africa, at the rate of about US$ 3 million per year. 767:

In February 1982, the Comoros became a one-party state. The government designated Abdallah's newly formed

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Following a few days of provisional government, the two men who had financed the coup, former president

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to a six-year term as president of what was now known as the Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros.

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The continued presence of the mercenaries impeded Abdallah's early efforts to stabilize the Comoros.

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and installed themselves as joint presidents. Soon after, Abdallah was named sole executive.

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with Mahoré), while reserving strong executive powers for the president. It also restored

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proclaimed the Comoros' independence on 5 September 1975 and became its first president.

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Making the most of the Comoros' new presidential system, Abdallah induced the nation's

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program, were brokered and managed by guard officers at the mercenaries' insistence.

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Throughout the 1980s, export earnings from the Comoros' four main cash crops—

914: 800: 791:, winning more than 99 percent of the vote as the sole candidate. During the 787:. Abdallah himself was elected to a second six-year term as head of state in 642: 576: 312: 228: 1664: 894: 865:, agreed to join the commission considering revisions to the constitution. 808: 703: 556: 520: 1129:, who as chief of the Supreme Court had succeeded Abdallah, and installed 698:, and to expand the Comoros' contacts in the Islamic world with visits to 1691:

Les Comores d'Ahmed Abdallah: mercenaires, révolutionnaires et cœlacanthe

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in late 1983, six of the mercenaries gave testimony discrediting Kemal.

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earnings were supplemented with increasing infusions of foreign aid.

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and as a staging area for the shipment of arms to rightist rebels in

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and related organs, and regional financial institutions such as the

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on revisions to the constitution was scheduled for 4 November 1989.

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with France to allow its navy full use of Comoran port facilities.

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the relationship of the PG with the local Comorians became worse.

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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

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Abdallah consolidated power, beginning with the writing of a new

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linking each island's coastal settlements, and the building of

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assistance of Denard, who continued to visit the Comoros.

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Assembly in March 1987, the GP—which had become known as

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held on 1 October 1978. Later in the month Abdallah was

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to help overthrow the Abdallah government. Arrested in

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Abdallah's firm, whose co-owners included Denard and

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experimental farm, housing, road construction, and a

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mercenaries, mostly comrades of Denard's in the post-

823:altogether in another reshuffle four months later. 594: 994:Comoros as client state: the economics of Abdallah 858:Union pour une République Démocratique aux Comores 1711:. Editions L'Harmattan. March 1996. p. 592. 2150: 1688: 1084: 1059:International Fund for Agricultural Development 965:The GP officers, sympathetic to South Africa's 853:Union for a Democratic Republic in the Comoros 807:. The amendment also diminished the status of 1741: 741:). In 1980 the Comoran ambassador to France, 496: 1027:Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa 48:introducing citations to additional sources 1125:regular army, ousted provisional president 626:(OAU) revoked the Comoros' OAU membership, 1748: 1734: 503: 489: 173: 1646:Indian Ocean : five island countries 1619: 1617: 1615: 1613: 1568: 1566: 1564: 1519: 1517: 1515: 1513: 1468: 1423: 1421: 763:The undermining of the political process 38:Relevant discussion may be found on the 1611: 1609: 1607: 1605: 1603: 1601: 1599: 1597: 1595: 1593: 1562: 1560: 1558: 1556: 1554: 1552: 1550: 1548: 1546: 1544: 1511: 1509: 1507: 1505: 1503: 1501: 1499: 1497: 1495: 1493: 1466: 1464: 1462: 1460: 1458: 1456: 1454: 1452: 1450: 1448: 1419: 1417: 1415: 1413: 1411: 1409: 1407: 1405: 1403: 1401: 1376: 1374: 1329: 1327: 1325: 1323: 1278: 1276: 1231: 1229: 1227: 1225: 1223: 1221: 117:Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros 59:"History of the Comoros" 1978–1989 2151: 1372: 1370: 1368: 1366: 1364: 1362: 1360: 1358: 1356: 1354: 1321: 1319: 1317: 1315: 1313: 1311: 1309: 1307: 1305: 1303: 1274: 1272: 1270: 1268: 1266: 1264: 1262: 1260: 1258: 1256: 1219: 1217: 1215: 1213: 1211: 1209: 1207: 1205: 1203: 1201: 1176: 1174: 1172: 1170: 1168: 1166: 1164: 1162: 1160: 630:severed diplomatic relations, and the 437:Colonial governors of the Comoros 1729: 1755: 1639: 1623: 1590: 1584: 1572: 1541: 1535: 1523: 1490: 1484: 1472: 1445: 1439: 1427: 1398: 1392: 1380: 1345: 1333: 1294: 1282: 1247: 1235: 1192: 1180: 747:National Committee for Public Safety 15: 1709:Espace et pouvoirs en Grande Comore 1351: 1300: 1253: 1198: 1157: 523:, located off the eastern coast of 13: 1693:. KARTHALA Editions. p. 189. 1682: 982:for intelligence gathering in the 715:United National Front of Comorians 14: 2180: 883: 839:(Garde Presidentelle—GP) and the 179:Location of the Comoros (circled) 2159:History of the Comoros by period 1844: 1669: 773:Union Comorienne pour le Progrès 724:Front National Uni des Komoriens 595:Beginning of the Abdallah regime 419: 364: 339: 145: 131: 31:relies largely or entirely on a 20: 2169:Contemporary history by country 1578: 1529: 1478: 1433: 1386: 956:Établissements Abdallah et Fils 897:conflicts that accompanied the 752:Comité National de Salut Public 1633: 1339: 1288: 1241: 1186: 805:head of the elected government 1: 1145: 1049:underused for years to come. 624:Organisation of African Unity 1150: 1085:The demise of Abdallah, 1989 775:, or UCP) as the republic's 7: 2164:20th century in the Comoros 1092:International Monetary Fund 851:, leader of the opposition 793:National Assembly elections 769:Comorian Union for Progress 519:is an island nation in the 431:Sultans on the Comoros 10: 2185: 1142:in the death of Abdallah. 2115: 2043: 2036: 1986: 1977: 1908: 1899: 1862: 1853: 1842: 1767: 1055:European Development Fund 569:African National Congress 380: 318: 306: 302: 290: 278: 266: 254: 250: 240: 222: 210: 202: 194: 184: 172: 161: 127: 122: 115: 1826:2008 invasion of Anjouan 1804:Territory of the Comoros 1689:Alain Deschamps (2005). 1037:, construction of paved 1031:African Development Bank 817:Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim 461:2008 invasion of Anjouan 443:Territory of the Comoros 285:Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim 198:French, Comorian, Arabic 195:Official languages 1792:Slavery in the Comoros 392:Former African country 936:Amnesty International 932:Mustapha Said Cheikh 903:Comoran Armed Forces 785:Ministry of Interior 781:March 1982 elections 777:sole political party 347:State of the Comoros 44:improve this article 1587:, pp. 163–164. 1538:, pp. 162–163. 1487:, pp. 161–162. 1442:, pp. 160–161. 1395:, pp. 159–160. 1348:, pp. 158–159. 1297:, pp. 157–158. 1250:, pp. 156–157. 1195:, pp. 154–156. 1131:Mohamed Said Djohar 1070:Kalfane and Company 730:Union des Komoriens 677:for the prisoners. 584:François Mitterrand 547:In 1978, president 273:Said Mohamed Djohar 167:Udzima wa ya Masiwa 2009:Telecommunications 1809:Colonial governors 1641:Metz, Helen Chapin 984:Mozambique Channel 976:medical evacuation 924:Front Démocratique 837:Presidential Guard 719:Union of Comorians 683:European Community 531:first established 139:Flag (1978 - 1992) 2146: 2145: 2111: 2110: 2032: 2031: 1973: 1972: 1950:Political parties 1923:Foreign relations 1895: 1894: 849:Mouzaoir Abdallah 670:National Assembly 513: 512: 390: 389: 376: 375: 372: 371: 352: 351: 292:• 1999-2001 280:• 1996-1998 268:• 1989-1996 256:• 1978-1989 109: 108: 94: 2176: 2131: 2124: 2041: 2040: 1999: 1984: 1983: 1906: 1905: 1860: 1859: 1848: 1821:Operation Azalee 1750: 1743: 1736: 1727: 1726: 1722: 1704: 1673: 1672: 1668: 1627: 1621: 1588: 1582: 1576: 1570: 1539: 1533: 1527: 1521: 1488: 1482: 1476: 1470: 1443: 1437: 1431: 1425: 1396: 1390: 1384: 1378: 1349: 1343: 1337: 1331: 1298: 1292: 1286: 1280: 1251: 1245: 1239: 1233: 1196: 1190: 1184: 1178: 920:Democratic Front 841:Comoran military 505: 498: 491: 455:Operation Azalee 423: 413: 395: 394: 368: 367: 356: 355: 343: 342: 336: 335: 320: 319: 235:Islamic Republic 177: 149: 135: 113: 112: 104: 101: 95: 93: 52: 24: 16: 2184: 2183: 2179: 2178: 2177: 2175: 2174: 2173: 2149: 2148: 2147: 2142: 2134: 2127: 2120: 2107: 2028: 1997: 1969: 1940:Law enforcement 1891: 1849: 1840: 1763: 1754: 1719: 1707: 1701: 1685: 1683:Further reading 1670: 1657: 1636: 1631: 1630: 1622: 1591: 1583: 1579: 1571: 1542: 1534: 1530: 1522: 1491: 1483: 1479: 1471: 1446: 1438: 1434: 1426: 1399: 1391: 1387: 1379: 1352: 1344: 1340: 1332: 1301: 1293: 1289: 1281: 1254: 1246: 1242: 1234: 1199: 1191: 1187: 1179: 1158: 1153: 1148: 1127:Haribon Chebani 1087: 996: 940:Comoran vanilla 886: 765: 597: 509: 478: 449:Abdallah regime 411: 404: 393: 365: 340: 297:Azali Assoumani 293: 281: 269: 257: 180: 157: 156: 155: 150: 142: 141: 136: 118: 105: 99: 96: 53: 51: 37: 25: 12: 11: 5: 2182: 2172: 2171: 2166: 2161: 2144: 2143: 2141: 2140: 2133: 2132: 2125: 2117: 2116: 2113: 2112: 2109: 2108: 2106: 2105: 2100: 2095: 2090: 2085: 2080: 2075: 2070: 2065: 2060: 2055: 2050: 2044: 2038: 2034: 2033: 2030: 2029: 2027: 2026: 2021: 2016: 2011: 2006: 2001: 1993: 1987: 1981: 1975: 1974: 1971: 1970: 1968: 1967: 1965:Prime Minister 1962: 1960:Vice-President 1957: 1952: 1947: 1942: 1937: 1936: 1935: 1925: 1920: 1915: 1909: 1903: 1897: 1896: 1893: 1892: 1890: 1889: 1884: 1879: 1874: 1869: 1863: 1857: 1851: 1850: 1843: 1841: 1839: 1838: 1833: 1828: 1823: 1818: 1813: 1812: 1811: 1801: 1799:French Comoros 1796: 1795: 1794: 1784: 1779: 1773: 1771: 1765: 1764: 1753: 1752: 1745: 1738: 1730: 1724: 1723: 1717: 1705: 1699: 1684: 1681: 1680: 1679: 1655: 1643:, ed. (1995). 1635: 1632: 1629: 1628: 1626:, p. 164. 1589: 1577: 1575:, p. 163. 1540: 1528: 1526:, p. 162. 1489: 1477: 1475:, p. 161. 1444: 1432: 1430:, p. 160. 1397: 1385: 1383:, p. 159. 1350: 1338: 1336:, p. 158. 1299: 1287: 1285:, p. 157. 1252: 1240: 1238:, p. 156. 1197: 1185: 1183:, p. 154. 1155: 1154: 1152: 1149: 1147: 1144: 1115:Beit el Salama 1086: 1083: 1043:power stations 995: 992: 899:decolonization 885: 884:Mercenary rule 882: 870:Said Ali Kemal 789:September 1984 764: 761: 743:Said Ali Kemal 651:state religion 632:United Nations 611:from exile in 607:, returned to 601:Ahmed Abdallah 596: 593: 542:Ahmed Abdallah 511: 510: 508: 507: 500: 493: 485: 482: 481: 480: 479: 477: 476: 471: 465: 463: 458: 452: 446: 440: 434: 425: 424: 416: 415: 406: 405: 398: 391: 388: 387: 382: 378: 377: 374: 373: 370: 369: 362: 353: 350: 349: 344: 332: 331: 326: 316: 315: 310: 304: 303: 300: 299: 294: 291: 288: 287: 282: 279: 276: 275: 270: 267: 264: 263: 261:Ahmed Abdallah 258: 255: 252: 251: 248: 247: 244: 238: 237: 226: 220: 219: 214: 208: 207: 204: 200: 199: 196: 192: 191: 186: 182: 181: 178: 170: 169: 159: 158: 151: 144: 143: 137: 130: 129: 128: 125: 124: 120: 119: 116: 107: 106: 42:. 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Guebourg. 1634:Works cited 1011:ylang-ylang 911:les affreux 874:mercenaries 863:Said Hachim 675:due process 451:(1978–1989) 445:(1946–1975) 439:(1841–1975) 433:(1676–1912) 412:the Comoros 410:History of 324:Preceded by 123:1978 - 2001 2153:Categories 2048:Corruption 1998:(currency) 1718:2296314481 1146:References 1039:ring roads 1023:World Bank 988:Mozambique 829:referendum 655:referendum 628:Madagascar 620:Bob Denard 553:Bob Denard 549:Ali Soilih 224:Government 212:Demonym(s) 70:newspapers 2083:Languages 2063:Education 2024:Transport 1955:President 1918:Elections 1882:Volcanoes 1855:Geography 1816:1979–1989 1624:Metz 1995 1585:Metz 1995 1573:Metz 1995 1536:Metz 1995 1524:Metz 1995 1485:Metz 1995 1473:Metz 1995 1440:Metz 1995 1428:Metz 1995 1393:Metz 1995 1381:Metz 1995 1346:Metz 1995 1334:Metz 1995 1295:Metz 1995 1283:Metz 1995 1248:Metz 1995 1236:Metz 1995 1193:Metz 1995 1181:Metz 1995 1151:Footnotes 1074:Pakistani 1035:Mutsamudu 1000:cash crop 967:apartheid 878:Australia 571:bases in 559:(SA) and 242:President 203:Religion 40:talk page 2138:Category 2103:Religion 2098:Olympics 2078:Holidays 1945:Military 1901:Politics 1887:Wildlife 1761:articles 1665:32508646 1139:Pretoria 1100:Njazidja 1057:and the 1029:and the 706:states. 702:and the 696:Tanzania 565:Zimbabwe 561:Rhodesia 533:colonial 401:a series 399:Part of 217:Comorian 2122:Outline 2053:Culture 2037:Society 2014:Tourism 1979:Economy 1877:Regions 1872:Climate 1787:Sultans 1782:Shirazi 1769:History 1757:Comoros 1063:tariffs 1007:vanilla 972:hectare 960:Sogecom 692:Nigeria 659:elected 649:as the 538:Mayotte 517:Comoros 385:Comoros 360:Comoros 229:Federal 185:Capital 163:Anthem: 84:scholar 2073:Health 2004:Mining 1996:Franc 1867:Cities 1759: 1715: 1697: 1663: 1653: 1108:Moroni 1104:Nzwani 1017:, and 1015:cloves 739:Unikom 694:, and 609:Moroni 573:Lusaka 529:France 525:Africa 457:(1995) 403:on the 246: 189:Moroni 165: 86: 79: 72: 65: 57: 2129:Index 2093:Music 2088:Media 1836:Coups 1777:Bantu 1019:copra 948:Egypt 733:, or 700:Libya 688:China 686:with 647:Islam 613:Paris 563:(now 474:Coups 206:Islam 91:JSTOR 77:books 2068:Flag 1933:LGBT 1831:Wars 1713:ISBN 1695:ISBN 1661:OCLC 1651:ISBN 1072:, a 970:525- 803:and 735:FNUK 575:and 515:The 469:Wars 63:news 737:or 46:by 2155:: 1659:. 1592:^ 1543:^ 1492:^ 1447:^ 1400:^ 1353:^ 1302:^ 1255:^ 1200:^ 1159:^ 1013:, 1009:, 942:. 690:, 527:. 313:KM 1749:e 1742:t 1735:v 1703:. 1678:. 1667:. 922:( 855:( 771:( 749:( 727:– 721:( 717:– 504:e 497:t 490:v 102:) 98:( 88:· 81:· 74:· 67:· 50:. 36:.

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