History of Somalia

1240: 23: 4393: 1668:"The only seaports of importance on this coast are Feyla and Berbera; the former is an Arabian colony, dependent of Mocha, but Berbera is independent of any foreign power. It is, without having the name, the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf. From the beginning of November to the end of April, a large fair assembles in Berbera, and caravans of 6,000 camels at a time come from the interior loaded with coffee, (considered superior to Mocha in Bombay), gum, ivory, hides, skins, grain, cattle, and sour milk, the substitute of fermented drinks in these regions; also much cattle is brought there for the Aden market." 3198: 3259:

Although, in the 1950s, British colonial officials attempted, through various administrative development efforts, to make up for past neglect, the protectorate stagnated. The disparity between the two territories in economic development and political experience would cause serious difficulties when it came time to integrate the two parts. Britain included the proviso that the Somali nomads would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over them. This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to buy back the Somali lands it had turned over. Britain also granted administration of the almost exclusively Somali-inhabited

4276:, Prime Minister Mohamed named a new Cabinet on 12 November 2010, which has been lauded by the international community. As had been expected, the allotted ministerial positions were significantly reduced in numbers, with only 18 administrative posts unveiled versus the previous government's bloated 39 portfolios. Only two Ministers from the previous Cabinet were reappointed: Hussein Abdi Halane, the former Minister of Finance and a well-regarded figure in the international community, was put in charge of a consolidated Ministry of Finance and Treasury; and Dr. Mohamud Abdi Ibrahim was reassigned to the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. 4378: 3186: 1182:

heartland. However, Jamal on hearing of Yeshaq's plan to send several large armies to attack three different areas of Adal (including the capital), returned to Adal, where he fought the Solomonic forces at Harjai and, according to al-Maqrizi, this is where the Emperor Yeshaq died in battle. The young Sultan Jamal ad-Din II at the end of his reign had outperformed his brothers and forefathers in the war arena and became the most successful ruler of Adal to date. Within a few years, however, Jamal was assassinated by either disloyal friends or cousins around 1432 or 1433, and was succeeded by his brother

3590: 3550: 2871:(El Buur), Galkayo, and the territory between were completely overrun within a month. Hobyo was transformed from a sultanate into an administrative region. Sultan Yusuf Ali surrendered. Nevertheless, soon suspicions were aroused as Trivulzio, the Hobyo commissioner, reported movement of armed men towards the borders of the sultanate before the takeover and after. Before the Italians could concentrate on the Majeerteen, they were diverted by new setbacks. On 9 November, the Italian fear was realized when a mutiny, led by one of the military chiefs of Sultan Ali Yusuf, 2851: 4118:, regrouped to continue their insurgency against the TFG and oppose the Ethiopian military's presence in Somalia. Throughout 2007 and 2008, Al-Shabaab scored military victories, seizing control of key towns and ports in both central and southern Somalia. At the end of 2008, the group had captured Baidoa but not Mogadishu. By January 2009, Al-Shabaab and other militias had managed to force the Ethiopian troops to retreat, leaving behind an under-equipped African Union peacekeeping force to assist the Transitional Federal Government's troops. 3220: 3636:, then Vice President, subsequently served as de facto head of state for the next several months. Although Barre managed to recover enough to present himself as the sole presidential candidate for re-election over a term of seven years on 23 December 1986, his poor health and advanced age led to speculation about who would succeed him in power. Possible contenders included his son-in-law General Ahmed Suleiman Abdille, who was at the time the Minister of the Interior, in addition to Barre's Vice President Lt. Gen. Samatar. 2489: 3577:(70 per cent destroyed) respectively, and had caused up to 500,000 Somalis (primarily of the Isaaq clan) to flee their land and cross the border to Hartasheikh in Ethiopia as refugees, in what was described as "one of the fastest and largest forced movements of people recorded in Africa", and resulted in the creation of the world's largest refugee camp then (1988), with another 400,000 being displaced. The scale of destruction led to Hargeisa being known as the 'Dresden of Africa'. The killings happened during the 2955:, at the heart of the Majeerteen. Hersi Boqor unsuccessfully attacked and challenged the Italians at Iskushuban. To demoralise the resistance, ships were ordered to target and bombard the sultanate's coastal towns and villages. In the interior, the Italian troops confiscated livestock. By the end of the 1927, the Italians had taken full control of the sultanate. Hersi Boqor and his troops retreated to Ethiopia in order to rebuild their forces, but were unable to retake their territories, effectively ending the 3271: 3162: 2816:(Majeerteen) depended on sea traffic, therefore, if this were blocked, any resistance that could be mounted after the invasion of the sultanate would be minimal. As the first stage of the invasion plan, Governor De Vecchi ordered the two Sultanates to disarm. The reaction of both sultanates was to object, as they felt the policy was in breach of the protectorate agreements. The pressure engendered by the new development forced the two rival sultanates to settle their differences over possession of 1562:. During this expedition he briefly attacked Mogadishu, capturing an Ottoman ship and firing upon the city, which compelled the sultan of Mogadishu to sign a peace treaty with the Portuguese. Sailing on to Barawa, João de Sepúvelda again sacked that city and secured a new peace from it. Ottoman-Somali cooperation against the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean reached a high point in the 1580s when Ajuran clients of the Somali coastal cities began to sympathize with the Arabs and Swahilis under 4289:

Independent Constitutional Commission were also appointed to engage Somali constitutional lawyers, religious scholars and experts in Somali culture over the nation's upcoming new constitution, a key part of the government's Transitional Federal Tasks. In addition, high level federal delegations were dispatched to defuse clan-related tensions in several regions. According to the prime minister of Somalia, to improve transparency, Cabinet ministers fully disclosed their assets and signed a

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all travel by ministers now require the Premier's consent. A budget outlining 2011's federal expenditures was also put before and approved by members of parliament, with the payment of civil service employees prioritized. In addition, a full audit of government property and vehicles is being put into place. On the war front, the new government and its AMISOM allies also managed to secure control of 60% of Mogadishu, where 80% of the capital's population now lives. According to the

3174: 3150: 2359: 1677: 4758: 10290: 1068: 10300: 2968: 5004: 1026: 2658: 2947:(Eil), which until then had remained in the hands of Hersi Boqor. In response to the unyielding situation, Italy called for reinforcements from their other colonies, notably Eritrea. With their arrival at the closing of 1926, the Italians began to move into the interior where they had not been able to venture since their first seizure of the coastal towns. Their attempt to capture Dharoor Valley was resisted, and ended in failure. 4253: 1158: 3138: 4172: 2923: 9431: 2786: 5018: 1174:, Yedeya and Jazja. Emperor Yeshaq I responded by gathering a large army and invaded the cities of Yedeya and Jazja but was repulsed by the soldiers of Jamal. Following this success, Jamal organized another successful attack against the Solomonic forces and inflicted heavy casualties in what was reportedly the largest Adalite army ever fielded. As a result, Yeshaq was forced to withdraw towards the 4428:'s seaport and airport will also be transferred to the Federal Government after a period of six months, and revenues and resources generated from these infrastructures will be earmarked for Jubaland's service delivery and security sectors as well as local institutional development. Additionally, the agreement includes the integration of Jubaland's military forces under the central command of the 759: 1228:. During this time, period warfare broke out again between the two states and Emperor Eskender invaded Dakkar, where he was stopped by a large Adalite army, which destroyed the Solomonic army to such an extent that no further expeditions were carried out for the remainder of Eskender's reign. Adal, however, continued to raid the Christian empire unabated under the leadership of General 2624:. He soon acquired weapons from the Ottoman Empire, Sudan, and other sympathetic Muslim countries, and appointed ministers and advisers to administer different areas or sectors of Somalia. In addition, Hassan gave a clarion call for Somali unity and independence, in the process organizing his follower-warriors. His Dervish movement had an essentially military character, and the 3691: 1377: 934: 2573:. The resistance was spearheaded by Sheikh Abdi Gafle and Ma’alin Mursal Abdi Yusuf; two prominent local Islamic teachers in Marka from the Bimal clan. The resistance, albeit clan-based initially transformed into one with a religious fervour, mainly Bimal, (but also later on some of the Wa’dan, Hintire and other clans of the Geledi confederation joined). 2915:

government to revoke their policy, Boqor Osman tried to open a dialogue. However, he failed, and again fighting broke out between the two parties. Following this disturbance, on 7 October, the Governor instructed Coronaro to order the Sultan to surrender; to intimidate the people he ordered the seizure of all merchant boats in the Alula area. At

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them from receiving arms and ammunition through it. It was only early 1927 when they finally succeeded in shutting the northern coast of the sultanate, thus cutting arms and ammunition supplies for the Majeerteen. By this time, the balance had tilted to the Italians' side, and in January 1927 they began to attack with a massive force, capturing

2875:, recaptured El Buur. Soon the rebellion expanded to the local population. The region went into revolt as El-Dheere also came under the control of Omar Samatar. The Italian forces tried to recapture El Buur, but they were repulsed. On 15 November, the Italians retreated to Bud Bud and on the way they were ambushed and suffered heavy casualties. 3569:. The number of civilian deaths in this massacre is estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000 according to various sources, whilst local reports estimate the total civilian deaths to be upwards of 200,000 Isaaq civilians. This genocide also included the levelling and complete destruction of the second and third largest cities in Somalia, 1582:. However, the Portuguese governor sent envoys to India requesting a large Portuguese fleet. This request was answered and it reversed the previous offensive of the Muslims into one of defense. The Portuguese armada managed to re-take most of the lost cities and began punishing their leaders, but they refrained from attacking Mogadishu. 4133:. In his speech, which was broadcast on national radio, Yusuf expressed regret at failing to end the country's seventeen-year conflict as his government had mandated to do. He also blamed the international community for its failure to support the government, and said that the speaker of parliament would succeed him in office per the 3478: 1154:, Sultan Mansur destroyed a Solomonic army and killed the Emperor. He then advanced to the mountains of Mokha, where he encountered a 30,000 strong Solomonic army. The Adalite soldiers surrounded their enemies and for two months besieged the trapped Solomonic soldiers until a truce was declared in Mansur's favour. 1138:. Despite his army's smaller size, he was able to defeat the Solomonids at the battles of Serjan and Zikr Amhara and consequently pillaged the surrounding areas. Many similar battles were fought between the Adalites and the Solomonids with both sides achieving victory and suffering defeat but ultimately 4503:

When President Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed's term expired in February 2021, dates had not been set for the election of a successor, and fighting subsequently broke out in Mogadishu. This fighting continued until May 2021, when the government and opposition agreed to hold elections within 60 days; after

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De Vecchi had to reassess his plans as he was being humiliated on many fronts. After one year of exerting full force he could not yet manage to gain a result over the sultanate. In spite of the fact that the Italian navy sealed the sultanate's main coastal entrance, they could not succeed in stopping

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with an ultimatum to disarm and surrender. Meanwhile, Italian troops began to pour into the sultanate in anticipation of this operation. While landing at Haafuun and Alula, the sultanate's troops opened fire on them. Fierce fighting ensued and to avoid escalating the conflict and to press the fascist

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Commissioner, E. Coronaro received orders in April 1924 to carry out a reconnaissance on the territories targeted for invasion. In spite of the 40-year Italian relationship with the sultanates, Italy did not have adequate knowledge of the geography. During this time, the Stefanini-Puccioni geological

2609:" alluding to Sultan Nur's incident with the Roman French Mission at Berbera. The Dervish soon emerged as an opposition of the Christian activities, defending their version of Islam against the Christian mission. In several of his poems and speeches, Hassan insisted that the British and the Christian 2477: 1118:

in Zeila and had him executed. The Walashma Chronicle, however, records the date as 1415, which would make the Ethiopian victor Emperor Yeshaq I. After the war, the reigning king had his minstrels compose a song praising his victory, which contains the first written record of the word "Somali". Sa'ad

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On 19 June 2011, Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed resigned from his position as Prime Minister of Somalia. Part of the controversial Kampala Accord's conditions, the agreement would also see the mandates of the President, the Parliament Speaker and Deputies extended until August 2012, after which point new

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The shari'a courts, though structured along simple lines, feature a conventional hierarchy of a chairman, vice-chairman and four judges. A police force that reports to the court enforces the judges' rulings, but also helps settle community disputes and apprehend suspected criminals. In addition, the

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to press for his surrender. Under siege already, Boqor Osman was playing for time. However, on 23 October, Boqor Osman sent an angry response to the Governor defying his order. Following this a full-scale attack was ordered in November. Baargaal was bombarded and destroyed to the ground. This region

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While the situation remained perplexing, De Vecchi moved the deposed sultan to Mogadishu. Fascist Italy was poised to re-conquer the sultanate by whatever means. To maneuver the situation within Hobyo, they even contemplated the idea of reinstating Ali Yusuf. However, the idea was dropped after they

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meaning "left-handed"), invaded Abyssinia. Adalite armies marched into Ethiopia and caused considerable damage on the highland state. Many historic churches, manuscripts and settlements were looted and burned during the campaigns. Ahmad’s remarkable martial skill allowed the conquest of the entirety

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An Anti-Corruption Commission with the power to carry out formal investigations and to review government decisions and protocols was also established so as to more closely monitor all activities by public officials. Furthermore, unnecessary trips abroad by members of government were prohibited, and

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that made it difficult to re-establish a national security force, and general indifference on the part of the international community, President Yusuf found himself obliged to deploy thousands of troops from Puntland to Mogadishu to sustain the battle against insurgent elements in the southern part

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was ethnically compact, and was out of range of direct action by the fascist government of Muqdisho. The attempt of the colonizers to suppress the region erupted into explosive confrontation. The Italians were meeting fierce resistance on many fronts. In December 1925, led by the charismatic leader

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To undermine the resistance, however, and before the Eritrean reinforcement could arrive, De Vecchi began to instill distrust among the local people by buying the loyalty of some of them. In fact, these tactics had better results than the military campaign had, and the resistance began gradually to

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utilizing canons and Somali Musketeers. He deposed and imprisoned the port town's Arab ruler and succeeded him as the undisputed ruler of Zeila and its dependencies. Sharmarke's governorship had an instant effect on the city, as he maneuvered to monopolize as much of the regional trade as possible,

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To the extent that Italy held the territory by UN mandate, the trusteeship provisions gave the Somalis the opportunity to gain experience in political education and self-government. These were advantages that British Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the new Somali state, did not have.

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when Italy had been defeated by Abyssinia. Furthermore, in the Colonial Ministry in Rome, senior officials distrusted the Governor's ability to deal with the matter. Rome instructed De Vecchi that he was to receive the reinforcement from Eritrea, but that the commander of the two battalions was to

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While a third attempt was in the last stages of preparation, the operation's commander, Lieutenant-Colonel Splendorelli, was ambushed between Bud Bud and Buula Barde. He and some of his staff were killed. As a consequence of the death of the commander of the operations and the effect of two failed

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in league with the British were bent upon plundering the political and religious freedom of the Somali nation. He soon emerged as "a champion of his country's political and religious freedom, defending it against all Christian invaders." Hassan issued a religious ordinance that any Somali national

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The Sultanate of Mogadishu's first dynasty was established by Abubakr bin Fakhr ad-Din. This ruling house was succeeded by different dynasties like the Qahtani, Hilwaani and eventually the Muzaffar dynasty and remained a powerful regional trading city-state, being the first to make use of the gold

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As a truce, in March 2009, Somalia's coalition government announced that it would re-implement Shari'a as the nation's official judicial system. However, conflict continued in the southern and central parts of the country. Within months, the coalition government had gone from holding about 70% of

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to organize upcoming elections and suggested that a new committee should be formed to oversee them. This prompted Roble to accuse Mohamed of sabotaging the electoral process on 26 December 2021. On 27 December, Mohamed announced that he was suspending Roble over alleged obstruction of corruption

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Following the outbreak of the civil war and the ensuing collapse of the central government, Somalia's residents reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either secular, traditional or Islamic law, with a provision for appeal of all sentences. The legal structure in Somalia is thus divided

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was fashioned on the model of a Salihiya brotherhood. It was characterized by a rigid hierarchy and centralization. Hassan threatened to drive the Christians into the sea; he committed the first attack by launching his first major military offensive with his 1,500 Dervish equipped with 20 modern

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and family matters. This changed after the start of the civil war when a number of new shari'a courts began to spring up in many different cities and towns across the country. These new shari'a courts serve three functions; namely, to pass rulings in both criminal and civil cases, to organize a

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world. The Romans and Greeks believed the source of cinnamon to have been the Somali peninsula, but in reality, the highly valued product was brought to Somalia by way of Indian ships. Through collusive agreement by Somali and Gulf Arab traders, Indian/Chinese cinnamon was also exported for far

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By that time, Barre's government had become increasingly unpopular. Many Somalis had become disillusioned with life under military dictatorship. The regime was weakened further in the 1980s as the Cold War drew to a close and Somalia's strategic importance was diminished. The government became

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In northern and southern Somalia, the Gerad Dynasty conducted trade with Yemen and Persia and competed with the merchants of the Bari Dynasty. The Gerads and the Bari Sultans built impressive palaces, castles and fortresses and had close relations with many different empires in the Near East.

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After returning home, Jamal sent his brother Ahmad with the Christian battle-expert Harb Jaush to successfully attack the province of Dawaro. Despite his losses, Emperor Yeshaq was still able to continue field armies against Jamal. Sultan Jamal continued to advance further into the Abyssinian

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In its first 50 days in office, Prime Minister Mohamed's new administration completed its first monthly payment of stipends to government soldiers, and initiated the implementation of a full biometric register for the security forces within a window of four months. Additional members of the

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the official state ideology with the official state religion by adapting Marxist precepts to local circumstances. Emphasis was placed on the Muslim principles of social progress, equality and justice, which the government argued formed the core of scientific socialism and its own accent on

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shari'a or religious law, although in practice shari'a is applied mainly to matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, and civil issues. The charter guarantees respect for universal standards of human rights to all subjects of the law. It also assures the independence of the

1283:– and, although a diplomatic mission from Portugal, led by Rodrigo de Lima, had failed to improve relations between the countries, they responded to the Ethiopian pleas for help and sent a military expedition to their fellow Christians. A Portuguese fleet under the command of 3943:, and sanctions for eloping; d) rules pertaining to the management of resources such as the use of pasture land, water, and other natural resources; e) providing financial support to married female relatives and newlyweds; f) donating livestock and other assets to the poor. 4327:

As part of the official "Roadmap for the End of Transition", a political process which provided clear benchmarks leading toward the formation of permanent democratic institutions in Somalia, the Transitional Federal Government's interim mandate ended on 20 August 2012. The

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relations by treating women justly, negotiating with "peace emissaries" in good faith, and sparing the lives of socially protected groups "Birr Magaydo," (e.g. children, women, the pious, poets, messengers, sheikhs, and guests); c) family obligations such as the payment of

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Governor De Vecchi's first plan was to disarm the sultanates. But, before the plan could be carried out, there had to be sufficient Italian troops in both sultanates. To make the enforcement of his plan more viable, he began to reconstitute the old Somali police corps, the

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The Xeer legal system is assumed to have developed exclusively in the Horn of Africa since approximately the 7th century. There is no evidence that it developed elsewhere or was greatly influenced by any foreign legal system. Its legal terminology is practically devoid of

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In the first half of 1940, there were 22,000 Italians living in Somalia and the colony was one of the most developed in East Africa in terms of the standard of living of the colonists and of the Somalis, mainly in the urban areas. More than 10,000 Italians were living in

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in India sailed to Mogadishu with cloths and spices, for which they in return received gold, wax and ivory. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.

3294:) in 1958, on the eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizable 2896:

temporarily assume the military command of the operations and De Vecchi was to stay in Mogadishu and confine himself to other colonial matters. In the case of any military development, the military commander was to report directly to the Chief of Staff in Rome.

538:, when the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished. The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to the 4th millennium BC. The stone implements from the Jalelo site in the north (about halfway between 3613: 570:

component and is believed to have diverged from other "non-African" (Western Eurasian) ancestries at least 23,000 years ago. The "Ethio-Somali" genetic component is prevalent among modern Afroasiatic-speaking populations, and found at its highest levels among

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of the country. Financial support for this effort was provided by the autonomous region's government. This left little revenue for Puntland's own security forces and civil service employees, leaving the territory vulnerable to piracy and terrorist attacks.

1194:. He successfully collected funding from surrounding Muslim kingdoms as far away as the Kingdom of Mogadishu. However, these ambitious plans were thrown out the war chamber when King Badlay died during the invasion of Dawaro. He was succeeded by his son 3726:

Some militias that had seized power after the oust of Barre regime's interpreted the UN troops' presence as a threat to their hegemony. Consequently, several gun battles took place in Mogadishu between local gunmen and peacekeepers. Among these was the

2939:, son of Boqor Osman, the sultanate forces drove the Italians out of Hurdia and Hafun, two strategic coastal towns. Another contingent attacked and destroyed an Italian communications centre at Cape Guardafui, at the tip of the Horn. In retaliation the 3534:

arch-rival, the United States, which had been courting the Somali government for some time. All in all, Somalia's initial friendship with the Soviet Union and later partnership with the United States enabled it to build the largest army in Africa.

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has traditionally played a significant part in Somali society. In theory, it has served as the basis for all national legislation in every Somali constitution. In practice, however, it only applied to common civil cases such as marriage, divorce,

4195:. The conference ended with a signed agreement calling for the withdrawal of Ethiopian troops in exchange for the cessation of armed confrontation. Parliament was subsequently expanded to 550 seats to accommodate ARS members, which then elected 3783:

Despite some significant political differences between them, all of these administrations share similar legal structures, much of which are predicated on the judicial systems of previous Somali administrations. These similarities in civil law

1411:, Persia, Egypt, Portugal and as far away as China. Vasco da Gama, who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century, noted that it was a large city with houses of four or five storeys and big palaces in its centre and many mosques with cylindrical 3627:

In May 1986, President Barre suffered serious injuries in a life-threatening automobile accident near Mogadishu, when the car that was transporting him smashed into the back of a bus during a heavy rainstorm. He was treated in a hospital in

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self-sufficiency, public participation and popular control, as well as direct ownership of the means of production. While the SRSP encouraged private investment on a limited scale, the administration's overall direction was essentially

700:) are evidence of an old sophisticated civilization that once thrived in the Somali peninsula. The findings of archaeological excavations and research in Somalia show that this civilization enjoyed a lucrative trading relationship with 3426:

campaign, which helped dramatically increase the literacy rate. In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the

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and the other heading south into the Horn of Africa. A similar view has already been proposed earlier, suggesting that the ancestors of Afroasiatic speakers could have been a population originating in the Near East that migrated to

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for trade, where most of the goods for export arrived from. During the 1833 trading season, the port town swelled to over 70,000 people, and upwards of 6,000 camels laden with goods arrived from the interior within a single day.

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Later on in the campaign, the Adalites were struck by a catastrophe when Sultan Mansur and his brother Muhammad were captured in battle by the Solomonids. Mansur was immediately succeeded by the youngest brother of the family

8575: 4432:(SNA), and stipulates that the Juba Interim Administration will command the regional police. UN Special Envoy to Somalia Nicholas Kay hailed the pact as "a breakthrough that unlocks the door for a better future for Somalia," 8818: 4249:(Farmajo) was appointed the new Prime Minister of Somalia. The former Premier Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke resigned the month before following a protracted dispute with President Sharif over a proposed draft constitution. 8147: 3302:, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls. The majority of those who voted "no" were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by 1299:, under the command of Cristóvão da Gama, younger brother of Estêvão, marched into the interior. Joined by Ethiopian troops, they were at first successful against the Muslims; but, they were subsequently defeated at the 565:

by an ancestral population(s) carrying a newly identified "non-African" (Western Eurasian) genetic component, which the researchers dub the "Ethio-Somali" component. This genetic component is most closely related to the

1495:, seeking to bypass both the Portuguese blockade and Omani meddling, used the Somali ports of Merca and Barawa (which were out of the two powers' jurisdiction) to conduct their trade in safety and without interference. 4284:

group and an important military ally of the TFG, was also accorded the key Interior and Labour ministries. The remaining ministerial positions were largely assigned to technocrats new to the Somali political arena.

8910: 3993:(TFG), an interim federal administrative body that he had helped establish earlier in the year. He received 189 votes from the TFG Parliament, while the closest contender, erstwhile Somali ambassador to Washington 3529:

regime. By 1978, the Somali troops were ultimately pushed out of the Ogaden. This shift in support by the Soviet Union motivated the Barre government to seek allies elsewhere. It eventually settled on the Soviets'

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The fascist government was surprised by the setback in Hobyo. The whole policy of conquest was collapsing under its nose. The El-Buur episode drastically changed the strategy of Italy as it revived memories of the

6531: 1311:, in return for his promise to avenge Ahmed's death, who succeeded Ahmed Gurey, and continued hostilities against his northern adversaries until he killed the Ethiopian Emperor in his second invasion of Ethiopia. 3719:(UNITAF), the force was tasked with assuring security until humanitarian efforts aimed at stabilizing the situation were transferred to the UN. Landing in 1993, the UN peacekeeping coalition started the two-year 732:, during the reign of the Puntite King Parahu and Queen Ati. One of the main scholarly work on Punt, written from a native Somali standpoint, was by Somali historian Muxamed Ibraahim Muxamed, who wrote the work: 3838:

courts manage detention centers where criminals are kept. An independent finance committee is also assigned the task of collecting and managing tax revenue levied on regional merchants by the local authorities.

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A General Survey of the Somaliland Protectorate 1944-1950: Final Report on "An Economic Survey and Reconnaissance of the British Somaliland Protectorate 1944-1950," Colonial Development and Welfare Scheme D.

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and came after protracted bilateral talks. Under the terms of the agreement, Jubaland will be administered for a two-year period by a Juba Interim Administration and led by the region's incumbent president,

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region, which feature one of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is in the distinctive Ethiopian-Arabian style, dated to 1000 to 3000 BCE. Additionally, between the towns of

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operations intended to overcome the El Buur mutiny, the spirit of Italian troops began to wane. The Governor took the situation seriously and, to prevent any more failure, he requested two battalions from

5531: 3997:, got 79 votes in the third round of voting. The then incumbent President of Somalia, Abdiqasim Salad Hassan, peacefully withdrew his candidature. Ahmed was sworn in a few days later on 14 October 2004. 6557: 911:

and Europe, which made the cinnamon trade a very profitable revenue generator, especially for the Somali merchants through whose hands large quantities were shipped across ancient sea and land routes.

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south-central Somalia's conflict zones, territory which it had inherited from the previous Yusuf administration, to losing control of over 80% of the disputed territory to the Islamist insurgents.

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NEW ISSUES IN REFUGEE RESEARCH Working Paper No. 65 Pastoral society and transnational refugees: population movements in Somaliland and eastern Ethiopia 1988 - 2000 Guido Ambroso, Table 1, pg.5

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authorizing the immediate deployment of the 3,000 troops from Puntland toward the Somali National Army. They also agreed to integrate soldiers from the other regional states into the SNA.

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administration based in southern Somalia. Endorsed by the federal State Minister for the Presidency Farah Abdulkadir on behalf of Hassan, the pact was brokered by the Foreign Ministry of

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with the Ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Indians, Chinese and Romans through their commercial ports. An Ancient Egyptian expedition sent to Punt by the 18th dynasty Queen

372:. The country was an important centre for commerce with the rest of the ancient world, and according to most scholars, it is among the most probable locations of the fabled ancient 8826: 8579: 2867:

By 1 October, De Vecchi's plan was to go into action. The operation to invade Hobyo started in October 1925 . Columns of the new Zaptié began to move towards the sultanate. Hobyo,

640:, the site of numerous cave paintings of real and mythical animals. Each painting has an inscription below it, which collectively have been estimated to be around 2,500 years old. 9151: 2390:

Sharmarke's influence was not limited to the coast as he had many allies in the interior of the Somali country and even further in Abyssinia. Among his allies were the Sultans of

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resistance against Italy. An Italian resident of the city, Giacomo Trevis, was assassinated in 1904. In response Italy occupied the port town of Jazira about 30 miles south of

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With the political situation deteriorating, Barre's long-standing government in 1991 eventually collapsed under the pressure. The national army disbanded shortly afterwards.

515: 3248: 8914: 4374:, President of Somaliland, agreeing to allocate fairly to the Somaliland its portion of the development aid earmarked for Somalia as a whole and to cooperate on security. 3815:

the laws of the civilian government which were in effect prior to the military coup d'état that saw the Barre regime into power remain in force until the laws are amended.

6535: 8269: 4481:

regional administrations, respectively. Under the rubric of the New Deal for Somalia, Hassan held additional national reconciliation talks with the regional leaders in

3415:. Kediye officially held the title of "Father of the Revolution," and Barre shortly afterwards became the head of the SRC. The SRC subsequently renamed the country the 2453:

succeeded him and was one of the most important figures in 19th-century East Africa. He managed to gather 20 thousand Somali troops, invaded and captured the island of

2597:

in 1899. Whether Sultan Nur experienced the incident first hand or whether he was told of it is not clear but what is known is that he propagated the incident in the

8796: 7724: 9268: 7630: 3252: 2907:

On the military front, Italian troops finally overran El Buur on 26 December 1925, and the forces of Omar Samatar were compelled to retreat to Western Somaliland.

579:. On this basis, the researchers suggest that the original Ethio-Somali carrying population(s) probably arrived in the pre-agricultural period (12–23 ka) from the 5535: 5493:

My prediction is that Africa will turn out to be the cradle of Afroasiatic, though the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic were a reflux population from Southwest Asia.

2758:. The dawn of fascism in the early 1920s heralded a change of strategy for Italy, as the north-eastern sultanates were soon to be forced within the boundaries of 8463: 3306:, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later. Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977, and 2910:

By neutralising Hobyo, the fascists could concentrate on the Majeerteen. In early October 1924, E. Coronaro, the new Alula commissioner, presented Boqor (king)

7487:

Mburu, Chris; Rights, United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human; Office, United Nations Development Programme Somalia Country (1 January 2002).

7408:

Ingiriis, Mohamed Haji (2 July 2016). ""We Swallowed the State as the State Swallowed Us": The Genesis, Genealogies, and Geographies of Genocides in Somalia".

6565: 6278:

Chinese Porcelain Marks from Coastal Sites in Kenya: aspects of trade in the Indian Ocean, XIV-XIX centuries. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1978 p. 2

5208: 3505:. In the first week of the conflict, Somali armed forces seized the southern and central parts of the Ogaden. The units in the Godey Front were led by Colonel 1303:(28 August 1542), and their commander captured and executed. On 21 February 1543, however, a joint Portuguese-Ethiopian force defeated the Muslim army at the 3283: 546:) were also characterized in 1909 as important artefacts demonstrating the archaeological universality during the Paleolithic between the East and the West. 3525:, a massive unprecedented Soviet intervention consisting of 20,000 Cuban forces and several thousand Soviet experts came to the aid of Ethiopia's communist 9174: 7757: 3605:

A new constitution was promulgated in 1979 under which elections for a People's Assembly were held. However, Barre's Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party

8170: 4273: 4134: 401: 8988: 8888: 6495: 4519:

accusations described obstructing the elections, as the outgoing president had plunged the country into chaos because of his greed to extend his power

4023:(TFG) was the internationally recognised government of Somalia until 20 August 2012, when its tenure officially ended. It was established as one of the 987:

with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th century. Adal's history from this founding period forth would, as a vassal of the

8223:"Opening Annual General Assembly Debate, Secretary-General Urges Member States to Press in Tackling Poverty, Terrorism, Human Rights Abuses, Conflicts" 7488: 6658:

Abir, Mordechai (1968). Ethiopia: the era of the princes: the challenge of Islam and re-unification of the Christian Empire, 1769–1855. Praeger. p. 18.

1186:. Sultan Badlay continued the campaigns of his younger brother and began several successful expeditions against the Christian empire. He recovered the 5375: 2774:. Italy had access to these areas under the successive protection treaties, but not direct rule. The Fascist government had direct rule only over the 998:

Throughout the Middle Ages, Arab immigrants arrived in Somalia, a historical experience which would later lead to the legendary stories about Muslim

3673: 2883:

to reinforce his troops, and assumed lead of the operations. Meanwhile, the rebellion was gaining sympathy across the country, and as far afield as

9110: 8518: 5051: 5046: 1060:("Land of the Berbers"), which was the medieval Arab term for the Somali coast. Following his visit to the city, the 12th century Syrian historian 8766: 4424:(Madobe). The regional president will serve as the chairperson of a new Executive Council, to which he will appoint three deputies. Management of 3243:, the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland, but only under close supervision and on the condition—first proposed by the 2782:

gave the green light to De Vecchi to start the takeover of the north-eastern sultanates. Everything was to be changed and the treaties abrogated.

10644: 10414: 8728: 8057: 5504:

Zarins, Juris (1990), "Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia", (Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research)

1142:

Sabr ad-Din II successfully managed to drive the Solomonic army out of Adal territory. He died a natural death and was succeeded by his brother

3708: 3197: 8039: 3058:

In 1941, in Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia, 2,186 Zaptié plus an additional 500 recruits under training officially constituted a part of the

9203: 7612: 2943:

and other warships were called on to bombard all main coastal towns of the Majeerteen. After a violent confrontation Italian forces captured

2936: 2754:

In 1920, the Dervish movement collapsed after intensive British aerial bombardments, and Dervish territories were subsequently turned into a

2320:

wife. There were eight Tolje'lo rulers in total who ruled for centuries starting from the 13th century. The last Tolje'lo ruler Boqor Harun (

708:

since the second millennium BCE. This supports the hypothesis of Somalia and/or the adjacent Horn territories corresponding with the ancient

1295:

in February 1541. Here, he received an ambassador from the Emperor beseeching him to send help against the Muslims. In July, a force of 400

9642: 8360: 319: 10336: 4114:

Following this defeat, the Islamic Courts Union splintered into several different factions. Some of the more radical elements, including

4111:. This marked the first time since the fall of the Siad Barre regime in 1991 that the federal government controlled most of the country. 3860:

legal system where there is no monopolistic institution or agent that determines what the law should be or how it should be interpreted.

2582: 9143: 1574:

for a joint expedition against the Portuguese. He agreed and was joined by a Somali fleet, which began attacking Portuguese colonies in

10753: 8672: 8200: 4218:

in February 2009 to assume full control of the southern half of the country. To solidify its rule, the TFG formed an alliance with the

3310:, a Somali who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as Djibouti's first president (1977–1991). 2601:

at Kob Fardod in June 1899, precipitating the religious rebellion that later morphed into the Somali Dervish. In one of his letters to

491: 8549: 6967: 2312:

clan-family were ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch starting from, descendants of Ahmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo, the eldest son of

1267:. The Ethiopian Emperor was forced to live as a naked outlaw hounded by the victorious Imam’s armies. The complete destruction of the 4223: 4184: 4158: 983:

were living along the northern Somali seaboard. He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in the city, suggesting that

8601: 7902:

National Academy of Sciences (U.S.). Committee on Human Rights, Institute of Medicine (U.S.). Committee on Health and Human Rights,

2569:. In response Bimal leaders called for a grand conference mobilizing the Banadiri clans, thus it came to eventually be known as the 1178:

over the next five months, while Jamal ad Din's forces pursued them and looted much gold on the way, although no engagement ensued.

898:

to Somalia and Arabia. This is said to have been the best kept secret of the Somali and Gulf Arab merchants in their trade with the

583:, having crossed over into northeast Africa via the Sinai Peninsula and then split into two, with one branch continuing west across 9463: 8496: 6907: 4761:

Wa'daan warriors ambushed and killed the Italian explorer Antonio Cecchi and most of his troops at Lafoole, west of Mogadishu, 1896

3609:

continued to rule. In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in its place.

3380:

seized power without encountering armed opposition – essentially a bloodless takeover. The putsch was spearheaded by Major General

3185: 1467:

brought their Indian textile and fruit to the Somali coast in exchange for grain and wood. Trading relations were established with

10559: 7161: 6137:

Jeremy Black, Cambridge illustrated atlas, warfare: Renaissance to revolution, 1492–1792, (Cambridge University Press: 1996), p.9.

5480: 3361:

became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke. Egal would later become the President of the autonomous

1202:

to gather support and arms in the continuing war against the Christian empire. The Adalite ruler Muhammad and the Solomonic ruler

10399: 9308: 7109:

First report on succession of states in respect of treaties: International Law Commission twenty-sixth session 6 May 26 July 1974

4063: 3598: 3404: 2722: 471: 7959: 3735:. The UN soldiers eventually withdrew altogether from the country on 3 March 1995, having incurred more significant casualties. 2589:. The incident in question was that of a group of Somali children that were converted to Christianity and adopted by the French 2549:

four times, forcing them to retreat to the coastal region, but the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 by British airpower.

1407:

and their respective ports flourished and had a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming from Arabia, India,

662:

Ancient Somalia domesticated the camel somewhere between the third millennium and second millennium BCE from where it spread to

22: 4976: 3720: 3350: 3098:, and enjoyed a notable level of development with a small manufacturing area with agricultural industries (sugar mills, etc.). 3024: 2694: 2244: 1329:

after he was elected due to his illustrious lineage being related to the Imam. He would switch the capital of the Sultanate to

867:

to curb pillaging, Somali and Gulf Arab merchants by agreement barred Indian ships from trading in the free port cities of the

8320: 8273: 4813:

The Dervish leader Mohammed Abdullah Hassan dies in Imey and the longest and bloodiest colonial resistance war in Africa ends.

3372:, Somalia's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was shot dead by a policeman. His assassination was quickly followed by a 9350: 9063: 7840: 7793: 7734: 7707: 7675: 7596: 7569: 7559: 7542: 7515: 7468: 7066: 7032: 6462: 6109: 6082: 6055: 5264: 4166: 4103:

and decorated war hero, entered Mogadishu for the first time since being elected to office. The government then relocated to

9088: 8646: 8467: 7361: 7319:

The Cold War, 1945–1991: Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World

4301:

and Prime Minister Mohamed, with increasing troop strength the pace of territorial gains is expected to greatly accelerate.

3255:(SNL)—that Somalia achieve independence within ten years. British Somaliland remained a protectorate of Britain until 1960. 400:

played significant roles in this commercial network. Preceding these medieval states were ancient civilizations such as the

10419: 10018: 6908:"Article with photos on a 2005 visit to 'Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi' and areas of former Italian Somaliland (in italian)" 4960: 3447: 1578:. The Somali-Ottoman offensive managed to drive out the Portuguese from several important cities such as Pate, Mombasa and 1236:, who tried to defend the Christians from General Mahfuz but he too was also killed in battle by the Adalite army in Ifat. 1232:, the leader of the Adalite war machine, who annually invaded the Christian territories. Eskender was succeeded by Emperor 1003: 431:. Italy acquired full control of the northeastern, central and southern parts of the territory after successfully waging a 2778:

territory Given the defeat of the Dervish movement in the early 1920s and the rise of fascism in Europe, on 10 July 1925,

2701: 1361:

formulating a poem about their expansion. A huge contingent of Somalis remained in their regions and were absorbed by the

9774: 9728: 9612: 9435: 9262: 7639: 4215: 4162: 4038:

The Transitional Federal Government officially comprised the executive branch of government, with the TFP serving as the

2675: 2336:) was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaq clans. The once strong Tolje'lo clan were scattered and took refuge amongst the 1284: 8411: 7490:

Past human rights abuses in Somalia: report of a preliminary study conducted for the United Nations (OHCHR/UNDP-Somalia)

6532:"Taariikhda Saldanada Reer Guuleed Ee Somaliland.Abwaan:Ibraahim-rashiid Cismaan Guure (aboor). | Togdheer News Network" 6099: 3934:) for libel, theft, physical harm, rape and death, as well as supplying assistance to relatives; b) assuring good inter- 3812:, and courts of first instance (either divided between district and regional courts, or a single court per region); and 2827:

was different from that of the Majeerteen in terms of its geography and the pattern of the territory. It was founded by

2434:. He also received presents and had cordial relations with the leaders of neighbouring and distant kingdoms such as the 1098:. Parts of northwestern Somalia came under the rule of the Solomonids in medieval times, especially during the reign of 10092: 9247: 5852: 5734: 5707: 6190: 3074:. After heavy fighting, the Somali troops and the Italian Carabinieri received full military honors from the British. 9476: 9413: 9387: 8338: 7395: 7347: 7326: 7305: 7246: 6944: 6827: 6800: 6773: 6746: 6452: 6435: 5949: 5923: 5133: 4995: 4527: 4024: 4006: 3768:

regime, it was later gradually rebuilt and administered under different regional governments, such as the autonomous

3653: 3422:

The revolutionary army established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural

2926:

Downtown Mogadishu in 1936. Arch of Triumph Umberto to the left, Cathedral and Arba Rucun mosque to the centre-right.

2741: 2581:

News of the incident that sparked the Dervish rebellion and the 21 years disturbance according to the consul-general

8706: 3235:, Britain regained control of British Somaliland and conquered Italian Somaliland, administering both militarily as 2872: 2708: 6027: 5609: 4085: 3975: 3161: 3044: 2809:

survey was scheduled to take place, so it was a good opportunity for the expedition of Coronaro to join with this.

312: 9010: 6879: 6329:. Transactions of the Kenya History Society. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau. 4496:

in a surprise result. On 23 February 2017, President Mohamed appointed former humanitarian worker and businessman

2395: 1664:

was described as "the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf".:

1443:(specialized for the markets in Egypt and Syria), together with Merca and Barawa also served as transit stops for 1279:. The Portuguese had been in the area earlier – in the early 16th century, in search of the legendary priest-king 10329: 9595: 8936: 7810: 7750: 4309:, Mohamed's former Minister of Planning and International Cooperation, was later named permanent Prime Minister. 4269: 4032: 4020: 4014: 4010: 3990: 3982: 3777: 3509:. For most of the war, the Somali army scored continuous victories on the Ethiopian army, following it as far as 3036: 7058:

The colonial legacy in Somalia: Rome and Mogadishu : from colonial administration to Operation Restore Hope

2614:

who did not accept the goal of unity of Somalia and would not fight under his leadership would be considered as

1110:, respectively), measures were taken against the Muslim Sultanate of Adal. The Emperor eventually captured King 9711: 9574: 6863: 5761: 5645: 5220: 3173: 3055:(Governor) as well as the territorial police. There were already more than one thousand such soldiers in 1922. 2690: 2679: 1206:

agreed to a truce and both states in the following decades saw an unprecedented period of peace and stability.

5558: 5327: 5280:

S. A. Brandt (1988). "Early Holocene Mortuary Practices and Hunter-Gatherer Adaptations in Southern Somalia".

3914:

Xeer is defined by a few fundamental tenets that are immutable and which closely approximate the principle of

10670: 10028: 10013: 9969: 9877: 9745: 9564: 7991: 7783: 6491: 5036: 4447: 4333: 4329: 4322: 4200: 4129:

On 29 December 2008, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed announced before a united parliament in Baidoa his resignation as

4092:

peacekeepers and air support by the United States, managed to drive out the rival ICU and solidify its rule.

3436: 3338: 3048: 1613:

was the main marketplace in the entire Somali seaboard for various goods procured from the interior, such as

1523: 972: 495: 487: 247: 3373: 3325:

and other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with the Speaker of the Somali Union Act

462:) for four days, merged as planned with the trust territory in 1960. Together, they formed the independent 186: 10434: 10082: 10008: 9964: 9456: 7024:

Africana: the encyclopedia of the African and African American experience : the concise desk reference

5989: 5061: 4028: 3267:

demonstrating the overwhelming desire of the region's population to join the newly formed Somali Republic.

3087: 3079: 2410:, to imprison on his behalf about 300 citizens of Harar then resident in Shewa, for a length of two years. 1254:

At the turn of the 16th century, Adal regrouped and, around 1527, under the charismatic leadership of Imam

8911:"SOMALIA: President says Godane is dead, now is the chance for the members of al-Shabaab to embrace peace" 7505: 6993:

Antonicelli, Franco. "Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945". Mondadori Editore. Torino, 1961. (p. 38)

6817: 4084:

law. The Transitional Federal Government sought to reestablish its authority, and, with the assistance of

10748: 10717: 10713: 10139: 10102: 10097: 10087: 9915: 9757: 9637: 9632: 9605: 9342: 7929: 6479:

A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa

5056: 5031: 4440: 4318: 4176: 4146: 4067: 3712: 2353: 1384: 1341:

doing numerous raids on the city's inhabitants. The Imam would successfully defeat them from the city of

1215: 745: 653: 412:, an early pre-Islamic culture that helped lay the foundations for the region's prosperous trade routes. 349: 305: 267: 85: 8522: 8437: 6763: 2535:

and Dervish Movement sparked the beginning one of the longest anti-colonial struggles on the continent.

10322: 10203: 8736: 8255: 8117: 4932: 4874: 4700: 4392: 4196: 4059: 3978:(TNG), an interim administration formed to guide Somalia to its third permanent republican government. 3728: 3698: 3669: 3562: 3416: 3393: 3358: 3322: 3260: 2859: 2237: 1255: 1243: 1183: 795: 749: 479: 451: 365: 6819:

Putting the cart before the horse: contested nationalism and the crisis of the nation-state in Somalia

6765:

Putting the cart before the horse: contested nationalism and the crisis of the nation-state in Somalia

10726: 10156: 10115: 10040: 10035: 9681: 9549: 5256: 5250: 5071: 4790: 4516: 4493: 4466: 4246: 4047: 3665: 3616: 3346: 2625: 2542: 2496: 1483:

of China, which established Somali merchants as leaders in the commerce between the Asia and Africa.

1221: 277: 8174: 7532: 3149: 10474: 10186: 8043: 4923: 4914: 4904: 4204: 3745: 3661: 3620: 3342: 3334: 3326: 3106: 3043:, these troops were regarded as a wing of the Italian Army's Infantry Division, as was the case in 2538: 2516: 2504: 2492: 1203: 1199: 1099: 1046:. Eventually at the end of the 16th century the Muzaffarid dynasty allied themselves to the Somali 984: 467: 9211: 6893: 4183:

Between May 31 and June 9, 2008, representatives of Somalia's federal government and the moderate

2975:

in 1940, when was added the British Somaliland (after the previous addition of the Ogaden in 1936)

1094:, which resulted in several devastating wars and ultimately ended in a Solomonic victory over the 619:

which dates back around 5,000 years and has depicting both wild animals and decorated cows. Other

454:, with a promise of independence after 10 years. British Somaliland, nominally independent as the 10709: 10584: 10574: 10379: 10166: 10161: 10077: 9974: 9954: 9656: 9524: 9449: 6558:"Degmada Cusub Ee Dacarta Oo Loogu Wanqalay Munaasibad Kulmisay Madaxda Iyo Haldoorka Somaliland" 6316: 6032:

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: With Some Extracts from Agatharkhidēs "On the Erythraean Sea"

4725: 4377: 4277: 4257: 4227: 4154: 3407:(SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination was led by Lieutenant Colonel 3354: 3008:

In the 1930s the Italians made many new investments in infrastructure in the region, such as the

2668: 2418: 1171: 1170:. Sultan Jamal reorganized the army into a formidable force and defeated the Solomonic armies at 444: 416: 181: 129: 8364: 8222: 8017: 7460: 7187: 6682:

Sun, sand and Somals; leaves from the note-book of a district commissioner in British Somaliland

3589: 3513:. By September 1977, Somalia controlled 90% of the Ogaden and captured strategic cities such as 2715: 2421:, began the Golden age of the Gobroon dynasty. In 1843, his army came out victorious during the 10589: 10479: 10409: 10072: 9979: 6842:

F.O.78/5031, Sayyid Mohamad to the Aidagalla, Enclosed Sadler To Salisbury. 69, 20 August 1899.

6738: 4628: 4436: 4400: 4371: 4080:

organization, assumed control of much of the southern part of the country and promptly imposed

3971: 3690: 3657: 3318: 3071: 2767: 1272: 1247: 1075: 1034: 961: 381: 7830: 7665: 7586: 7296: 6173: 4354:

In April 2013, Hassan resumed national reconciliation talks between the central government in

3123:

boasted in front of a group of Somalis leaders -in late summer 1940- that he had created the "

3019:

Over the course of Italian Somaliland's existence, many Somali troops fought in the so-called

10649: 10569: 10534: 10519: 10504: 10459: 10394: 8389: 7697: 7136:

After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States

5941:

The Cambridge history of Africa : Fage, J. D : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming

4545: 4537: 4523: 4508: 4348: 4340: 4238:, the two main Islamist groups in opposition, began to fight amongst themselves in mid-2009. 4192: 4096: 3994: 3986: 3455: 3408: 3330: 3307: 2771: 2450: 2414: 2300:. The sultanate was governed by the Rer Guled branch established by the first sultan, Sultan 2230: 1758: 1143: 681: 554: 450:

In 1950, the Trust Territory of Somaliland under Italian administration was established as a

120: 10700: 8676: 7919: 6934: 6730: 5513:

Diamond J, Bellwood P (2003) Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions SCIENCE 300,

4407:

In August 2013, the Somali federal government signed a national reconciliation agreement in

3549: 3497:

broke out after Barre's government sought to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabited

2632:

He repulsed the British in four expeditions and had favorable diplomatic relations with the

380:, several powerful Somali states and port towns dominated the regional trade, including the 10524: 10271: 10176: 10125: 10023: 9986: 9959: 9665: 9544: 9534: 9373: 9120: 8553: 6971: 6587: 5066: 4734: 4458: 4429: 4306: 4219: 4130: 4115: 4073: 4050:. However, it was also used as a general term to refer to all three branches collectively. 4043: 3506: 3451: 3067: 1479:

being the main commodities of the trade. Giraffes, zebras and incense were exported to the

1304: 1147: 1107: 436: 282: 272: 262: 195: 8937:"Breaking News: President Hassan appoints Somalia's ambassador to US as the third premier" 6454:

Suicidal Behavior in Muslim Majority Countries: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Prevention

4336:, the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war. 2557:

In the 1890s, the Italian occupation of Marka sparked the beginning and outrage among the

1349:, and his dynasty would rule for the next 157 years until it would be over thrown by the 1307:, in which Ahmed Gurey was killed and the war won. Ahmed Gurey's widow married his nephew 8: 10624: 10599: 10449: 10444: 10424: 10389: 10374: 10261: 10246: 10226: 10198: 10003: 9933: 9691: 8608: 5667:. Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somali Democratic Republic. p. 295. 4884: 4830: 4462: 4421: 4396: 3952: 3780:, a new interim judicial structure was formed through various international conferences. 3732: 3645: 3633: 3377: 3244: 3224: 3128: 2985: 2524: 2508: 2367: 2349: 2301: 2170: 1195: 1191: 1103: 871:

to protect the interests of Somali and Arab merchants in the extremely lucrative ancient

791: 649: 455: 252: 238: 167: 105: 80: 55: 7588:

Making and Unmaking Nations: The Origins and Dynamics of Genocide in Contemporary Africa

6911: 1547: 10696: 10687: 10678: 10609: 10564: 10549: 10539: 10529: 10494: 10489: 10439: 10384: 10359: 10218: 10120: 10060: 9949: 9686: 9559: 9554: 9539: 7924: 7453: 7433: 7165: 5578: 5452: 5428: 5401: 5349: 5297: 4991: 4798: 4771: 4743: 4692: 4344: 3925: 3872: 3716: 3694: 3594: 3240: 3102: 2998: 2972: 2850: 2824: 2610: 2570: 2532: 2528: 1111: 1071: 1030: 975:

dates to the 7th century, and is the oldest mosque in Africa. In the late 9th century,

440: 424: 420: 257: 115: 46: 39: 4485:

in April and May of the year. The officials therein signed a seven-point agreement in

3834:

militia capable of arresting criminals, and to keep convicted prisoners incarcerated.

3632:

for head injuries, broken ribs and shock over a period of a month. Lieutenant General

3137: 3086:, and new buildings were erected in the Italian architectural tradition. By 1940, the 2831:

in the middle of the 19th century in central Somalia. Its jurisdiction stretched from

10619: 10614: 10554: 10509: 10469: 10364: 10345: 10299: 10266: 10236: 10181: 10151: 9701: 9409: 9383: 9346: 9243: 7966: 7836: 7789: 7730: 7703: 7671: 7592: 7565: 7538: 7511: 7464: 7437: 7425: 7391: 7343: 7322: 7301: 7242: 7088: 7062: 7028: 6940: 6859: 6823: 6796: 6769: 6742: 6731: 6458: 6431: 6330: 6105: 6078: 6051: 5945: 5939: 5919: 5848: 5757: 5730: 5703: 5641: 5582: 5472: 5433: 5305: 5260: 5216: 5129: 5041: 4638: 4497: 3921: 3317:, albeit within boundaries drawn up by Italy and Britain. A government was formed by 3291: 2828: 2590: 2200: 1601: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1530:

tensions would remain high. The increased contact between Somali sailors and Ottoman

1503: 1315: 1268: 1134:

and began referring to himself as the King of Adal. He continued the war against the

1095: 1087: 988: 953: 876: 868: 831: 767: 593: 110: 65: 8092:"Somalia: UN Envoy Says Inauguration of New Parliament in Somalia 'Historic Moment'" 4443:

militant group to clean up the remaining insurgent-held pockets in the countryside.

4199:, the former ARS chairman, to office. President Sharif shortly afterwards appointed 415:

In the late 19th century, through a succession of treaties with these kingdoms, the

10674: 10594: 10544: 10499: 10484: 10464: 10454: 10429: 10369: 10293: 10256: 10251: 10208: 9600: 9587: 9519: 9509: 8632: 7417: 5570: 5514: 5464: 5423: 5413: 5341: 5323: 5289: 4784:

Benadir Coast Italian Protectorate (in the northeast), (unoccupied until May 1893).

4696: 4648: 4541: 4478: 3764:

While Somalia's formal judicial system was largely destroyed after the fall of the

3685: 3649: 3578: 3521:, threatening the train route from the latter city to Djibouti. After the siege of 3120: 3063: 2990: 2832: 2779: 2488: 2313: 1685: 1551: 1531: 1408: 1392: 1319: 1288: 1135: 1115: 1056: 1018:

clans, respectively) travelling from Arabia to Somalia and marrying into the local

1007: 992: 928: 880: 705: 589: 572: 483: 423:. In southern parts of Somalia, the Italians fought a decades-long war, dubbed the 385: 229: 224: 219: 176: 148: 100: 95: 90: 31: 7421: 6428:

The Horn Engaging the Gulf Economic Diplomacy and Statecraft in Regional Relations

5293: 3648:, encouraged by Ethiopia, sprang up across the country, eventually leading to the 3419:, dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution. 3219: 3127:" (dreamed by the Somali population) after the union of British Somaliland to his 2383:. In 1845, Sharmarke deployed a few matchlock men to wrest control of neighboring 860: 10604: 10514: 10404: 10193: 10171: 10107: 9867: 9852: 9696: 9529: 9377: 9272: 9237: 9036: 8091: 7365: 7236: 7056: 7022: 6936:

Mussolini Unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War

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Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind: Ethnography of the African races

6072: 6045: 5973: 5913: 5893: 5873: 5842: 5751: 5724: 5697: 5662: 5635: 5418: 5149: 5123: 4894: 4820: 3857: 3809: 3641: 3510: 3502: 3486: 3477: 3314: 3214: 3095: 2994: 2763: 2329: 2321: 2273: 1589: 1456: 1308: 1300: 1264: 1259: 1167: 1146:

who invaded the capital and royal seat of the Solomonic Empire and drove Emperor

1061: 879:

commerce. However, Indian merchants continued to trade in the port cities of the

835: 463: 333: 209: 8759:"SOMALIA: Parliament approves nomination of new Somali PM Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed" 8295: 8243: 4873:

Italian Somaliland becomes a United Nations trust territory administration, the

4099:

raged, TFG President and founder Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, a former colonel in the

3270: 10303: 10241: 9857: 9847: 9827: 9762: 9582: 9514: 8819:"Somalia: Jubaland gains recognition after intense bilateral talks in Ethiopia" 6612: 5023: 5009: 4683: 4582: 3544: 2980: 2911: 2892: 2817: 2805: 2637: 2633: 2546: 2520: 2403: 2281: 2218: 2180: 1851: 1593: 1579: 1567: 1515: 1444: 1416: 1127: 1120: 1091: 1079: 1064:

wrote that it was inhabited by "Berbers", the ancestors of the modern Somalis.

938: 924: 920: 729: 597: 576: 369: 293: 70: 8576:"Somali PM: Anyone in gov't who commits corruption will be brought to justice" 5574: 4903:

First president of Somali National Assembly, Speaker of the Somali Union Act.

3298:

ethnic group and resident Europeans. There was also allegations of widespread

2904:

wear down. Given the anarchy that would follow, the new policy was a success.

600:, the ancestors of the Somali people arrived in the region during the ensuing 10742: 9797: 8415: 8168: 7429: 7009:

Escape from Violence: Conflict and the Refugee Crisis in the Developing World

5476: 5332: 4606: 4572: 4504:

further negotiation, the presidential election was scheduled for October 10.

4298: 4211: 4104: 4089: 3805: 3749: 3440: 3349:(later to become president from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through a 3303: 2967: 2641: 2458: 2362:

19th century Martello fort in Berbera constructed by Haji Sharmarke Ali Saleh

2317: 2277: 2050: 1846: 1817: 1753: 1724: 1719: 1575: 1539: 1535: 1511: 1464: 1326: 1276: 1047: 957: 701: 697: 663: 620: 550: 153: 9175:"Somali president nominates Barre as prime minister after delayed elections" 7210:

The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East

6851: 5518: 5237:

The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East

4533:

Barre has served as the Prime Minister of Somalia beside President Mohamud.

4347:

as the new Prime Minister on 6 October 2012, who was succeeded in office by

3957: 3446:

In July 1976, Barre's SRC disbanded itself and established in its place the

9802: 9750: 9504: 7992:"The Rule of Law without the State – Spencer Heath MacCallum – Mises Daily" 7238:

Mending rips in the sky: options for Somali communities in the 21st century

6492:"Taariikhda Beerta Suldaan Cabdilaahi ee Hargeysa | Somalidiasporanews.com" 6357:

Four centuries of Swahili verse: a literary history and anthology – Page 11

5437: 5309: 4712:'s domination in Gulf of Aden trade, Haji Sharmarke Ali Saleh, governor of 4619: 4586: 4568: 4290: 4235: 4150: 4122: 3753: 3629: 3412: 3299: 3236: 3232: 3040: 3023:. The soldiers were enrolled not only as regular soldiers (like in the two 2755: 2602: 2402:, there was tension between the two rulers. Sharmarke persuaded the son of 1998: 1923: 1693: 1622: 1571: 1534:

worried the Portuguese, who sent multiple punitive expeditions against the

1480: 1334: 1280: 899: 847: 721: 709: 675: 584: 373: 158: 9361: 7534:

Genocide in the Twentieth Century: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts

3070:(Ethiopia) for three months until this military unit was destroyed by the 3001:(called officially "Somalia italiana"). The Italians added to Somalia the 2430:, which restored stability in the region and revitalized the East African 1604:. Additionally, the Somali and Ethiopian interiors were very dependent on 9895: 9832: 6334: 6248:

The return of Cosmopolitan Capital:Globalization, the State and War p. 22

4669: 4408: 4261: 4252: 4100: 4039: 3830: 3711:

was unanimously passed on 3 December 1992, which approved a coalition of

3432: 3295: 3114: 3105:

and ejected the British. The Italians also occupied parts of the British

3059: 3013: 2431: 2358: 2289: 2013: 1918: 1856: 1743: 1646: 1527: 1492: 1362: 1119:

ad-Din II's family was subsequently given safe haven at the court of the

823: 815: 637: 535: 377: 4893:

Reunification of British Somaliland with Italian Somaliland to form the

4757: 1676: 1123:, where his sons regrouped and planned their revenge on the Solomonids. 10231: 9905: 9837: 9738: 9716: 9569: 9286: 9014: 8985:"Somalia leaders call for Brussels pledges review at Garowe Conference" 8962: 5909: 5776:

Taxanaha taariikhda Soomaaliya - Page 332, Abdulaziz Ali Ibrahim · 2006

5353: 4950: 4941: 4887:, with the understanding that it is to reunite with Italian Somaliland. 4359: 4081: 3916: 3825: 3773: 3765: 3566: 3494: 3472: 3428: 3381: 3362: 3264: 2952: 2836: 2813: 2586: 2293: 2266: 2262: 2185: 2155: 2028: 1913: 1886: 1834: 1770: 1630: 1151: 1019: 843: 725: 693: 657: 629: 499: 475: 459: 60: 9111:"Somalia's president says PM Roble suspended as election spat deepens" 8940: 7507:

Stopping Mass Killings in Africa: Genocide, Airpower, and Intervention

6348:

Portuguese rule and Spanish crown in South Africa, 1581–1640 – Page 25

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of different functions within the legal framework. Thus, one can find

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slaves. Through his military dominance, Sultan Yusuf managed to exact

2284:

during the 18th and 19th centuries. It spanned the territories of the

1067: 443:. This occupation lasted until 1941 when it was replaced by a British 9807: 9733: 9499: 9115: 8461: 8325: 8074: 7278:

The Encyclopedia Americana: complete in thirty volumes. Skin to Sumac

7020: 6321:. Translated by Costelloe, Joseph. Rome: Jesuit Historical Institute. 6305:

Tanzania notes and records: the journal of the Tanzania Society p. 76

4833:

is established as one of the six governorates of Italian East Africa.

4721: 4657: 4454: 4355: 3904: 3852:

Somalis have for centuries practiced a form of customary law, called

3798: 3606: 3518: 3460: 3275: 2566: 2481: 2476: 2337: 2195: 2165: 2147: 2142: 2137: 2078: 2033: 1822: 1812: 1765: 1614: 1476: 1472: 1432: 1296: 1187: 1175: 1051: 1025: 976: 908: 895: 891: 827: 763: 689: 685: 624: 608: 601: 580: 567: 562: 523: 466:

under a civilian government, the Somali National Assembly, headed by

405: 389: 213: 10314: 6198:. University of California Publications Near Middle Eastern Studies. 5345: 4581:

City states on the Somali coast are active in commerce trading with

3032: 3016:

and Mogadishu and the railway Mogadishu-Villabruzzi of 114 km.

2657: 1271:

was averted by the timely arrival of a Portuguese expedition led by

419:

gained control of parts of the coast, and established the colony of

9910: 9900: 9885: 9862: 9792: 9721: 9441: 7096: 6792:

The collapse of the Somali state: the impact of the colonial legacy

6413:

A Modern History of Somalia: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa

6259:

The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century

6074:

A Modern History of Somalia: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa

5586: 5468: 5213:

The Collapse of the Somali State: The Impact of the Colonial Legacy

4673: 4474: 4470: 4453:

In February 2015, Hassan chaired a three-day consultation forum in

4416: 4412: 4343:

as the new President of Somalia. President Mohamud later appointed

4188: 4077: 3865: 3769: 3731:, an unsuccessful attempt by US troops to apprehend faction leader 3723:(UNOSOM II) primarily in the south to provide humanitarian relief. 3570: 3531: 3435:(AL) in 1974. That same year, Barre also served as chairman of the 3423: 3369: 3287: 3110: 2454: 2439: 2370:, a successful and ambitious Somali merchant, successfully invaded 2305: 2297: 2205: 2120: 2055: 2003: 1979: 1839: 1829: 1782: 1777: 1748: 1729: 1638: 1498: 1420: 1233: 1225: 887: 811: 616: 612: 543: 519: 409: 143: 8171:"USCIRF Annual Report 2009 – The Commission's Watch List: Somalia" 4926:; assassinated by one of the policemen assigned to his protection. 4507:

In December 2021, Mohamed revoked the authority of prime minister

4053: 3668:(SPM), together with the non-violent political oppositions of the 2308:

clan. According to oral tradition, prior to the Guled dynasty the

1427: 1157: 9890: 9472: 9266:

Chapter 5: Puntland: Ancient Somali Contacts With Other Countries

9256: 9182: 6984:

The first map shows the Italian occupied areas around Moyale/Buna

6617: 4717: 4709: 4425: 3789: 3368:

On 15 October 1969, while paying a visit to the northern town of

3052: 2880: 2868: 2844: 2840: 2775: 2594: 2512: 2462: 2422: 2384: 2258: 2175: 2127: 2107: 2045: 2038: 2023: 1993: 1974: 1940: 1903: 1898: 1868: 1863: 1709: 1661: 1634: 1610: 1605: 1600:

had extensive trade relations with several historic ports in the

1597: 1585: 1507: 1468: 1452: 1448: 1412: 1370: 1366: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1292: 1086:

The conquest of Shoa ignited a rivalry for supremacy between the

872: 799: 753: 539: 138: 7699:

Getting Somalia Wrong?: Faith, War and Hope in a Shattered State

6613:"Taariikhda Boqortooyadii Axmed Sheikh Isaxaaq ee Toljecle 1787" 6318:

Francis Xavier: His Life, His Times. Volume II: India, 1541–1545

5610:"UK archaeologist finds cave paintings at 100 new African sites" 5181:

Africa's legacies of urbanization: unfolding saga of a continent

4191:

brokered by the former United Nations Special Envoy to Somalia,

3868:

from foreign languages, suggesting that it is truly indigenous.

3247:(SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as 2962: 2922: 2607:

have destroyed our religion and made our children their children

991:, be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouring 886:

For centuries, the Indian merchants brought large quantities of

9822: 9787: 9430: 8462:

US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton (13 November 2010).

7995: 6852:

J. D. Fage; A. D. Roberts; Roland Anthony Oliver, eds. (1986).

6383:

The Colonial Magazine and Commercial-maritime Journal, Volume 2

5753:

Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Archaeology

5453:"The Afroasiatic Language Phylum: African in Origin, or Asian?" 4665: 4486: 4482: 4385: 4381: 4370:, the meeting ended with a signed agreement between Hassan and 4367: 4363: 4281: 4231: 4108: 3896: 3884: 3793: 3557:

Isaaq genocide was the systematic, state-sponsored massacre of

3514: 3498: 3482: 3094:) had a population of 12,000 people, of whom nearly 3,000 were 3091: 3028: 3002: 2931: 2884: 2854: 2847:

to Garaad in the north-east, and the Indian Ocean in the east.

2785: 2598: 2562: 2558: 2380: 2190: 2132: 2090: 2065: 2060: 2018: 2008: 1967: 1935: 1928: 1893: 1618: 1543: 1460: 1400: 1380: 1330: 1229: 1139: 1131: 1043: 999: 980: 969: 903: 819: 633: 596:

with a subset later moving back to the Near East. According to

558: 478:, seized power in a bloodless coup and renamed the country the 393: 204: 8850:"Somalia gives recognition to Jubaland interim administration" 7904:

Scientists and human rights in Somalia: report of a delegation

6968:"II Guerra Mondiale Campagna Africa Orientale - Seconda Parte" 4944:, leader of the Supreme Revolutionary Council, rises to power. 4187:(ARS) group of Islamist rebels participated in peace talks in 4179:, an Islamist group waging war against the federal government. 4171: 2919:, Arimondi bombarded and destroyed all the boats in the area. 1439:

Mogadishu, the center of a thriving weaving industry known as

952:

was introduced to the northern Somali coast early on from the

9842: 9782: 9706: 8144:"Somalia President, Parliament Speaker dispute over TFG term" 7638:. International Crisis Group. 2006. p. 5. Archived from 4713: 4661: 4610: 4544:

has served as the Prime Minister of Somalia beside President

3940: 3930: 3574: 3558: 3522: 3376:

on 21 October 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which the

2916: 2789: 2770:

on 15 December 1923, things began to change for that part of

2616: 2443: 2426: 2407: 2399: 2391: 2376: 2371: 2309: 2285: 2160: 2100: 2095: 2085: 1984: 1952: 1947: 1908: 1873: 1807: 1795: 1738: 1714: 1702: 1654: 1626: 1488: 1484: 1404: 1396: 1358: 1342: 1338: 1190:

and began preparations of a major Adalite offensive into the

1015: 1011: 965: 949: 942: 852: 839: 807: 803: 779: 771: 758: 717: 713: 527: 486:

divided the entire country. Despite the establishment of the

428: 397: 8729:"Somali president names political newcomer as PM -diplomats" 8270:"UN boss urges support for Somalia ahead of Istanbul summit" 8169:

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (1 May 2009).

7297:

The New Communist Third World: an essay in political economy

7021:

Kwame Anthony Appiah; Henry Louis Gates (26 November 2003).

5992:, "General history of AfrÄÃǎica". Retrieved 31 December 2015 5399: 4703:(also called Ahmed Gurey and Ahmed Gran; "the Left-handed"). 2804:

In preparation for the invasion plan of the sultanates, the

2484:

on the left with his brother in-law Duale Idres. Aden, 1892.

850:. They used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the 9991: 9817: 9812: 9089:"Somalia to hold indirect presidential election October 10" 5400:

Hodgson JA, Mulligan CJ, Al-Meeri A, Raaum RL (June 2014).

5076: 4819:

Italian Somaliland, part of Italian East Africa along with

4775: 4312: 3935: 3853: 3847: 3526: 2466: 2435: 1802: 1650: 1642: 1323: 864: 783: 775: 514: 9406:

Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times

9379:

Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times

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Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times

8673:"Somalia rising after two decades of civil war and unrest" 7832:

Racism and Ethnicity: Global Debates, Dilemmas, Directions

3062:. They were organised into a battalion commanded by Major 3051:. The Zaptié provided a ceremonial escort for the Italian 2523:

to rally support from across the Horn of Africa, but also

9403: 9372: 9037:"Somalia's Mohamed Abdullahi Farmajo chosen as president" 9011:"Communiqué on FGS and regional states meeting in Garowe" 7785:

The Early Morning Phonecall: Somali Refugees' Remittances

7561:

Genocide, war crimes and the West: history and complicity

5918:. Lawrencewill, NJ: The Red Sea Press. pp. 102–106. 4492:

On 8 February 2017, Somali MPs elected Ex-Prime Minister

3553:

Exhumed skeletal remains of victims of the Isaaq genocide

2944: 1376: 9301: 9144:"Somalia'spressidents prime minister amid election spat" 6648:. To be purchased from the Chief Secretary. p. 169. 6398:

The Merchants' Magazine and Commercial Review, Volume 34

5402:"Early back-to-Africa migration into the Horn of Africa" 3871:

The Xeer legal system also requires a certain amount of

2979:

On 9 May 1936, Mussolini proclaimed the creation of the

2629:

rifles on the British soldiers stationed in the region.

1246:'s pioneering use of cannons figured prominently in his 933: 553:

research in 2014 on ancient and modern populations, the

8647:"Harvard-Educated Technocrat Chosen as Somalia Premier" 8635:. BBC.co.uk (19 June 2011). Retrieved 15 December 2011. 7889:

Arthur S. Banks, Thomas C. Muller, William Overstreet,

7265:, Volume 8, (Cambridge University Press: 1985), p. 478. 6050:. Vol. 7. Cambridge University Press. p. 30. 5749: 5168:

Egypt : 3000 Years of Civilization Brought to Life

4264:

and other diplomats at the UN headquarters in New York.

3612: 3313:

On 1 July 1960, the two territories united to form the

9339:

Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience

8789:"Somalia: Hassan and President Silanyo meet in Turkey" 8521:. Xinhua News Agency. 13 November 2010. Archived from 8363:. Allheadlinenews.com. 31 October 2010. Archived from 7531:

Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S. (1 January 1995).

7455:

A View From The Foothills: The Diaries of Chris Mullin

5975:

The Modern History of Somaliland: From Nation to State

5559:"The Discovery of Dhambalin Rock Art Site, Somaliland" 3801:, which in turn is protected by a judicial committee; 2820:, and form a united front against their common enemy. 1224:, while Emperor Baeda Maryam was succeeded by his son 9064:"Somalia to hold elections within 60 days-Gov't says" 8578:. Allheadlinenews.com. 4 January 2011. Archived from 7388:

Encyclopedia of international peacekeeping operations

7095:. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1992. 5915:

Blood and Bone: The Call of Kinship in Somali Society

5750:

Abdel Monem A. H. Sayed, Zahi A. Hawass, ed. (2003).

5110:

The aromatherapy book: applications & inhalations

3581:

and have been referred to as a "forgotten genocide".

9404:

Aidid, Mohamed Farrah; Dr. Satya Pal Ruhela (1993).

8881:"Somali government and Jubaland strike a peace deal" 8495:. Garoweonline.com. 12 November 2010. Archived from 8199:. Garoweonline.com. 25 December 2008. Archived from 7726:

The New Africa: Dispatches from a Changing Continent

5895:

Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho

5726:

The Illustrated Timeline of the History of the World

4999: 4000: 1558:

commander João de Sepúvelda led a small fleet on an

357: 341: 8390:"New Somali Prime Minister Unveils Smaller Cabinet" 8314: 8086: 8084: 4121:Owing to a lack of funding and human resources, an 3965: 3101:In the second half of 1940, Italian troops invaded 2930:On 13 October, Coronaro was to meet Boqor Osman at 2682:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2276:was established in 1750. The Isaaq Sultanate was a 2265:Reer Ahmed Nuh and Reer Yunis Nuh sub-clans of the 8699:"Somali lawmakers elect Mohamud as next president" 8339:"Somali-American is new prime minister in Somalia" 7965:. Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue. Archived from 7667:Eritrea and Ethiopia: From Conflict to Cooperation 7452: 7130: 7128: 7126: 6014:J. D. Fage, Roland Oliver, Roland Anthony Oliver, 5756:. American Univ in Cairo Press. pp. 432–433. 5156:. 66–71. Society For Nautical Research: 261. 1984. 4883:British Somaliland is granted independence as the 3974:was selected as the President of the nation's new 3946: 2545:spread into Somalia and successfully repulsed the 2387:from that town's then-feuding Somali authorities. 1054:stood as the pre-eminent city in the بلاد البربر, 734:Taariikhda Soomaaliya: dalkii filka weynaa ee punt 8602:"Making Gains – AMISOM forces take new territory" 8361:"Approves Somalia's New PM After Repeated Delays" 7486: 5990:"Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century" 4877:, which is promised independence within 10 years. 3623:that overthrew Barre's regime in Northern Somalia 3263:(NFD) to Kenyan nationalists despite an informal 470:. The administration lasted until 1969, when the 10740: 9366:Federal Research Division of Library of Congress 8081: 7957: 7914: 7912: 7342:, 30th Ed., (Taylor and Francis: 2000), p. 1025 7234: 5640:. Trade & Travel Publications. p. 640. 5248: 5052:List of colonial governors of Italian Somaliland 5047:List of colonial governors of British Somaliland 3398: 1660:According to a trade journal published in 1856, 1596:between the 18th–19th centuries. For centuries, 1130:built a new capital eastwards of Zeila known as 8568: 8040:"Somali PM optimistic about rebuilding country" 7154: 7123: 5898:. International African Institute. p. 140. 5829:The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India 5816:The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India 5803:The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India 5787:The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India 5322: 4203:, the son of the assassinated former President 4054:Islamic Courts Union and Ethiopian intervention 3454:and Islamic tenets. The SRSP was an attempt to 1102:(r. 1314–1344). In 1403 or 1415 (under Emperor 9135: 8913:. Raxanreeb. September 5, 2014. Archived from 8137: 8135: 7273: 7271: 7138:, (University of Michigan Press: 2006), p. 115 6880:""Non tutti sanno che... Zaptié" (in Italian)" 6789:Ciisa-Salwe, Cabdisalaam M. (1 January 1996). 6208:John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver, 4332:was concurrently inaugurated, ushering in the 4214:troops, the coalition government also began a 3709:United Nations Security Council Resolution 794 2527:to start a resistance around Merca called the 1033:built by Fakr ad-Din, the first Sultan of the 534:Somalia has been inhabited since at least the 10330: 9457: 8929: 8903: 8751: 8664: 8633:Somalia: PM Mohamed Abdullahi Farmajo resigns 7994:. Mises.org. 4 September 2007. Archived from 7909: 7632:Somaliland: Time for African Union Leadership 7530: 7162:"The dawn of the Somali nation-state in 1960" 7054: 6371:. Sherwood, Gilbert & Piper. p. 160. 6018:, (Cambridge University Press: 1977), p. 190. 6005:, (Cambridge University Press: 1998), p. 121. 5887: 5885: 4856:British administration of Italian Somaliland. 4801:colony (in the northeast, central and south). 3981:On 10 October 2004, in a session held by the 3387: 2457:, defeating the enemy troops and freeing the 2238: 313: 8977: 8939:. Goobjoog. 17 December 2014. Archived from 8412:"Somali Prime Minister Unveiled His Cabinet" 8237: 8215: 7869: 7867: 7235:Adam, Hussein Mohamed; Richard Ford (1997). 7225:, Volume 2, (Worldmark Press: 1988), p. 290. 7048: 6044:Fage, J. D.; Oliver, Roland Anthony (1986). 5279: 5203: 5201: 5186: 4862: 4774:protectorate (in the north) subordinated to 4362:authorities. Organized by the government of 4107:in the capital from its interim location in 3676:(SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG). 3357:, which was first drafted in 1960. In 1967, 9231: 9229: 9003: 8987:. Garowe Online. 2 May 2014. Archived from 8811: 8626: 8544: 8542: 8540: 8487: 8485: 8404: 8384: 8382: 8267: 8132: 7380: 7268: 7082: 6858:. Cambridge University Press. p. 196. 6845: 6788: 6314: 5878:. Americana Corporation. 1965. p. 255. 5868: 5866: 5864: 5729:. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 131. 5601: 5215:. London: Haan Associates. pp. 34–35. 4046:, to whom the cabinet reported through the 3989:was elected as President of the succeeding 2465:from the Omani king in the coastal town of 822:and Tabae in Somalia developed a lucrative 427:, with the Somalis around the port town of 10337: 10323: 9464: 9450: 9061: 8781: 8721: 8457: 8455: 8353: 8197:"Somalia: Guide to Puntland Election 2009" 8069: 8067: 7691: 7689: 7687: 7290: 7288: 7286: 7215: 7003: 7001: 6999: 6687: 6426:Ylönen, Aleksi Ylönen (28 December 2023). 6296:Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa p. 45 6269:Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa p. 30 6239:Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa p. 35 6098:Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (25 February 2003). 6043: 5882: 5376:"Prehistoric Stone Hand Axes from Somalia" 5207: 4435:In August 2014, the Somali-government-led 3227:(SYL), the nation's first political party. 2857:clan elders and the Bimal Sultan on board 2245: 2231: 883:, which was free from Roman interference. 320: 306: 9408:. India: Vikas Publishing House PVT LTD. 9360:Samatar, Said S., ed. (9 November 2005). 9284: 9141: 8872: 8691: 8644: 8638: 8594: 7885: 7883: 7864: 7812:Conflict in Somalia: Drivers and Dynamics 7751:Conflict in Somalia: Drivers and Dynamics 7014: 7011:, (Oxford University Press: 1992), p. 106 6855:The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7 5902: 5532:"Grotto galleries show early Somali life" 5427: 5417: 5198: 4850:Italian occupation of British Somaliland. 4339:On 10 September 2012, parliament elected 4224:Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia 4185:Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia 4159:Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia 4042:branch. The government was headed by the 3804:a three-tier judicial system including a 2742:Learn how and when to remove this message 1383:city was an important medieval centre of 1337:hordes had camped outside of the city of 1220:Sultan Muhammad was succeeded by his son 9607:Ethiopian intervention (2006–2009) 9226: 8963:"President Hassan Sheikh reaches Garowe" 8841: 8537: 8482: 8438:"Somali Lawmakers Pass Proposed Cabinet" 8379: 8032: 8010: 7896: 7407: 7311: 6471: 6366: 6324: 5861: 5691: 5689: 5687: 5328:"Prehistoric Implements From Somaliland" 4756: 4391: 4376: 4313:Federal Republic of Somalia (since 2012) 4251: 4170: 4137:of the Transitional Federal Government. 3956: 3924:: These precepts include: a) payment of 3776:macro-regions. In the case of the later 3689: 3611: 3588: 3548: 3476: 3450:(SRSP), a one-party government based on 3269: 3218: 2966: 2921: 2849: 2792:was the capital of the Dervish movement. 2784: 2487: 2475: 2357: 2261:was controlled indigenously between the 1546:was sacked by a Portuguese fleet led by 1497: 1426: 1375: 1238: 1156: 1066: 1024: 932: 757: 513: 388:, both centered around the port town of 9359: 8955: 8511: 8466:. Thepeninsulaqatar.com. Archived from 8452: 8331: 8064: 7953: 7951: 7949: 7947: 7781: 7684: 7497: 7300:, (Taylor & Francis: 1982), p. 279 7283: 7141: 6996: 6737:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 6728: 6520:. Eyre and Spottiswoode (London). 1896. 6097: 5743: 5716: 5607: 5550: 5173: 5121: 4737:also known as Migiurtinia/Majeerteenia. 4140: 4064:Rise of the Islamic Courts Union (2006) 4027:(TFIs) of government as defined in the 3561:civilians between 1987 and 1989 by the 3353:, the people of Somalia ratified a new 2863:discussing matters with Italian figures 2605:in 1899, Hassan said that the British " 1078:was an important monetary supporter of 766:extending from southern Europe through 10741: 9336: 9172: 9013:. Goobjoog. 2 May 2015. Archived from 8430: 8414:. English.alshahid.net. Archived from 8189: 8141: 8050: 7984: 7880: 7877:, (World of Information: 1987), p.213. 7808: 7695: 7613:"Investigating genocide in Somaliland" 7584: 7551: 7503: 7480: 7450: 7362:"History of Somali Military Personnel" 7353: 6425: 6003:The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama 5840: 5797: 5795: 5534:. Agence France-Presse. Archived from 5529: 5523: 5450: 5192: 5142: 5115: 5112:, (North Atlantic Books: 1992), p. 94. 4207:, as the nation's new Prime Minister. 4031:(TFC) adopted in November 2004 by the 3911:(police officers) to enforce the law. 3721:United Nations Operation in Somalia II 3715:led by the United States. Forming the 3384:, who at the time commanded the army. 3025:Italian Somali Divisions (101 and 102) 2900:became pessimistic about the results. 2398:arrested one of Sharmarke's agents in 1542:port cities. For example, the city of 1263:of Ethiopia, reaching as far north as 861:Roman conquest of the Nabataean Empire 10344: 10318: 9445: 9235: 9204:"Jubaland elects six Lower House MPs" 8878: 8670: 8550:"Security Council Meeting on Somalia" 8258:, Reuters (FT.com), 29 December 2008. 7763:from the original on 26 December 2016 7722: 7663: 7557: 7359: 7332: 7280:, Volume 25, (Grolier: 1995), p. 214. 7228: 7223:Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations 6815: 6761: 6719:‎, (CRC Press: 2005), p. 1406. 6498:from the original on 19 February 2021 6481:, (LIT Verlag Münster: 1999), p. 157. 6457:. Springer Nature. pp. 273–274. 6410: 6070: 5971: 5908: 5891: 5834: 5722: 5695: 5684: 5654: 5627: 4260:in a meeting with UNDP Administrator 4234:militia. Furthermore, Al-Shabaab and 4167:2009 timeline of the Somali Civil War 3573:(which was 90 percent destroyed) and 3501:region of Ethiopia into a Pan-Somali 3005:(taken from the conquered Ethiopia). 2812:Coronaro's survey concluded that the 2552: 1592:, was the most important port in the 1491:and Southeast African merchants from 1353:Afar dynasty, who would kick out the 739: 728:is recorded on the temple reliefs at 9471: 8847: 8493:"Somali Premier Unveils New Cabinet" 7944: 7891:Political Handbook of the World 2008 7657: 6932: 6640: 6395: 6327:The Portuguese Period in East Africa 5633: 5608:Alberge, Dalya (17 September 2010). 5556: 5160: 4446:On 17 December 2014, former Premier 3652:. Among the militia groups were the 3448:Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party 3082:, the administrative capital of the 2680:adding citations to reliable sources 2651: 2503:In the late 19th century, after the 8705:. 10 September 2012. Archived from 8645:Gettleman, Jeffrey (23 June 2011). 8341:. Fox News Channel. 1 February 2010 8296:"Islamists break Somali port truce" 7828: 7723:Press, Robert M. (1 January 1999). 7261:J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver, 6419: 5792: 5660: 4494:Mohamed Abdullahi "Farmajo" Mohamed 3738: 3679: 2963:"Somalia Italiana" and World War II 2839:in the south-west, from Galladi to 2576: 1198:, who sent envoys to the Sultan of 907:higher prices to North Africa, the 408:for its wealth and wisdom, and the 360:Jumhūriyyat aṣ-Ṣūmāl al-Fideraaliya 354:Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliya 13: 9210:. 28 December 2021. Archived from 8879:Sisay, Andualem (29 August 2013). 8765:. 21 December 2013. Archived from 8671:Ahmed, Muddassar (8 August 2012). 8464:"Somali PM unveils leaner cabinet" 8272:. Horseedmedia.net. Archived from 8244:"Somalia's president quits office" 8146:. Garoweonline.com. Archived from 8142:Online, Garowe (12 January 2011). 8120:. Globalpolicy.org. 14 August 2007 7906:, (National Academies: 1988), p.9. 7386:Oliver Ramsbotham, Tom Woodhouse, 6733:Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism 6706:Sudan Notes and Records – Page 147 6450: 6287:East Africa and its Invaders p. 37 6230:East Africa and its Invaders p. 38 6188: 5847:. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 7. 5679:Near Eastern archaeology: a reader 5664:Somalia Today: General Information 5373: 5239:, (Greystone Press: 1967), p. 338. 2340:with whom they still mostly live. 1395:, the sultanates and republics of 392:. Additionally, the port towns of 14: 10765: 10754:History of East Africa by country 9423: 9154:from the original on 15 July 2023 8096:Forum on China-Africa Cooperation 8075:"Rulers – Somalia – October 2004" 8058:"Somalia MPs elect new president" 7782:Lindley, Anna (15 January 2013). 7619:from the original on 20 May 2017. 7504:Peifer, Douglas C. (1 May 2009). 7212:, (Greystone Press: 1967), p. 338 7190:. Strategypage.com. 9 August 2006 6192:Etymological Dictionary of Harari 6034:, (Hakluyt Society: 1980), p. 83. 5875:Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 25 5183:, (Lexington Books: 2006), p. 48. 5170:, (Raincoast Books: 2005), p.297. 4996:Index of Somalia-related articles 4807:Italian Somaliland a crown colony 4210:With the help of a small team of 4025:Transitional Federal Institutions 4007:Transitional Federal Institutions 4001:Transitional Federal Institutions 3654:Somali Salvation Democratic Front 3538: 3179:Fiat building in Mogadiscio, 1940 3167:Cinema Italia in Mogadiscio, 1937 1248:Conquest of Ethiopian territories 720:, short-horned cattle, ivory and 611:cave complex on the outskirts of 432: 10645:Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic 10415:Democratic Republic of the Congo 10298: 10289: 10288: 9655: 9429: 9287:"What ever happened to Somalia?" 9285:Al-Ghwell, Hafed (12 May 2018). 9278: 9236:Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). 9196: 9166: 9103: 9081: 9055: 9029: 8825:. 28 August 2013. Archived from 8735:. 6 October 2012. Archived from 8552:. Somaliweyn.org. Archived from 8288: 8261: 8256:"Somali President Yusuf resigns" 8249: 8162: 8110: 7958:Dr Andre Le Sage (1 June 2005). 7849: 7822: 7802: 7775: 7743: 7716: 7696:Harper, Mary (9 February 2012). 7623: 7605: 7578: 7524: 7451:Mullin, Chris (1 October 2010). 7444: 7401: 7321:, (Gale Research: 1992), p. 306 7255: 7202: 7180: 7164:. Buluugleey.com. Archived from 7114: 7101: 6933:Knox, Macgregor (27 June 1986). 6564:. 7 October 2017. Archived from 6101:Historical Dictionary of Somalia 6028:George Wynn Brereton Huntingford 5696:Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). 5483:from the original on 1 June 2023 5451:McCall, Daniel (February 1998). 5252:A History of African Archaeology 5016: 5002: 4977:Somaliland declares independence 4961:1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War 4450:was reappointed Prime Minister. 3976:Transitional National Government 3966:Transitional National Government 3365:region in northwestern Somalia. 3196: 3184: 3172: 3160: 3148: 3136: 2656: 2585:was spread by Sultan Nur of the 2280:kingdom that ruled parts of the 1675: 1471:in the 15th century with cloth, 1318:would later be succeeded by the 1010:(the purported ancestors of the 863:and the Roman naval presence at 21: 9575:Somaliland War of Independence 9376:; Dr. Satya Pal Ruhela (2001). 8795:. 13 April 2013. Archived from 8118:"Ethiopian Invasion of Somalia" 7729:. University Press of Florida. 7664:Tekle, Amare (1 January 1994). 7585:Straus, Scott (24 March 2015). 7558:Jones, Adam (22 January 2017). 7340:Africa South of the Sahara 2001 7263:The Cambridge history of Africa 7188:"The making of a Somalia state" 7149:Encyclopedia of African history 7111:, (United Nations: 1974), p. 20 7061:. Macmillan Press. p. 68. 7027:. Running Press. p. 1749. 6987: 6960: 6926: 6900: 6886: 6872: 6836: 6809: 6782: 6755: 6722: 6717:Encyclopedia of African history 6709: 6700: 6674: 6661: 6652: 6634: 6625: 6605: 6580: 6550: 6524: 6510: 6484: 6444: 6404: 6389: 6375: 6360: 6351: 6342: 6308: 6299: 6290: 6281: 6272: 6263: 6251: 6242: 6233: 6224: 6215: 6202: 6182: 6166: 6153: 6140: 6131: 6126:The Cambridge history of Africa 6118: 6091: 6064: 6047:The Cambridge History of Africa 6037: 6021: 6016:The Cambridge History of Africa 6008: 5995: 5982: 5965: 5932: 5821: 5808: 5779: 5770: 5671: 5507: 5498: 5444: 5393: 5367: 5316: 5273: 5242: 5128:. Childrens Press. p. 26. 4839: 4305:elections are to be organized. 4270:Transitional Federal Government 4163:Somali Civil War (2009–present) 4033:Transitional Federal Parliament 4021:Transitional Federal Government 4015:Transitional Federal Parliament 4011:Transitional Federal Government 3991:Transitional Federal Government 3983:Transitional Federal Parliament 3947:Transitional period (2000–2012) 3856:(pronounced /ħeːr/). Xeer is a 3778:Transitional Federal Government 3239:. In November 1945, during the 3208: 3203:Governor's palace in Mogadiscio 3113:around the towns of Moyale and 2766:. With the arrival of Governor 2667:needs additional citations for 2647: 2343: 1419:noted that many ships from the 1209: 826:connecting with merchants from 669: 498:, Somalia remains divided with 9382:. Civic Webs Virtual Library. 9142:Aljazeera (27 December 2021). 7960:"Stateless Justice in Somalia" 7294:Peter John de la Fosse Wiles, 7241:. Red Sea Press. p. 226. 7007:Zolberg, Aristide R., et al., 6939:. Cambridge University Press. 6816:Kusow, Abdi (1 January 2004). 6669:First Footsteps in East Africa 6077:. Westview Press. p. 20. 5530:Bakano, Otto (24 April 2011). 5229: 5125:Explorers of the Ancient World 5102: 5099:, (B. Fellowes: 1855), p. 199. 5089: 4707:late 17th – late 19th century: 3439:(OAU), the predecessor of the 2561:clan, many of them joined the 2375:with his sights set as far as 1560:expedition to the Somali coast 1029:Engraving of the 13th century 696:found in Somalia (such as the 368:, is a country located in the 1: 9565:Trust Territory of Somaliland 9330: 9173:Sheikh, Abdi (15 June 2022). 8519:"Somali PM names new cabinet" 8246:, BBC News, 29 December 2008. 7873:World of Information (Firm), 7422:10.1080/19392206.2016.1208475 6822:. Red Sea Press. p. 82. 6729:Samatar, Said Sheikh (1982). 6415:. Westview Press. p. 35. 5961:– via Internet Archive. 5563:African Archaeological Review 5294:10.1080/00438243.1988.9980055 5037:Federal Parliament of Somalia 4948:23 July 1977 – 15 March 1978: 4752: 4595: 4448:Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke 4388:-Mogadishu road in April 2014 4334:Federal Government of Somalia 4330:Federal Parliament of Somalia 4323:Federal Government of Somalia 4245:On 14 October 2010, diplomat 4201:Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke 3792:which affirms the primacy of 3599:Supreme Revolutionary Council 3466: 3437:Organization of African Unity 3405:Supreme Revolutionary Council 3399:Supreme Revolutionary Council 3191:Italian stamp from Mogadiscio 2396:Abu Bakr II ibn ʽAbd al-Munan 1275:, son of the famed navigator 1150:to Yedaya where according to 509: 472:Supreme Revolutionary Council 9242:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 29–34. 8675:. Al Arabiya. Archived from 8392:. ABC News. 12 November 2010 7591:. Cornell University Press. 7151:, (CRC Press: 2005), p. 360. 6221:Da Gama's First Voyage p. 88 5702:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 29–31. 5661:Ali, Ismail Mohamed (1970). 5419:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004393 5062:Political history of Somalia 4626:10th century – 16th century: 4556: 4551: 4384:reinforcement convoy on the 4256:Foreign Minister of Somalia 4029:Transitional Federal Charter 3759: 3584: 3088:Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi 3021:Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali 2507:, European powers began the 1455:and for the gold trade from 615:in northwestern Somalia has 364:) and formerly known as the 7: 9343:University of Chicago Press 8268:Kamaal says (22 May 2010). 8173:. Unhcr.org. Archived from 7930:Central Intelligence Agency 7893:, (CQ Press: 2008), p.1198. 7829:Law, Ian (1 January 2010). 7390:, (ABC-CLIO: 1999), p. 222 6641:Hunt, John Anthony (1951). 6430:. Bloomsbury. p. 113. 6315:Schurhammer, Georg (1977). 5978:. F.A. Praeger. p. 37. 5108:Jeanne Rose, John Hulburd, 5057:Military history of Somalia 5032:Economic history of Somalia 4985: 4969:: Fall of Barre government. 4617:9th century – 13th century: 4571:establishes trade with the 4536:On June 25, Prime Minister 4319:Federal Republic of Somalia 4147:Al-Shabaab (militant group) 3961:Embassy of Somalia in Paris 3713:United Nations peacekeepers 3249:Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali 1216:Maritime history of Somalia 914: 746:Maritime history of Somalia 654:Military history of Somalia 358: 350:Federal Republic of Somalia 342: 10: 10770: 9062:AfricaNews (27 May 2021). 6210:Journal of African History 6178:. Encyclopedia Aethiopica. 4989: 4933:Somali Democratic Republic 4875:Trust Territory of Somalia 4701:Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi 4316: 4197:Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed 4144: 4095:On 8 January 2007, as the 4060:Battle of Mogadishu (2006) 4057: 4004: 3950: 3845: 3819: 3697:helicopter shortly before 3683: 3674:Somali Democratic Alliance 3670:Somali Democratic Movement 3565:under the dictatorship of 3563:Somali Democratic Republic 3542: 3517:and put heavy pressure on 3470: 3417:Somali Democratic Republic 3394:Somali Democratic Republic 3391: 3388:Somali Democratic Republic 3359:Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal 3323:Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal 3261:Northern Frontier District 3212: 3012:("imperial road") between 2957:Campaign of the Sultanates 2515:leaders in the north like 2417:, the third Sultan of the 2394:. After the Amir of Harar 2347: 2257:Historically, the port of 1526:in East Africa meant that 1256:Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi 1244:Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi 1213: 918: 856:to transport their cargo. 750:Ancient Somali City-States 743: 673: 647: 643: 623:are found in the northern 480:Somali Democratic Republic 452:United Nations Trusteeship 433:Campaign of the Sultanates 366:Somali Democratic Republic 10658: 10633: 10352: 10284: 10217: 10147: 10138: 10068: 10059: 9945: 9941: 9932: 9876: 9773: 9677: 9673: 9664: 9653: 9625: 9492: 9483: 9362:"Somalia Country Studies" 9337:Laitin, David D. (1977). 9309:"Somaliland Constitution" 8965:. Goobjoog. 28 April 2015 7818:. World Bank. p. 10. 7459:. Profile Books. p. 6325:Strandes, Justus (1968). 6148:The Ethiopians: a history 5827:Eric Herbert Warmington, 5814:Eric Herbert Warmington, 5801:Eric Herbert Warmington, 5785:Eric Herbert Warmington, 5575:10.1007/s10437-008-9032-2 5249:Peter Robertshaw (1990). 5072:Prime Minister of Somalia 4863:Independence and Cold War 4823:(and from 1936 Ethiopia). 4682:The rise and fall of the 4647:The rise and fall of the 4637:The rise and fall of the 4530:as President of Somalia. 4517:Mohamed Abdullahi Farmajo 4467:Sharif Hassan Sheikh Adan 4439:was launched against the 4247:Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed 3666:Somali Patriotic Movement 3617:Abdirahman Ahmed Ali Tuur 3431:, eventually joining the 3084:Africa Orientale Italiana 2986:Africa Orientale Italiana 2762:according to the plan of 2328:), nicknamed Dhuh Barar ( 2288:clan, descendants of the 1566:and sent an envoy to the 1161:Almnara Tower, Mogadishu. 636:in northern Somalia lies 10400:Central African Republic 7364:. THOAPI. Archived from 7093:Somalia: A Country Study 6518:Genealogies of the Somal 6367:Prichard, J. C. (1837). 5841:Briggs, Phillip (2012). 5209:Issa-Salwe, Abdisalam M. 5082: 4924:Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke 4915:Aden Abdullah Osman Daar 4905:Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf 4732:mid-18th century – 1929: 4540:work came to an end and 4205:Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke 3928:(locally referred to as 3662:Somali National Movement 3621:Somali National Movement 3343:Abdirashid Ali Shermarke 3341:of Somali Republic, and 3335:Aden Abdullah Osman Daar 3331:Somali National Assembly 3327:Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf 3286:was held in neighboring 3107:East Africa Protectorate 2539:Mohammed Abdullah Hassan 2517:Mohammed Abdullah Hassan 2493:Mohammed Abdullah Hassan 2354:Khedivate's Somali Coast 1345:to the outskirts of the 468:Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf 9525:Sultanate of the Geledi 7475:Siad barre's holocaust. 7208:Greystone Press Staff, 6161:The Portuguese Pioneers 5519:10.1126/science.1078208 5235:Greystone Press Staff, 5122:Charnan, Simon (1990). 4726:Sultanate of the Geledi 4500:as his Prime Minister. 4258:Mohamed Abdullahi Omaar 4222:, other members of the 4068:Somalia War (2006–2009) 3841: 2989:(A.O.I.) and formed by 2801:, as a colonial force. 1588:, the main port of the 1538:in order to pacify the 1510:surrendered to a joint 1415:. In the 16th century, 1184:Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din 786:until it reaches China. 445:military administration 417:Italian colonial empire 9239:The History of Somalia 8018:"Back to Somali roots" 7809:Gajraj, Priya (2005). 7756:(Report). p. 10. 7055:Paolo Tripodi (1999). 6396:Hunt, Freeman (1856). 5988:M. Elfasi, Ivan Hrbek 5723:Dalal, Roshen (2011). 5699:The History of Somalia 5634:Hodd, Michael (1994). 5150:"The Mariner's mirror" 4762: 4629:Sultanate of Mogadishu 4437:Operation Indian Ocean 4404: 4401:Operation Indian Ocean 4389: 4372:Ahmed Mahamoud Silanyo 4265: 4180: 3972:Abdiqasim Salad Hassan 3962: 3786: 3702: 3658:United Somali Congress 3624: 3602: 3554: 3490: 3319:Abdullahi Issa Mohamud 3279: 3274:An avenue in downtown 3253:Somali National League 3228: 2976: 2927: 2864: 2793: 2768:Cesare Maria De Vecchi 2500: 2485: 2363: 2333: 2325: 1670: 1524:Somali-Portuguese wars 1519: 1436: 1388: 1251: 1162: 1083: 1076:Sultanate of Mogadishu 1038: 1035:Sultanate of Mogadishu 962:migration to Abyssinia 946: 787: 712:. The Puntites traded 682:pyramidical structures 531: 353: 337: 10560:São Tomé and Príncipe 10420:Republic of the Congo 9374:Aidid, Mohamed Farrah 9271:15 March 2007 at the 7928:. Langley, Virginia: 7670:. The Red Sea Press. 6588:"Taariikhda Toljecle" 6451:Arafat, S. M. Yasir. 6411:Lewis, I. M. (1988). 6071:Lewis, I. M. (1988). 6001:Sanjay Subrahmanyam, 5972:Lewis, I. M. (1965). 5637:East African Handbook 5380:The Australian Museum 5255:. J. Currey. p. 4760: 4546:Hassan Sheikh Mohamud 4538:Mohamed Hussein Roble 4524:Hassan Sheikh Mohamud 4509:Mohamed Hussein Roble 4399:during the operation 4395: 4380: 4358:and the secessionist 4351:on 21 December 2013. 4349:Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed 4341:Hassan Sheikh Mohamud 4255: 4193:Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah 4174: 4097:Battle of Ras Kamboni 3995:Abdullahi Ahmed Addou 3987:Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed 3960: 3693: 3615: 3592: 3552: 3480: 3409:Salaad Gabeyre Kediye 3403:Alongside Barre, the 3308:Hassan Gouled Aptidon 3273: 3222: 2970: 2925: 2853: 2835:(El Dher) through to 2788: 2521:Sultan Nur Ahmed Aman 2511:, which inspired the 2491: 2479: 2449:Sultan Ibrahim's son 2415:Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim 2361: 1666: 1554:(1507). In 1542, the 1501: 1430: 1379: 1242: 1160: 1070: 1028: 936: 761: 557:likely spread across 555:Afroasiatic languages 517: 410:Barbario civilization 9614:(2009–present) 9545:Warsangali Sultanate 9535:Majeerteen Sultanate 9438:at Wikimedia Commons 9121:Agence France-Presse 8917:on September 6, 2014 8891:on 10 September 2017 8860:on 11 September 2013 8799:on 27 September 2013 8046:on 21 November 2004. 7510:. DIANE Publishing. 7134:Barrington, Lowell, 6894:"Italian Mogadiscio" 6795:. HAAN. p. 19. 6762:Kusow, Abdi (2004). 6323:pp. 98–99. See also 5892:Lewis, I.M. (1955). 5457:Current Anthropology 5166:Christine El Mahdy, 5154:The Mariner's Mirror 5067:President of Somalia 4735:Majeerteen Sultanate 4459:Abdiweli Mohamed Ali 4430:Somali National Army 4411:with the autonomous 4397:Somali Army soldiers 4307:Abdiweli Mohamed Ali 4278:Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a 4228:Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a 4220:Islamic Courts Union 4155:Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a 4141:Coalition government 4131:President of Somalia 4074:Islamic Courts Union 4044:President of Somalia 3646:resistance movements 3507:Abdullahi Ahmed Irro 3452:scientific socialism 3411:and Chief of Police 3374:military coup d'état 3329:as President of the 3155:Mogadiscio cathedral 2691:"History of Somalia" 2676:improve this article 2292:clan, in modern-day 1431:Model of a medieval 1305:Battle of Wayna Daga 1088:Christian Solomonids 956:, shortly after the 526:complex depicting a 437:Majeerteen Sultanate 10635:States with limited 8769:on 24 December 2013 8739:on 17 December 2014 8470:on 11 December 2012 8225:. Unis.unvienna.org 7147:Kevin Shillington, 6715:Kevin Shillington, 6592:www.tashiwanaag.com 6385:. 1840. p. 22. 6146:Richard Pankhurst, 6128:, Volume 4. p. 155. 6104:. Scarecrow Press. 5557:Mire, Sada (2008). 4911:1 July 1960 – 1967: 4885:State of Somaliland 4831:Somalia Governorate 4769:20 July 1887 : 4645:1200s – late 1600s: 4463:Ahmed Mohamed Islam 4422:Ahmed Mohamed Islam 4175:The battle flag of 3953:Politics of Somalia 3744:along three lines: 3733:Mohamed Farah Aidid 3729:Battle of Mogadishu 3699:Battle of Mogadishu 3634:Mohamed Ali Samatar 3481:Poster showing the 3245:Somali Youth League 3225:Somali Youth League 3129:Somalia Governorate 2525:Sheikh Abikar Gafle 2509:Scramble for Africa 2368:Sharmarke Ali Saleh 2350:Sharmarke Ali Saleh 2272:In Somaliland, the 2171:Shiikhall Gendershe 1463:merchants from the 1196:Muhammad ibn Badlay 1192:Ethiopian Highlands 1072:Mogadishan currency 973:Masjid al-Qiblatayn 650:Somali architecture 496:Federal governments 456:State of Somaliland 435:against the ruling 382:Mogadishu Sultanate 10749:History of Somalia 9916:South West Somalia 9560:British Somaliland 9555:Italian Somaliland 9540:Sultanate of Hobyo 9436:History of Somalia 9123:. 27 December 2021 8829:on 12 October 2013 8651:The New York Times 8321:Shariah in Somalia 7972:on 18 January 2012 7925:The World Factbook 7788:. Berghahn Books. 7645:on 2 February 2017 7360:Ahmed III, Abdul. 7317:Benjamin Frankel, 7168:on 16 January 2009 6914:on 20 October 2018 6697:, pp. 176 and note 6538:on 11 January 2021 4992:Outline of Somalia 4799:Italian Somaliland 4772:British Somaliland 4763: 4744:Sultanate of Hobyo 4405: 4390: 4345:Abdi Farah Shirdon 4266: 4181: 3963: 3717:Unified Task Force 3703: 3625: 3603: 3597:, Chairman of the 3595:Mohamed Siad Barre 3555: 3493:In July 1977, the 3491: 3382:Mohamed Siad Barre 3351:popular referendum 3280: 3241:Potsdam Conference 3229: 3103:British Somaliland 2999:Italian Somaliland 2977: 2973:Italian Somaliland 2928: 2865: 2843:in the west, from 2825:Sultanate of Hobyo 2794: 2583:James Hayes Sadler 2571:Banadir Resistance 2553:Banadir Resistance 2533:Banadir Resistance 2529:Banadir Resistance 2501: 2486: 2480:Dervish commander 2364: 1520: 1437: 1421:Kingdom of Cambaya 1393:age of the Ajurans 1389: 1252: 1163: 1084: 1039: 1031:Fakr ad-Din Mosque 947: 796:Somali city-states 788: 740:Somali City States 666:and North Africa. 532: 476:Mohamed Siad Barre 441:Sultanate of Hobyo 425:Banadir Resistance 421:Italian Somaliland 348:), officially the 187:Traditional faiths 40:Culture of Somalia 10736: 10735: 10662:other territories 10435:Equatorial Guinea 10346:History of Africa 10312: 10311: 10280: 10279: 10134: 10133: 10055: 10054: 10051: 10050: 10019:Political parties 10009:Political history 9965:Foreign relations 9928: 9927: 9924: 9923: 9702:Guardafui Channel 9651: 9650: 9590:(1986–1992) 9577:(1981–1991) 9434:Media related to 9352:978-0-226-46791-7 9313:Somalilandlaw.com 9043:. 8 February 2017 8991:on 18 August 2015 8848:Wendoson, Abera. 8556:on 5 January 2014 8302:. 21 October 2009 7842:978-1-4058-5912-7 7795:978-1-78238-328-4 7736:978-0-8130-1704-4 7709:978-1-78032-105-9 7702:. Zed Books Ltd. 7677:978-0-932415-97-4 7598:978-0-8014-5567-4 7571:978-1-84277-191-4 7544:978-0-8153-0309-1 7517:978-1-4379-1281-4 7470:978-1-84765-186-0 7097:countrystudies.us 7089:Helen Chapin Metz 7068:978-0-312-22393-9 7034:978-0-7624-1642-4 6768:. Red Sea Press. 6568:on 11 August 2021 6464:978-981-97-2519-9 6111:978-0-8108-6604-1 6084:978-0-8133-7402-4 6057:978-0-521-22505-2 6030:, Agatharchides, 5677:Suzanne Richard, 5282:World Archaeology 5266:978-0-435-08041-9 5042:History of Africa 4639:Sultanate of Ifat 4573:Ancient Egyptians 3922:international law 3292:French Somaliland 2983:, calling it the 2829:Yusuf Ali Kenadid 2760:La Grande Somalia 2752: 2751: 2744: 2726: 2505:Berlin Conference 2255: 2254: 2201:Shiikhall Jasiira 1602:Arabian Peninsula 1522:The 16th century 1385:Somali enterprise 1320:Imamate of Awsame 1316:Sultanate of Adal 1273:Cristóvão da Gama 1269:Solomonic Dynasty 1096:Sultanate of Ifat 989:Sultanate of Ifat 954:Arabian peninsula 939:Sultanate of Adal 877:Mediterranean Sea 869:Arabian Peninsula 594:Late Palaeolithic 402:Macrobian Kingdom 386:Ajuran Sultanate 330: 329: 10761: 10723: 10722:(United Kingdom) 10718:Tristan da Cunha 10714:Ascension Island 10706: 10693: 10684: 10660:Dependencies and 10353:Sovereign states 10339: 10332: 10325: 10316: 10315: 10302: 10292: 10291: 10145: 10144: 10111: 10098:Mineral industry 10088:Economic history 10066: 10065: 9999: 9943: 9942: 9939: 9938: 9675: 9674: 9671: 9670: 9659: 9615: 9608: 9591: 9578: 9550:Dervish movement 9510:Walashma dynasty 9490: 9489: 9466: 9459: 9452: 9443: 9442: 9433: 9419: 9400: 9398: 9396: 9369: 9356: 9324: 9323: 9321: 9319: 9305: 9299: 9298: 9296: 9294: 9282: 9276: 9260: 9254: 9253: 9233: 9224: 9223: 9221: 9219: 9200: 9194: 9193: 9191: 9189: 9170: 9164: 9163: 9161: 9159: 9139: 9133: 9132: 9130: 9128: 9107: 9101: 9100: 9098: 9096: 9085: 9079: 9078: 9076: 9074: 9059: 9053: 9052: 9050: 9048: 9033: 9027: 9026: 9024: 9022: 9007: 9001: 9000: 8998: 8996: 8981: 8975: 8974: 8972: 8970: 8959: 8953: 8952: 8950: 8948: 8943:on 30 March 2016 8933: 8927: 8926: 8924: 8922: 8907: 8901: 8900: 8898: 8896: 8887:. Archived from 8876: 8870: 8869: 8867: 8865: 8856:. Archived from 8854:Ethiopian Herald 8845: 8839: 8838: 8836: 8834: 8815: 8809: 8808: 8806: 8804: 8785: 8779: 8778: 8776: 8774: 8755: 8749: 8748: 8746: 8744: 8725: 8719: 8718: 8716: 8714: 8695: 8689: 8688: 8686: 8684: 8679:on 9 August 2012 8668: 8662: 8661: 8659: 8657: 8642: 8636: 8630: 8624: 8623: 8621: 8619: 8613: 8607:. Archived from 8606: 8598: 8592: 8591: 8589: 8587: 8572: 8566: 8565: 8563: 8561: 8546: 8535: 8534: 8532: 8530: 8515: 8509: 8508: 8506: 8504: 8489: 8480: 8479: 8477: 8475: 8459: 8450: 8449: 8447: 8445: 8434: 8428: 8427: 8425: 8423: 8408: 8402: 8401: 8399: 8397: 8386: 8377: 8376: 8374: 8372: 8357: 8351: 8350: 8348: 8346: 8335: 8329: 8318: 8312: 8311: 8309: 8307: 8292: 8286: 8285: 8283: 8281: 8265: 8259: 8253: 8247: 8241: 8235: 8234: 8232: 8230: 8219: 8213: 8212: 8210: 8208: 8193: 8187: 8186: 8184: 8182: 8166: 8160: 8159: 8157: 8155: 8139: 8130: 8129: 8127: 8125: 8114: 8108: 8107: 8105: 8103: 8098:. 21 August 2012 8088: 8079: 8078: 8071: 8062: 8061: 8054: 8048: 8047: 8042:. Archived from 8036: 8030: 8029: 8027: 8025: 8014: 8008: 8007: 8005: 8003: 7988: 7982: 7981: 7979: 7977: 7971: 7964: 7955: 7942: 7941: 7939: 7937: 7916: 7907: 7900: 7894: 7887: 7878: 7871: 7862: 7861: 7856:"Africa Watch". 7853: 7847: 7846: 7826: 7820: 7819: 7817: 7806: 7800: 7799: 7779: 7773: 7772: 7770: 7768: 7762: 7755: 7747: 7741: 7740: 7720: 7714: 7713: 7693: 7682: 7681: 7661: 7655: 7654: 7652: 7650: 7644: 7637: 7627: 7621: 7620: 7609: 7603: 7602: 7582: 7576: 7575: 7555: 7549: 7548: 7528: 7522: 7521: 7501: 7495: 7494: 7484: 7478: 7477: 7458: 7448: 7442: 7441: 7410:African Security 7405: 7399: 7384: 7378: 7377: 7375: 7373: 7368:on 30 April 2013 7357: 7351: 7336: 7330: 7315: 7309: 7292: 7281: 7275: 7266: 7259: 7253: 7252: 7232: 7226: 7221:Moshe Y. Sachs, 7219: 7213: 7206: 7200: 7199: 7197: 7195: 7184: 7178: 7177: 7175: 7173: 7158: 7152: 7145: 7139: 7132: 7121: 7118: 7112: 7107:Francis Vallat, 7105: 7099: 7086: 7080: 7079: 7077: 7075: 7052: 7046: 7045: 7043: 7041: 7018: 7012: 7005: 6994: 6991: 6985: 6983: 6981: 6979: 6974:on 2 August 2009 6970:. Archived from 6964: 6958: 6957: 6955: 6953: 6930: 6924: 6923: 6921: 6919: 6910:. Archived from 6904: 6898: 6897: 6890: 6884: 6883: 6876: 6870: 6869: 6849: 6843: 6840: 6834: 6833: 6813: 6807: 6806: 6786: 6780: 6779: 6759: 6753: 6752: 6736: 6726: 6720: 6713: 6707: 6704: 6698: 6691: 6685: 6678: 6672: 6667:Richard Burton, 6665: 6659: 6656: 6650: 6649: 6638: 6632: 6629: 6623: 6622: 6609: 6603: 6602: 6600: 6598: 6584: 6578: 6577: 6575: 6573: 6554: 6548: 6547: 6545: 6543: 6534:. Archived from 6528: 6522: 6521: 6514: 6508: 6507: 6505: 6503: 6488: 6482: 6475: 6469: 6468: 6448: 6442: 6441: 6423: 6417: 6416: 6408: 6402: 6401: 6393: 6387: 6386: 6379: 6373: 6372: 6364: 6358: 6355: 6349: 6346: 6340: 6338: 6322: 6312: 6306: 6303: 6297: 6294: 6288: 6285: 6279: 6276: 6270: 6267: 6261: 6257:R. J. Barendse, 6255: 6249: 6246: 6240: 6237: 6231: 6228: 6222: 6219: 6213: 6206: 6200: 6199: 6197: 6186: 6180: 6179: 6170: 6164: 6159:Edgar Prestage, 6157: 6151: 6144: 6138: 6135: 6129: 6122: 6116: 6115: 6095: 6089: 6088: 6068: 6062: 6061: 6041: 6035: 6025: 6019: 6012: 6006: 5999: 5993: 5986: 5980: 5979: 5969: 5963: 5962: 5960: 5958: 5936: 5930: 5929: 5906: 5900: 5899: 5889: 5880: 5879: 5870: 5859: 5858: 5838: 5832: 5825: 5819: 5812: 5806: 5799: 5790: 5783: 5777: 5774: 5768: 5767: 5747: 5741: 5740: 5720: 5714: 5713: 5693: 5682: 5675: 5669: 5668: 5658: 5652: 5651: 5631: 5625: 5624: 5622: 5620: 5605: 5599: 5598: 5596: 5594: 5585:. Archived from 5569:(3–4): 153–168. 5554: 5548: 5547: 5545: 5543: 5538:on 30 April 2011 5527: 5521: 5511: 5505: 5502: 5496: 5495: 5490: 5488: 5448: 5442: 5441: 5431: 5421: 5397: 5391: 5390: 5388: 5386: 5371: 5365: 5364: 5362: 5360: 5340:(106): 182–183. 5320: 5314: 5313: 5277: 5271: 5270: 5246: 5240: 5233: 5227: 5226: 5205: 5196: 5190: 5184: 5179:Stefan Goodwin, 5177: 5171: 5164: 5158: 5157: 5146: 5140: 5139: 5119: 5113: 5106: 5100: 5093: 5026: 5021: 5020: 5019: 5012: 5007: 5006: 5005: 4930:21 October 1969: 4817:15 January 1935: 4649:Ajuran Sultanate 4542:Hamza Abdi Barre 4522:On 15 May 2022, 4479:South West State 4457:with presidents 4216:counteroffensive 4086:Ethiopian troops 3810:court of appeals 3739:Decentralization 3686:Somali Civil War 3680:Somali Civil War 3650:Somali Civil War 3619:Chairman of the 3579:Somali Civil War 3200: 3188: 3176: 3164: 3152: 3140: 3064:Alfredo Serranti 3037:Bande irregolari 3010:Strada Imperiale 2814:Ismaan Sultanate 2747: 2740: 2736: 2733: 2727: 2725: 2684: 2660: 2652: 2626:Dervish movement 2591:Catholic Mission 2577:Dervish Movement 2543:Dervish movement 2497:Dervish movement 2495:, leader of the 2419:House of Gobroon 2247: 2240: 2233: 1679: 1672: 1671: 1576:Southeast Africa 1552:Battle of Barawa 1548:Tristão da Cunha 1357:immigrants from 1289:Portuguese India 1136:Solomonic Empire 1116:Walashma dynasty 1050:For many years, 1008:Ishaaq bin Ahmed 929:Ajuran Sultanate 881:Somali Peninsula 792:classical period 716:, spices, gold, 706:Mycenaean Greece 590:Northeast Africa 573:Cushitic peoples 549:According to an 484:Somali Civil War 363: 347: 322: 315: 308: 25: 18: 17: 10769: 10768: 10764: 10763: 10762: 10760: 10759: 10758: 10739: 10738: 10737: 10732: 10731: 10721: 10704: 10691: 10682: 10663: 10661: 10654: 10638: 10636: 10629: 10348: 10343: 10313: 10308: 10276: 10213: 10204:Public holidays 10130: 10109: 10047: 9993: 9920: 9872: 9868:Woqooyi Galbeed 9853:Middle Shebelle 9769: 9729:Mountain ranges 9697:Greater Somalia 9660: 9647: 9621: 9613: 9606: 9589: 9576: 9530:Isaaq Sultanate 9479: 9470: 9426: 9416: 9394: 9392: 9390: 9353: 9333: 9328: 9327: 9317: 9315: 9307: 9306: 9302: 9292: 9290: 9283: 9279: 9273:Wayback Machine 9261: 9257: 9250: 9234: 9227: 9217: 9215: 9214:on 15 June 2022 9202: 9201: 9197: 9187: 9185: 9171: 9167: 9157: 9155: 9140: 9136: 9126: 9124: 9109: 9108: 9104: 9094: 9092: 9087: 9086: 9082: 9072: 9070: 9060: 9056: 9046: 9044: 9035: 9034: 9030: 9020: 9018: 9009: 9008: 9004: 8994: 8992: 8983: 8982: 8978: 8968: 8966: 8961: 8960: 8956: 8946: 8944: 8935: 8934: 8930: 8920: 8918: 8909: 8908: 8904: 8894: 8892: 8877: 8873: 8863: 8861: 8846: 8842: 8832: 8830: 8817: 8816: 8812: 8802: 8800: 8787: 8786: 8782: 8772: 8770: 8757: 8756: 8752: 8742: 8740: 8727: 8726: 8722: 8712: 8710: 8709:on 29 July 2020 8697: 8696: 8692: 8682: 8680: 8669: 8665: 8655: 8653: 8643: 8639: 8631: 8627: 8617: 8615: 8611: 8604: 8600: 8599: 8595: 8585: 8583: 8574: 8573: 8569: 8559: 8557: 8548: 8547: 8538: 8528: 8526: 8517: 8516: 8512: 8502: 8500: 8491: 8490: 8483: 8473: 8471: 8460: 8453: 8443: 8441: 8436: 8435: 8431: 8421: 8419: 8410: 8409: 8405: 8395: 8393: 8388: 8387: 8380: 8370: 8368: 8359: 8358: 8354: 8344: 8342: 8337: 8336: 8332: 8319: 8315: 8305: 8303: 8294: 8293: 8289: 8279: 8277: 8276:on 19 June 2010 8266: 8262: 8254: 8250: 8242: 8238: 8228: 8226: 8221: 8220: 8216: 8206: 8204: 8195: 8194: 8190: 8180: 8178: 8167: 8163: 8153: 8151: 8140: 8133: 8123: 8121: 8116: 8115: 8111: 8101: 8099: 8090: 8089: 8082: 8073: 8072: 8065: 8056: 8055: 8051: 8038: 8037: 8033: 8023: 8021: 8016: 8015: 8011: 8001: 7999: 7990: 7989: 7985: 7975: 7973: 7969: 7962: 7956: 7945: 7935: 7933: 7918: 7917: 7910: 7901: 7897: 7888: 7881: 7872: 7865: 7855: 7854: 7850: 7843: 7827: 7823: 7815: 7807: 7803: 7796: 7780: 7776: 7766: 7764: 7760: 7753: 7749: 7748: 7744: 7737: 7721: 7717: 7710: 7694: 7685: 7678: 7662: 7658: 7648: 7646: 7642: 7635: 7629: 7628: 7624: 7611: 7610: 7606: 7599: 7583: 7579: 7572: 7556: 7552: 7545: 7537:. Garland Pub. 7529: 7525: 7518: 7502: 7498: 7485: 7481: 7471: 7449: 7445: 7406: 7402: 7385: 7381: 7371: 7369: 7358: 7354: 7337: 7333: 7316: 7312: 7293: 7284: 7276: 7269: 7260: 7256: 7249: 7233: 7229: 7220: 7216: 7207: 7203: 7193: 7191: 7186: 7185: 7181: 7171: 7169: 7160: 7159: 7155: 7146: 7142: 7133: 7124: 7119: 7115: 7106: 7102: 7087: 7083: 7073: 7071: 7069: 7053: 7049: 7039: 7037: 7035: 7019: 7015: 7006: 6997: 6992: 6988: 6977: 6975: 6966: 6965: 6961: 6951: 6949: 6947: 6931: 6927: 6917: 6915: 6906: 6905: 6901: 6892: 6891: 6887: 6878: 6877: 6873: 6866: 6850: 6846: 6841: 6837: 6830: 6814: 6810: 6803: 6787: 6783: 6776: 6760: 6756: 6749: 6727: 6723: 6714: 6710: 6705: 6701: 6695:First Footsteps 6692: 6688: 6679: 6675: 6666: 6662: 6657: 6653: 6639: 6635: 6630: 6626: 6611: 6610: 6606: 6596: 6594: 6586: 6585: 6581: 6571: 6569: 6556: 6555: 6551: 6541: 6539: 6530: 6529: 6525: 6516: 6515: 6511: 6501: 6499: 6490: 6489: 6485: 6476: 6472: 6465: 6449: 6445: 6438: 6424: 6420: 6409: 6405: 6394: 6390: 6381: 6380: 6376: 6365: 6361: 6356: 6352: 6347: 6343: 6313: 6309: 6304: 6300: 6295: 6291: 6286: 6282: 6277: 6273: 6268: 6264: 6256: 6252: 6247: 6243: 6238: 6234: 6229: 6225: 6220: 6216: 6207: 6203: 6195: 6187: 6183: 6172: 6171: 6167: 6158: 6154: 6145: 6141: 6136: 6132: 6123: 6119: 6112: 6096: 6092: 6085: 6069: 6065: 6058: 6042: 6038: 6026: 6022: 6013: 6009: 6000: 5996: 5987: 5983: 5970: 5966: 5956: 5954: 5952: 5938: 5937: 5933: 5926: 5907: 5903: 5890: 5883: 5872: 5871: 5862: 5855: 5839: 5835: 5826: 5822: 5813: 5809: 5800: 5793: 5784: 5780: 5775: 5771: 5764: 5748: 5744: 5737: 5721: 5717: 5710: 5694: 5685: 5676: 5672: 5659: 5655: 5648: 5632: 5628: 5618: 5616: 5606: 5602: 5592: 5590: 5589:on 27 June 2013 5555: 5551: 5541: 5539: 5528: 5524: 5512: 5508: 5503: 5499: 5486: 5484: 5449: 5445: 5412:(6): e1004393. 5398: 5394: 5384: 5382: 5372: 5368: 5358: 5356: 5346:10.2307/2840281 5324:H.W. Seton-Karr 5321: 5317: 5278: 5274: 5267: 5247: 5243: 5234: 5230: 5223: 5206: 5199: 5191: 5187: 5178: 5174: 5165: 5161: 5148: 5147: 5143: 5136: 5120: 5116: 5107: 5103: 5094: 5090: 5085: 5022: 5017: 5015: 5008: 5003: 5001: 4998: 4990:Main articles: 4988: 4895:Somali Republic 4865: 4848:18 August 1940: 4842: 4821:Italian Eritrea 4755: 4668:are visited by 4598: 4579:1st century AD: 4559: 4554: 4325: 4317:Main articles: 4315: 4169: 4143: 4070: 4056: 4017: 4005:Main articles: 4003: 3968: 3955: 3949: 3850: 3844: 3822: 3762: 3741: 3688: 3682: 3587: 3547: 3541: 3503:Greater Somalia 3487:Greater Somalia 3475: 3469: 3401: 3396: 3390: 3315:Somali Republic 3290:(then known as 3251:(HDMS) and the 3217: 3215:Somali Republic 3211: 3204: 3201: 3192: 3189: 3180: 3177: 3168: 3165: 3156: 3153: 3144: 3143:Italian Somalia 3141: 3125:Greater Somalia 3096:Italian Somalis 2965: 2885:Western Somalia 2748: 2737: 2731: 2728: 2685: 2683: 2673: 2661: 2650: 2579: 2555: 2356: 2348:Main articles: 2346: 2274:Isaaq Sultanate 2251: 2211: 2210: 2123: 2113: 2112: 2081: 2071: 2070: 1970: 1960: 1959: 1889: 1879: 1878: 1798: 1788: 1787: 1705: 1590:Isaaq Sultanate 1564:Portuguese rule 1487:merchants from 1447:merchants from 1322:established by 1309:Nur ibn Mujahid 1301:Battle of Wofla 1291:and arrived at 1285:Estêvão da Gama 1218: 1212: 1188:Kingdom of Bali 1168:Jamal ad-Din II 1126:The oldest son 1112:Sa'ad ad-Din II 1092:Muslim Ifatites 1062:Yaqut al-Hamawi 1057:Bilad-al-Barbar 931: 919:Main articles: 917: 836:Parthian Persia 756: 744:Main articles: 742: 678: 672: 660: 648:Main articles: 646: 598:Anthropologists 512: 482:. In 1991, the 464:Somali Republic 326: 12: 11: 5: 10767: 10757: 10756: 10751: 10734: 10733: 10730: 10729: 10727:Western Sahara 10724: 10707: 10694: 10685: 10671:Canary Islands 10667: 10666: 10664: 10659: 10656: 10655: 10653: 10652: 10647: 10641: 10639: 10634: 10631: 10630: 10628: 10627: 10622: 10617: 10612: 10607: 10602: 10597: 10592: 10587: 10582: 10577: 10572: 10567: 10562: 10557: 10552: 10547: 10542: 10537: 10532: 10527: 10522: 10517: 10512: 10507: 10502: 10497: 10492: 10487: 10482: 10477: 10472: 10467: 10462: 10457: 10452: 10447: 10442: 10437: 10432: 10427: 10422: 10417: 10412: 10407: 10402: 10397: 10392: 10387: 10382: 10377: 10372: 10367: 10362: 10356: 10354: 10350: 10349: 10342: 10341: 10334: 10327: 10319: 10310: 10309: 10307: 10306: 10296: 10285: 10282: 10281: 10278: 10277: 10275: 10274: 10269: 10264: 10259: 10254: 10249: 10244: 10239: 10234: 10229: 10223: 10221: 10215: 10214: 10212: 10211: 10206: 10201: 10196: 10191: 10190: 10189: 10179: 10174: 10169: 10164: 10159: 10157:Child marriage 10154: 10148: 10142: 10136: 10135: 10132: 10131: 10129: 10128: 10126:Transportation 10123: 10118: 10116:Communications 10113: 10105: 10100: 10095: 10090: 10085: 10080: 10075: 10069: 10063: 10057: 10056: 10053: 10052: 10049: 10048: 10046: 10045: 10044: 10043: 10036:Prime Minister 10033: 10032: 10031: 10021: 10016: 10011: 10006: 10001: 9989: 9984: 9983: 9982: 9972: 9967: 9962: 9957: 9952: 9946: 9936: 9930: 9929: 9926: 9925: 9922: 9921: 9919: 9918: 9913: 9908: 9903: 9898: 9893: 9888: 9882: 9880: 9874: 9873: 9871: 9870: 9865: 9860: 9858:Lower Shebelle 9855: 9850: 9845: 9840: 9835: 9830: 9825: 9820: 9815: 9810: 9805: 9800: 9795: 9790: 9785: 9779: 9777: 9771: 9770: 9768: 9767: 9766: 9765: 9763:Bajuni Islands 9755: 9754: 9753: 9743: 9742: 9741: 9736: 9726: 9725: 9724: 9719: 9709: 9704: 9699: 9694: 9689: 9684: 9678: 9668: 9662: 9661: 9654: 9652: 9649: 9648: 9646: 9645: 9640: 9635: 9629: 9627: 9623: 9622: 9620: 9619: 9618: 9617: 9610: 9598: 9593: 9585: 9583:Isaaq genocide 9580: 9572: 9567: 9562: 9557: 9552: 9547: 9542: 9537: 9532: 9527: 9522: 9517: 9515:Adal Sultanate 9512: 9507: 9502: 9496: 9494: 9487: 9481: 9480: 9469: 9468: 9461: 9454: 9446: 9440: 9439: 9425: 9424:External links 9422: 9421: 9420: 9414: 9401: 9388: 9370: 9357: 9351: 9332: 9329: 9326: 9325: 9300: 9277: 9255: 9249:978-0313378577 9248: 9225: 9195: 9165: 9134: 9102: 9080: 9054: 9028: 9017:on 15 May 2015 9002: 8976: 8954: 8928: 8902: 8871: 8840: 8810: 8780: 8750: 8720: 8690: 8663: 8637: 8625: 8614:on 11 May 2011 8593: 8582:on 15 May 2011 8567: 8536: 8525:on 14 May 2011 8510: 8499:on 14 May 2011 8481: 8451: 8429: 8418:on 11 May 2011 8403: 8378: 8367:on 15 May 2011 8352: 8330: 8313: 8287: 8260: 8248: 8236: 8214: 8203:on 14 May 2011 8188: 8177:on 10 May 2011 8161: 8150:on 14 May 2011 8131: 8109: 8080: 8063: 8049: 8031: 8009: 7998:on 12 May 2009 7983: 7943: 7908: 7895: 7879: 7863: 7848: 7841: 7821: 7801: 7794: 7774: 7742: 7735: 7715: 7708: 7683: 7676: 7656: 7622: 7604: 7597: 7577: 7570: 7550: 7543: 7523: 7516: 7496: 7479: 7469: 7443: 7416:(3): 237–258. 7400: 7379: 7352: 7331: 7310: 7282: 7267: 7254: 7247: 7227: 7214: 7201: 7179: 7153: 7140: 7122: 7113: 7100: 7081: 7067: 7047: 7033: 7013: 6995: 6986: 6959: 6945: 6925: 6899: 6885: 6871: 6864: 6844: 6835: 6828: 6808: 6801: 6781: 6774: 6754: 6747: 6721: 6708: 6699: 6686: 6673: 6660: 6651: 6633: 6624: 6604: 6579: 6549: 6523: 6509: 6483: 6470: 6463: 6443: 6436: 6418: 6403: 6400:. p. 694. 6388: 6374: 6359: 6350: 6341: 6307: 6298: 6289: 6280: 6271: 6262: 6250: 6241: 6232: 6223: 6214: 6201: 6189:Leslau, Wolf. 6181: 6165: 6152: 6139: 6130: 6124:Richard Gray, 6117: 6110: 6090: 6083: 6063: 6056: 6036: 6020: 6007: 5994: 5981: 5964: 5950: 5931: 5924: 5910:Lewis, Ioan M. 5901: 5881: 5860: 5854:978-1841623719 5853: 5833: 5831:, pp. 185–186. 5820: 5807: 5791: 5778: 5769: 5762: 5742: 5736:978-1448847976 5735: 5715: 5709:978-0313378577 5708: 5683: 5670: 5653: 5646: 5626: 5600: 5549: 5522: 5506: 5497: 5469:10.1086/204702 5463:(1): 139–144. 5443: 5392: 5374:Florek, Stan. 5366: 5315: 5272: 5265: 5241: 5228: 5221: 5197: 5185: 5172: 5159: 5141: 5134: 5114: 5101: 5095:John Kenrick, 5087: 5086: 5084: 5081: 5080: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5028: 5027: 5024:History portal 5013: 5010:Somalia portal 4987: 4984: 4983: 4982: 4981: 4980: 4970: 4964: 4954: 4945: 4936: 4927: 4922:Presidency of 4917: 4913:Presidency of 4908: 4898: 4888: 4878: 4864: 4861: 4860: 4859: 4858: 4857: 4854:February 1941: 4851: 4841: 4838: 4837: 4836: 4835: 4834: 4824: 4814: 4808: 4802: 4796:16 March 1905: 4793: 4785: 4782:3 August 1889: 4779: 4754: 4751: 4750: 4749: 4748: 4747: 4738: 4729: 4704: 4687: 4684:Adal Sultanate 4677: 4652: 4642: 4632: 4623: 4614: 4597: 4594: 4593: 4592: 4591: 4590: 4576: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4403:, October 2014 4314: 4311: 4291:code of ethics 4142: 4139: 4055: 4052: 4048:Prime Minister 4002: 3999: 3967: 3964: 3951:Main article: 3948: 3945: 3891:(detectives), 3873:specialization 3846:Main article: 3843: 3840: 3821: 3818: 3817: 3816: 3813: 3802: 3761: 3758: 3740: 3737: 3684:Main article: 3681: 3678: 3664:(SNM) and the 3593:Major General 3586: 3583: 3545:Isaaq genocide 3543:Main article: 3540: 3539:Isaaq genocide 3537: 3471:Main article: 3468: 3465: 3400: 3397: 3392:Main article: 3389: 3386: 3347:Prime Minister 3213:Main article: 3210: 3207: 3206: 3205: 3202: 3195: 3193: 3190: 3183: 3181: 3178: 3171: 3169: 3166: 3159: 3157: 3154: 3147: 3145: 3142: 3135: 3066:that defended 3027:) but also as 2981:Italian Empire 2964: 2961: 2912:Osman Mahamuud 2750: 2749: 2664: 2662: 2655: 2649: 2646: 2642:German Empires 2634:Central Powers 2578: 2575: 2554: 2551: 2547:British Empire 2404:Sahle Selassie 2366:In 1841, Haji 2345: 2342: 2282:Horn of Africa 2253: 2252: 2250: 2249: 2242: 2235: 2227: 2224: 2223: 2222: 2221: 2219:Somalia portal 2213: 2212: 2209: 2208: 2203: 2198: 2193: 2188: 2183: 2181:Reer Ahmed Nur 2178: 2173: 2168: 2163: 2158: 2153: 2150: 2145: 2140: 2135: 2130: 2124: 2119: 2118: 2115: 2114: 2111: 2110: 2105: 2104: 2103: 2098: 2093: 2082: 2077: 2076: 2073: 2072: 2069: 2068: 2063: 2058: 2053: 2048: 2043: 2042: 2041: 2036: 2031: 2026: 2021: 2016: 2006: 2001: 1996: 1991: 1990: 1989: 1988: 1987: 1971: 1966: 1965: 1962: 1961: 1958: 1957: 1956: 1955: 1945: 1944: 1943: 1933: 1932: 1931: 1921: 1916: 1911: 1906: 1901: 1896: 1890: 1885: 1884: 1881: 1880: 1877: 1876: 1871: 1866: 1861: 1860: 1859: 1854: 1852:Mohamed Abokor 1844: 1843: 1842: 1837: 1827: 1826: 1825: 1820: 1810: 1805: 1799: 1794: 1793: 1790: 1789: 1786: 1785: 1780: 1775: 1774: 1773: 1768: 1763: 1762: 1761: 1759:Osman Mohamoud 1756: 1746: 1736: 1735: 1734: 1733: 1732: 1722: 1712: 1706: 1701: 1700: 1697: 1696: 1690: 1689: 1681: 1680: 1594:Horn of Africa 1417:Duarte Barbosa 1287:was sent from 1214:Main article: 1211: 1208: 1128:Sabr ad-Din II 925:Adal Sultanate 921:Ifat Sultanate 916: 913: 832:Ptolemic Egypt 741: 738: 730:Deir el-Bahari 674:Main article: 671: 668: 645: 642: 621:cave paintings 577:Horn of Africa 511: 508: 506:independence. 376:. During the 370:Horn of Africa 328: 327: 325: 324: 317: 310: 302: 299: 298: 297: 296: 294:Somalia portal 288: 287: 286: 285: 280: 278:Communications 275: 273:Transportation 270: 265: 260: 255: 250: 242: 241: 235: 234: 233: 232: 227: 222: 217: 207: 199: 198: 192: 191: 190: 189: 184: 179: 171: 170: 164: 163: 162: 161: 156: 151: 146: 141: 133: 132: 126: 125: 124: 123: 118: 113: 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 58: 50: 49: 43: 42: 36: 35: 27: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10766: 10755: 10752: 10750: 10747: 10746: 10744: 10728: 10725: 10719: 10715: 10711: 10708: 10702: 10698: 10695: 10689: 10686: 10680: 10676: 10672: 10669: 10668: 10665: 10657: 10651: 10648: 10646: 10643: 10642: 10640: 10632: 10626: 10623: 10621: 10618: 10616: 10613: 10611: 10608: 10606: 10603: 10601: 10598: 10596: 10593: 10591: 10588: 10586: 10583: 10581: 10578: 10576: 10573: 10571: 10568: 10566: 10563: 10561: 10558: 10556: 10553: 10551: 10548: 10546: 10543: 10541: 10538: 10536: 10533: 10531: 10528: 10526: 10523: 10521: 10518: 10516: 10513: 10511: 10508: 10506: 10503: 10501: 10498: 10496: 10493: 10491: 10488: 10486: 10483: 10481: 10478: 10476: 10475:Guinea-Bissau 10473: 10471: 10468: 10466: 10463: 10461: 10458: 10456: 10453: 10451: 10448: 10446: 10443: 10441: 10438: 10436: 10433: 10431: 10428: 10426: 10423: 10421: 10418: 10416: 10413: 10411: 10408: 10406: 10403: 10401: 10398: 10396: 10393: 10391: 10388: 10386: 10383: 10381: 10378: 10376: 10373: 10371: 10368: 10366: 10363: 10361: 10358: 10357: 10355: 10351: 10347: 10340: 10335: 10333: 10328: 10326: 10321: 10320: 10317: 10305: 10301: 10297: 10295: 10287: 10286: 10283: 10273: 10270: 10268: 10265: 10263: 10260: 10258: 10255: 10253: 10250: 10248: 10245: 10243: 10240: 10238: 10235: 10233: 10230: 10228: 10225: 10224: 10222: 10220: 10216: 10210: 10207: 10205: 10202: 10200: 10197: 10195: 10192: 10188: 10187:Mental health 10185: 10184: 10183: 10180: 10178: 10175: 10173: 10170: 10168: 10165: 10163: 10160: 10158: 10155: 10153: 10150: 10149: 10146: 10143: 10141: 10137: 10127: 10124: 10122: 10119: 10117: 10114: 10112: 10106: 10104: 10101: 10099: 10096: 10094: 10091: 10089: 10086: 10084: 10081: 10079: 10076: 10074: 10071: 10070: 10067: 10064: 10062: 10058: 10042: 10039: 10038: 10037: 10034: 10030: 10027: 10026: 10025: 10022: 10020: 10017: 10015: 10012: 10010: 10007: 10005: 10002: 10000: 9997: 9990: 9988: 9985: 9981: 9978: 9977: 9976: 9973: 9971: 9968: 9966: 9963: 9961: 9958: 9956: 9953: 9951: 9948: 9947: 9944: 9940: 9937: 9935: 9931: 9917: 9914: 9912: 9909: 9907: 9904: 9902: 9899: 9897: 9894: 9892: 9889: 9887: 9884: 9883: 9881: 9879: 9875: 9869: 9866: 9864: 9861: 9859: 9856: 9854: 9851: 9849: 9846: 9844: 9841: 9839: 9836: 9834: 9831: 9829: 9826: 9824: 9821: 9819: 9816: 9814: 9811: 9809: 9806: 9804: 9801: 9799: 9796: 9794: 9791: 9789: 9786: 9784: 9781: 9780: 9778: 9776: 9772: 9764: 9761: 9760: 9759: 9756: 9752: 9749: 9748: 9747: 9744: 9740: 9737: 9735: 9732: 9731: 9730: 9727: 9723: 9720: 9718: 9715: 9714: 9713: 9710: 9708: 9705: 9703: 9700: 9698: 9695: 9693: 9690: 9688: 9685: 9683: 9680: 9679: 9676: 9672: 9669: 9667: 9663: 9658: 9644: 9641: 9639: 9636: 9634: 9631: 9630: 9628: 9624: 9616: 9611: 9609: 9604: 9603: 9602: 9599: 9597: 9594: 9592: 9586: 9584: 9581: 9579: 9573: 9571: 9568: 9566: 9563: 9561: 9558: 9556: 9553: 9551: 9548: 9546: 9543: 9541: 9538: 9536: 9533: 9531: 9528: 9526: 9523: 9521: 9520:Ajuran Empire 9518: 9516: 9513: 9511: 9508: 9506: 9503: 9501: 9498: 9497: 9495: 9491: 9488: 9486: 9482: 9478: 9474: 9467: 9462: 9460: 9455: 9453: 9448: 9447: 9444: 9437: 9432: 9428: 9427: 9417: 9415:0-7069-8004-2 9411: 9407: 9402: 9391: 9389:9780706980042 9385: 9381: 9380: 9375: 9371: 9367: 9363: 9358: 9354: 9348: 9344: 9340: 9335: 9334: 9314: 9310: 9304: 9288: 9281: 9274: 9270: 9267: 9265: 9259: 9251: 9245: 9241: 9240: 9232: 9230: 9213: 9209: 9205: 9199: 9184: 9180: 9176: 9169: 9153: 9149: 9145: 9138: 9122: 9118: 9117: 9112: 9106: 9090: 9084: 9069: 9065: 9058: 9042: 9038: 9032: 9016: 9012: 9006: 8990: 8986: 8980: 8964: 8958: 8942: 8938: 8932: 8916: 8912: 8906: 8890: 8886: 8885:Africa Review 8882: 8875: 8859: 8855: 8851: 8844: 8828: 8824: 8823:Garowe Online 8820: 8814: 8798: 8794: 8793:Garowe Online 8790: 8784: 8768: 8764: 8760: 8754: 8738: 8734: 8730: 8724: 8708: 8704: 8700: 8694: 8678: 8674: 8667: 8652: 8648: 8641: 8634: 8629: 8610: 8603: 8597: 8581: 8577: 8571: 8555: 8551: 8545: 8543: 8541: 8524: 8520: 8514: 8498: 8494: 8488: 8486: 8469: 8465: 8458: 8456: 8439: 8433: 8417: 8413: 8407: 8391: 8385: 8383: 8366: 8362: 8356: 8340: 8334: 8328: 8327: 8322: 8317: 8301: 8297: 8291: 8275: 8271: 8264: 8257: 8252: 8245: 8240: 8224: 8218: 8202: 8198: 8192: 8176: 8172: 8165: 8149: 8145: 8138: 8136: 8119: 8113: 8097: 8093: 8087: 8085: 8076: 8070: 8068: 8059: 8053: 8045: 8041: 8035: 8020:. Hiiraan.com 8019: 8013: 7997: 7993: 7987: 7968: 7961: 7954: 7952: 7950: 7948: 7931: 7927: 7926: 7921: 7915: 7913: 7905: 7899: 7892: 7886: 7884: 7876: 7875:Africa review 7870: 7868: 7859: 7852: 7844: 7838: 7834: 7833: 7825: 7814: 7813: 7805: 7797: 7791: 7787: 7786: 7778: 7759: 7752: 7746: 7738: 7732: 7728: 7727: 7719: 7711: 7705: 7701: 7700: 7692: 7690: 7688: 7679: 7673: 7669: 7668: 7660: 7641: 7634: 7633: 7626: 7618: 7614: 7608: 7600: 7594: 7590: 7589: 7581: 7573: 7567: 7564:. Zed Books. 7563: 7562: 7554: 7546: 7540: 7536: 7535: 7527: 7519: 7513: 7509: 7508: 7500: 7492: 7491: 7483: 7476: 7472: 7466: 7462: 7457: 7456: 7447: 7439: 7435: 7431: 7427: 7423: 7419: 7415: 7411: 7404: 7397: 7396:0-87436-892-8 7393: 7389: 7383: 7367: 7363: 7356: 7349: 7348:1-85743-078-6 7345: 7341: 7335: 7328: 7327:0-8103-8928-2 7324: 7320: 7314: 7307: 7306:0-7099-2709-6 7303: 7299: 7298: 7291: 7289: 7287: 7279: 7274: 7272: 7264: 7258: 7250: 7248:1-56902-073-6 7244: 7240: 7239: 7231: 7224: 7218: 7211: 7205: 7189: 7183: 7167: 7163: 7157: 7150: 7144: 7137: 7131: 7129: 7127: 7120:Laitin, p. 75 7117: 7110: 7104: 7098: 7094: 7090: 7085: 7070: 7064: 7060: 7059: 7051: 7036: 7030: 7026: 7025: 7017: 7010: 7004: 7002: 7000: 6990: 6973: 6969: 6963: 6948: 6946:9780521338356 6942: 6938: 6937: 6929: 6913: 6909: 6903: 6895: 6889: 6881: 6875: 6867: 6861: 6857: 6856: 6848: 6839: 6831: 6829:9781569022023 6825: 6821: 6820: 6812: 6804: 6802:9781874209270 6798: 6794: 6793: 6785: 6777: 6775:9781569022023 6771: 6767: 6766: 6758: 6750: 6748:0-521-23833-1 6744: 6740: 6735: 6734: 6725: 6718: 6712: 6703: 6696: 6690: 6683: 6680:Rayne Henry. 6677: 6670: 6664: 6655: 6647: 6646: 6637: 6628: 6620: 6619: 6614: 6608: 6593: 6589: 6583: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6553: 6537: 6533: 6527: 6519: 6513: 6497: 6494:(in Somali). 6493: 6487: 6480: 6477:I. M. Lewis, 6474: 6466: 6460: 6456: 6455: 6447: 6439: 6437:9780755635191 6433: 6429: 6422: 6414: 6407: 6399: 6392: 6384: 6378: 6370: 6363: 6354: 6345: 6336: 6332: 6328: 6320: 6319: 6311: 6302: 6293: 6284: 6275: 6266: 6260: 6254: 6245: 6236: 6227: 6218: 6211: 6205: 6194: 6193: 6185: 6177: 6176: 6169: 6162: 6156: 6149: 6143: 6134: 6127: 6121: 6113: 6107: 6103: 6102: 6094: 6086: 6080: 6076: 6075: 6067: 6059: 6053: 6049: 6048: 6040: 6033: 6029: 6024: 6017: 6011: 6004: 5998: 5991: 5985: 5977: 5976: 5968: 5953: 5951:9780521209816 5947: 5943: 5942: 5935: 5927: 5925:0-932415-93-8 5921: 5917: 5916: 5911: 5905: 5897: 5896: 5888: 5886: 5877: 5876: 5869: 5867: 5865: 5856: 5850: 5846: 5845: 5837: 5830: 5824: 5817: 5811: 5804: 5798: 5796: 5788: 5782: 5773: 5765: 5759: 5755: 5754: 5746: 5738: 5732: 5728: 5727: 5719: 5711: 5705: 5701: 5700: 5692: 5690: 5688: 5680: 5674: 5666: 5665: 5657: 5649: 5643: 5639: 5638: 5630: 5615: 5611: 5604: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5553: 5537: 5533: 5526: 5520: 5516: 5510: 5501: 5494: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5447: 5439: 5435: 5430: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5406:PLOS Genetics 5403: 5396: 5381: 5377: 5370: 5355: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5334: 5329: 5325: 5319: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5276: 5268: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5253: 5245: 5238: 5232: 5224: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5204: 5202: 5194: 5189: 5182: 5176: 5169: 5163: 5155: 5151: 5145: 5137: 5135:0-516-03053-1 5131: 5127: 5126: 5118: 5111: 5105: 5098: 5092: 5088: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5029: 5025: 5014: 5011: 5000: 4997: 4993: 4979:from Somalia. 4978: 4974: 4971: 4968: 4965: 4962: 4958: 4955: 4952: 4949: 4946: 4943: 4940: 4937: 4934: 4931: 4928: 4925: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4912: 4909: 4906: 4902: 4899: 4896: 4892: 4889: 4886: 4882: 4881:26 June 1960: 4879: 4876: 4872: 4871:1 April 1950: 4869: 4868: 4867: 4866: 4855: 4852: 4849: 4846: 4845: 4844: 4843: 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4263: 4259: 4254: 4250: 4248: 4243: 4239: 4237: 4233: 4230:, a moderate 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4212:African Union 4208: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4138: 4136: 4132: 4127: 4124: 4119: 4117: 4112: 4110: 4106: 4105:Villa Somalia 4102: 4098: 4093: 4091: 4090:African Union 4087: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4072:In 2006, the 4069: 4065: 4061: 4051: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4036: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4016: 4012: 4008: 3998: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3979: 3977: 3973: 3959: 3954: 3944: 3942: 3937: 3933: 3932: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3918: 3912: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3869: 3867: 3861: 3859: 3855: 3849: 3839: 3835: 3832: 3827: 3814: 3811: 3807: 3806:supreme court 3803: 3800: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3785: 3781: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3757: 3755: 3754:customary law 3751: 3750:religious law 3747: 3736: 3734: 3730: 3724: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3687: 3677: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3640:increasingly 3637: 3635: 3631: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3608: 3600: 3596: 3591: 3582: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3551: 3546: 3536: 3533: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3488: 3484: 3479: 3474: 3464: 3462: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3444: 3442: 3441:African Union 3438: 3434: 3430: 3425: 3420: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3395: 3385: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3366: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3311: 3309: 3305: 3304:Mahmoud Harbi 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3277: 3272: 3268: 3266: 3262: 3256: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3237:protectorates 3234: 3226: 3221: 3216: 3199: 3194: 3187: 3182: 3175: 3170: 3163: 3158: 3151: 3146: 3139: 3134: 3133: 3132: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3099: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3075: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3056: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3017: 3015: 3011: 3006: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2987: 2982: 2974: 2969: 2960: 2958: 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Ishaaq 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2270: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2248: 2243: 2241: 2236: 2234: 2229: 2228: 2226: 2225: 2220: 2217: 2216: 2215: 2214: 2207: 2204: 2202: 2199: 2197: 2194: 2192: 2189: 2187: 2184: 2182: 2179: 2177: 2174: 2172: 2169: 2167: 2164: 2162: 2159: 2157: 2154: 2151: 2149: 2146: 2144: 2141: 2139: 2136: 2134: 2131: 2129: 2126: 2125: 2122: 2117: 2116: 2109: 2106: 2102: 2099: 2097: 2094: 2092: 2089: 2088: 2087: 2084: 2083: 2080: 2075: 2074: 2067: 2064: 2062: 2059: 2057: 2054: 2052: 2049: 2047: 2044: 2040: 2037: 2035: 2032: 2030: 2027: 2025: 2022: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2012: 2011: 2010: 2007: 2005: 2002: 2000: 1997: 1995: 1992: 1986: 1983: 1982: 1981: 1978: 1977: 1976: 1973: 1972: 1969: 1964: 1963: 1954: 1951: 1950: 1949: 1946: 1942: 1939: 1938: 1937: 1934: 1930: 1927: 1926: 1925: 1922: 1920: 1917: 1915: 1912: 1910: 1907: 1905: 1902: 1900: 1897: 1895: 1892: 1891: 1888: 1883: 1882: 1875: 1872: 1870: 1867: 1865: 1862: 1858: 1855: 1853: 1850: 1849: 1848: 1845: 1841: 1838: 1836: 1833: 1832: 1831: 1828: 1824: 1821: 1819: 1816: 1815: 1814: 1811: 1809: 1806: 1804: 1801: 1800: 1797: 1792: 1791: 1784: 1781: 1779: 1776: 1772: 1769: 1767: 1764: 1760: 1757: 1755: 1754:Omar Mohamoud 1752: 1751: 1750: 1747: 1745: 1742: 1741: 1740: 1737: 1731: 1728: 1727: 1726: 1723: 1721: 1718: 1717: 1716: 1713: 1711: 1708: 1707: 1704: 1699: 1698: 1695: 1692: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1663: 1658: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1536:Ajuran Empire 1533: 1529: 1525: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1502:In 1698, the 1500: 1496: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1434: 1429: 1425: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1399:, Mogadishu, 1398: 1394: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1373:and Facaaye. 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1327:Muhammad Gasa 1325: 1321: 1317: 1312: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1277:Vasco da Gama 1274: 1270: 1266: 1261: 1257: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1217: 1207: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1179: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1159: 1155: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1144:Mansur ad-Din 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1124: 1122: 1121:King of Yemen 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1063: 1059: 1058: 1053: 1049: 1048:Ajuran Empire 1045: 1036: 1032: 1027: 1023: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 996: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 944: 940: 937:Ruins of the 935: 930: 926: 922: 912: 910: 905: 901: 897: 893: 889: 884: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 857: 855: 854: 849: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 825: 824:trade network 821: 817: 813: 809: 805: 801: 797: 793: 785: 781: 777: 773: 769: 765: 760: 755: 751: 747: 737: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 702:Ancient Egypt 699: 698:Wargaade Wall 695: 691: 690:ruined cities 687: 683: 677: 667: 665: 664:Ancient Egypt 659: 655: 651: 641: 639: 635: 631: 626: 622: 618: 614: 610: 605: 603: 599: 595: 591: 586: 582: 578: 574: 569: 564: 560: 556: 552: 551:autosomal DNA 547: 545: 541: 537: 529: 525: 521: 516: 507: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 477: 473: 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 448: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 426: 422: 418: 413: 411: 407: 403: 399: 395: 391: 387: 383: 379: 375: 371: 367: 362: 361: 355: 351: 346: 345: 339: 335: 323: 318: 316: 311: 309: 304: 303: 301: 300: 295: 292: 291: 290: 289: 284: 281: 279: 276: 274: 271: 269: 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 245: 244: 243: 240: 237: 236: 231: 228: 226: 223: 221: 218: 215: 211: 208: 206: 203: 202: 201: 200: 197: 194: 193: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 174: 173: 172: 169: 166: 165: 160: 157: 155: 152: 150: 147: 145: 142: 140: 137: 136: 135: 134: 131: 128: 127: 122: 119: 117: 114: 112: 109: 107: 104: 102: 99: 97: 94: 92: 89: 87: 84: 82: 79: 77: 74: 72: 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Retrieved 5337: 5331: 5318: 5288:(1): 40–56. 5285: 5281: 5275: 5251: 5244: 5236: 5231: 5212: 5195:, p. 8. 5188: 5180: 5175: 5167: 5162: 5153: 5144: 5124: 5117: 5109: 5104: 5096: 5091: 4972: 4966: 4956: 4947: 4938: 4929: 4919: 4910: 4901:1 July 1960: 4900: 4891:1 July 1960: 4890: 4880: 4870: 4853: 4847: 4840:World War II 4827:1 June 1936: 4826: 4816: 4810: 4804: 4795: 4787: 4781: 4768: 4740: 4731: 4706: 4689: 4679: 4654: 4644: 4634: 4625: 4620:Adal Kingdom 4616: 4603: 4585:, and later 4578: 4569:Land of Punt 4564: 4535: 4532: 4521: 4514: 4506: 4502: 4491: 4452: 4445: 4434: 4406: 4353: 4338: 4326: 4303: 4295: 4287: 4267: 4244: 4240: 4236:Hizbul Islam 4209: 4182: 4151:Hizbul Islam 4128: 4123:arms embargo 4120: 4113: 4094: 4071: 4037: 4018: 3980: 3969: 3929: 3915: 3913: 3908: 3901:markhaatiyal 3900: 3892: 3888: 3881:xeerbogeyaal 3880: 3876: 3870: 3862: 3851: 3836: 3823: 3782: 3763: 3742: 3725: 3707: 3704: 3642:totalitarian 3638: 3630:Saudi Arabia 3626: 3604: 3556: 3492: 3445: 3421: 3413:Jama Korshel 3402: 3367: 3355:constitution 3312: 3300:vote rigging 3281: 3257: 3233:World War II 3230: 3223:Flag of the 3209:Independence 3124: 3119: 3100: 3083: 3076: 3057: 3041:World War II 3020: 3018: 3009: 3007: 2984: 2978: 2956: 2949: 2940: 2929: 2909: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2889: 2877: 2873:Omar Samatar 2866: 2858: 2822: 2811: 2803: 2799:Corpo Zaptié 2798: 2795: 2759: 2756:protectorate 2753: 2738: 2732:January 2020 2729: 2719: 2712: 2705: 2698: 2686: 2674:Please help 2669:verification 2666: 2648:20th century 2631: 2621: 2615: 2606: 2603:Sultan Deria 2580: 2556: 2537: 2502: 2471: 2448: 2425: 2412: 2389: 2365: 2344:19th century 2334:Dhuux Baraar 2271: 2256: 1694:Somali clans 1667: 1659: 1623:frankincense 1584: 1528:geopolitical 1521: 1481:Ming dynasty 1441:toob benadir 1440: 1438: 1390: 1365:such as the 1313: 1281:Prester John 1253: 1222:Shams ad Din 1219: 1210:Early modern 1204:Baeda Maryam 1200:Mamluk Egypt 1180: 1164: 1125: 1100:Amda Seyon I 1085: 1055: 1040: 997: 948: 885: 858: 851: 848:Roman Empire 789: 733: 722:frankincense 710:Land of Punt 679: 676:Land of Punt 670:Land of Punt 661: 606: 585:North Africa 548: 533: 503: 492:Transitional 449: 414: 374:Land of Punt 359: 343: 331: 182:Christianity 75: 56:Architecture 15: 10637:recognition 10590:South Sudan 10480:Ivory Coast 10073:Agriculture 9980:LGBT rights 9896:Hirshabelle 9833:Middle Juba 9395:10 February 9341:. Chicago: 9289:. Arab News 9208:Saafi Films 9158:27 December 9127:27 December 9047:23 February 8947:17 December 8773:21 December 8529:30 December 8503:30 December 8444:30 December 8371:30 December 8345:30 December 7835:. Longman. 7649:22 November 7338:Oihe Yang, 7194:25 February 7172:25 February 7074:15 December 7040:15 December 6952:10 February 6918:31 December 5193:Laitin 1977 4670:Ibn Battuta 4565:c. 2350 BC: 4409:Addis Ababa 4262:Helen Clark 4101:Somali Army 4040:legislative 3926:blood money 3893:garxajiyaal 3858:polycentric 3831:inheritance 3672:(SDM), the 3485:as part of 3433:Arab League 3378:Somali Army 3060:Carabinieri 3014:Addis Ababa 2937:Hersi Boqor 2893:Adwa fiasco 2531:. 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CBS News 7860:: 4. 1993. 7767:14 January 6865:0521225051 5844:Somaliland 5763:9774246748 5647:0844289833 5359:30 January 5222:187420991X 4951:Ogaden War 4942:Siad Barre 4939:1969–1991: 4920:1967–1969: 4805:July 1910: 4788:1895–1920: 4753:Modern era 4741:1878–1927: 4690:1528–1535: 4680:1415–1559: 4655:1300–1400: 4635:1285–1415: 4596:Muslim era 4589:merchants. 4526:was again 4441:Al-Shabaab 4360:Somaliland 4177:Al-Shabaab 4145:See also: 4116:Al-Shabaab 4076:(ICU), an 4058:See also: 3917:jus cogens 3889:guurtiyaal 3879:(judges), 3866:loan words 3774:Somaliland 3766:Siad Barre 3567:Siad Barre 3495:Ogaden War 3473:Ogaden War 3467:Ogaden War 3429:Arab world 3363:Somaliland 3284:referendum 3265:plebiscite 3109:bordering 3068:Culqualber 2953:Iskushuban 2860:Marco Polo 2837:Dhusamareb 2772:Somaliland 2702:newspapers 2611:Ethiopians 2587:Habr Yunis 2302:Guled Abdi 2294:Somaliland 2267:Habar Awal 2263:mercantile 2186:Shukureere 2156:Reer Manyo 1914:Gadabuursi 1847:Habr Je'lo 1835:Habr Yunis 1818:Sa'ad Musa 1771:Warsangali 1631:acacia gum 1556:Portuguese 1504:Portuguese 1433:Mogadishan 1333:after the 1297:musketeers 1258:(Gurey in 1152:al-Maqrizi 945:, Somalia. 859:After the 834:, Greece, 726:Hatshepsut 686:mausoleums 658:Macrobians 630:Las Khorey 568:"Maghrebi" 518:Neolithic 510:Prehistory 500:Somaliland 460:Somaliland 338:Soomaaliya 248:Parliament 121:Traditions 81:Literature 10525:Mauritius 10272:Languages 10177:Education 10108:Shilling 10083:Companies 10024:President 9987:Judiciary 9960:Elections 9808:Galguduud 9746:Mountains 9734:Cal Madow 9666:Geography 9601:Civil War 9500:Laas Geel 9275:CivicsWeb 9148:Aljazeera 9116:France 24 9095:30 August 8763:Raxanreeb 8743:6 October 8326:Arab News 8102:24 August 7936:5 October 7920:"Somalia" 7438:148145948 7430:1939-2206 6572:11 August 6502:9 January 6163:, p. 222. 5818:, p. 187. 5805:, p. 229. 5583:162960112 5477:0011-3204 5097:Phoenicia 4791:Darawiish 4722:Tadjourah 4658:Mogadishu 4604:630s–900: 4552:Timelines 4455:Mogadishu 4356:Mogadishu 4272:'s (TFG) 3970:In 2000, 3905:witnesses 3897:attorneys 3799:judiciary 3760:Civil law 3746:civil law 3607:politburo 3585:Rebellion 3519:Dire Dawa 3461:communist 3456:reconcile 3339:President 3276:Mogadishu 3121:Mussolini 3080:Mogadishu 3039:. 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