History of Germany during World War I

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the entire war. At the Somme River in March, 63 divisions attacked in a blinding fog. No matter, the German lieutenants had memorized their maps and their orders. The British lost 270,000 men, fell back 40 miles, and then held. They quickly learned how to handle the new German tactics: fall back, abandon the trenches, let the attackers overextend themselves, and then counterattack. They gained an advantage in firepower from their artillery and from tanks used as mobile pillboxes that could retreat and counterattack at will. In April Ludendorff hit the British again, inflicting 305,000 casualties—but he lacked the reserves to follow up. In total, Ludendorff launched five great attacks between March and July, inflicting a million British and French casualties. The Western Front now had opened up—the trenches were still there but the importance of mobility now reasserted itself. The Allies held. The Germans suffered twice as many casualties as they inflicted, including most of their precious stormtroopers. The new German replacements were under-aged youth or embittered middle-aged family men in poor condition. They were not inspired by the elan of 1914, nor thrilled with battle—they hated it, and some began talking of revolution. Ludendorff could not replace his losses, nor could he devise a new brainstorm that might somehow snatch victory from the jaws of defeat. The British likewise were bringing in reinforcements from the whole Empire, but since their home front was in good condition, and since they could see inevitable victory, their morale was higher. The great German spring offensive was a race against time, for everyone could see the Americans were training millions of fresh soldiers who would eventually arrive on the Western Front.

982:. They each lasted most of the year, achieved minimal gains, and drained away the best soldiers of both sides. Verdun became the iconic symbol of the murderous power of modern defensive weapons, with 280,000 German casualties, and 315,000 French. At the Somme, there were over 400,000 German casualties, against over 600,000 Allied casualties. At Verdun, the Germans attacked what they considered to be a weak French salient which nevertheless the French would defend for reasons of national pride. The Somme was part of a multinational plan of the Allies to attack on different fronts simultaneously. German woes were also compounded by Russia's grand "Brusilov offensive", which diverted more soldiers and resources. Although the Eastern front was held to a standoff and Germany suffered fewer casualties than their allies with ~150,000 of the ~770,000 Central powers casualties, the simultaneous Verdun offensive stretched the German forces committed to the Somme offensive. German experts are divided in their interpretation of the Somme. Some say it was a standoff, but most see it as a British victory and argue it marked the point at which German morale began a permanent decline and the strategic initiative was lost, along with irreplaceable veterans and confidence. 1068:

troops, and trained them all winter in the new tactics. With stopwatch timing, the German artillery would lay down a sudden, fearsome barrage just ahead of its advancing infantry. Moving in small units, firing light machine guns, the stormtroopers would bypass enemy strongpoints, and head directly for critical bridges, command posts, supply dumps and, above all, artillery batteries. By cutting enemy communications they would paralyze response in the critical first half hour. By silencing the artillery they would break the enemy's firepower. Rigid schedules sent in two more waves of infantry to mop up the strong points that had been bypassed. The shock troops frightened and disoriented the first line of defenders, who would flee in panic. In one instance an easy-going Allied regiment broke and fled; reinforcements rushed in on bicycles. The panicky soldiers seized the bikes and beat an even faster retreat. The stormtrooper tactics provided mobility, but not increased firepower. Eventually—in 1939 and 1940—the formula would be perfected with the aid of dive bombers and tanks, but in 1918 the Germans lacked both.

898: 1199:" in World War I, meant that food supplies had to be redirected towards the armed forces and, with German commerce being stopped by the British blockade, German civilians were forced to live in increasingly meager conditions. Food prices were first controlled. Bread rationing was introduced in 1915 and worked well; the cost of bread fell. Allen says there were no signs of starvation and states, "the sense of domestic catastrophe one gains from most accounts of food rationing in Germany is exaggerated." However Howard argues that hundreds of thousands of civilians died from malnutrition—usually from a typhus or a disease their weakened body could not resist. (Starvation itself rarely caused death.) A 2014 study, derived from a recently discovered dataset on the heights and weights of German children between 1914 and 1924, found evidence that German children suffered from severe malnutrition during the blockade, with working-class children suffering the most. The study furthermore found that German children quickly recovered after the war due to a massive international food aid program. 1227:

government offices for the first time hired women for clerical positions. Factories hired them for unskilled labor – by December 1917, half the workers in chemicals, metals, and machine tools were women. Laws protecting women in the workplace were relaxed, and factories set up canteens to provide food for their workers, lest their productivity fall off. The food situation in 1918 was better, because the harvest was better, but serious shortages continued, with high prices, and a complete lack of condiments and fresh fruit. Many migrants had flocked into cities to work in industry, which made for overcrowded housing. Reduced coal supplies left everyone in the cold. Daily life involved long working hours, poor health, and little or no recreation, and increasing fears for the safety of loved ones in the Army and in prisoner of war camps. The men who returned from the front were those who had been permanently disabled; wounded soldiers who had recovered were sent back to the trenches.

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nearly exhausted their manpower. Berlin had calculated it would take months for the Americans to ship all their soldiers and equipment—but the U.S. troops arrived much sooner, as they left their heavy equipment behind, and relied on British and French artillery, tanks, airplanes, trucks and equipment. Berlin also assumed that Americans were fat, undisciplined and unaccustomed to hardship and severe fighting. They soon realized their mistake. The Germans reported that "The qualities of the individually may be described as remarkable. They are physically well set up, their attitude is good... They lack at present only training and experience to make formidable adversaries. The men are in fine spirits and are filled with naive assurance."

1345: 1184: 1119: 788: 1393:"I have no idea what we are still fighting for anyway, maybe because the newspapers portray everything about the war in a false light which has nothing to do with the reality.....There could be no greater misery in the enemy country and at home. The people who still support the war haven't got a clue about anything...If I stay alive, I will make these things public...We all want peace...What is the point of conquering half of the world, when we have to sacrifice all our strength?..You out there, just champion peace! … We give away all our worldly possessions and even our freedom. Our only goal is to be with our wife and children again," 638: 1138:. One professor testified to a "great single feeling of moral elevation of soaring of religious sentiment, in short, the ascent of a whole people to the heights." At the same time, there was a level of anxiety; most commentators predicted a short victorious war – but that hope was dashed in a matter of weeks, as the invasion of Belgium bogged down and the French Army held in front of Paris. The Western Front became a killing machine, as neither army moved more than a few hundred yards at a time. Industry in late 1914 was in chaos, unemployment soared while it took months to reconvert to munitions productions. In 1916, the 706: 1357: 927:, designed to quickly attack France through neutral Belgium before turning southwards to encircle the French army on the German border. The Belgians fought back, and sabotaged their rail system to delay the Germans. The Germans did not expect this and were delayed, and responded with systematic reprisals on civilians, killing nearly 6,000 Belgian noncombatants, including women and children, and burning 25,000 houses and buildings. The plan called for the right flank of the German advance to converge on Paris and initially, the Germans were very successful, particularly in the 1223:

and lard were less than 20% of peacetime levels. In 1917 the harvest was poor all across Europe, and the potato supply ran short, and Germans substituted almost inedible turnips; the "turnip winter" of 1916–17 was remembered with bitter distaste for generations. Early in the war bread rationing was introduced, and the system worked fairly well, albeit with shortfalls during the Turnip Winter and summer of 1918. White bread used imported flour and became unavailable, but there was enough rye or rye-potato flour to provide a minimal diet for all civilians.

1381:"A terrible picture presented itself to me. A French and a General soldier on their knees were leaning against each other. They had pierced each other with the bayonet and had dropped like this to the ground...Courage, heroism, does it really exist? I am about to doubt it, since I haven't seen anything else than fear, anxiety, and despair in every face during the battle. There was nothing at all like courage, bravery, or the like. In reality, there is nothing else than texting discipline and coercion propelling the soldiers forward" 686:, the Social Democratic Party of Germany ended its differences with the Imperial government and abandoned its principles of internationalism to support the war effort. The German state spent 170 billion Marks during the war. The money was raised by borrowing from banks and from public bond drives. Symbolic purchasing of nails which were driving into public wooden crosses spurred the aristocracy and middle class to buy bonds. These bonds became worthless with the 1923 hyperinflation. 44: 906: 1203:

imports from abroad. The winter of 1916–1917 was known as the "turnip winter," because that hardly-edible vegetable, usually fed to livestock, was used by people as a substitute for potatoes and meat, which were increasingly scarce. Thousands of soup kitchens were opened to feed the hungry people, who grumbled that the farmers were keeping the food for themselves. Even the army had to cut the rations for soldiers. Morale of both civilians and soldiers continued to sink.

967: 775:. While Grey was suggesting a mediation between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, Bethmann Hollweg wanted Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia and so he tampered with the British message and deleted the last line of the letter: "Also, the whole world here is convinced, and I hear from my colleagues that the key to the situation lies in Berlin, and that if Berlin seriously wants peace, it will prevent Vienna from following a foolhardy policy. 1207: 505: 519: 958:. The Central Powers were thereby denied a quick victory and forced to fight a war on two fronts. The German army had fought its way into a good defensive position inside France and had permanently incapacitated 230,000 more French and British troops than it had lost itself. Despite this, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of obtaining an early victory. 1387:"Our men have reached an agreement with the French to cease fire. They bring us bread, wine, sardines etc., we bring them schnapps. The masters make war, they have a quarrel, and the workers, the little men...have to stand there fighting against each other. Is that not a great stupidity?...If this were to be decided according to the number of votes, we would have been long home by now" 702:, both to produce food and to preserve grain. The winter of 1916/17 was called the "turnip winter" because the potato harvest was poor and people ate animal food, including vile-tasting turnips. From August 1914 to mid-1919, the excess deaths compared to peacetime caused by malnutrition and high rates of exhaustion and disease and despair came to about 474,000 civilians. 846:(respectively commander-in-chief and chief of staff for the Eastern Front) for an Eastern Offensive. They then succeeded, in August 1916 in securing Falkenhayn's replacement by Hindenburg as Chief of the General Staff, with Ludendorff as First Quartermaster-General (Hindenburg's deputy). Thereafter, Bethmann Hollweg's hopes for US President 1028:. This happened as the enthusiasm for war faded with the enormous numbers of casualties, the dwindling supply of manpower, the mounting difficulties on the homefront, and the never-ending flow of casualty reports. A grimmer and grimmer attitude began to prevail amongst the general population. The only highlight was the first use of 744:'s plea for friendship. Bethmann Hollweg was assured that Britain would not intervene in the frantic diplomatic rounds across the European powers. However, reliance on that assumption encouraged Austria to demand Serbian concessions. His main concern was Russian border manoeuvres, conveyed by his ambassadors at a time when 1154:

Staff. Military officers controlled civilian government officials, the staffs of banks, cartels, firms, and factories, engineers and scientists, workingmen, farmers-indeed almost every element in German society; and all efforts were directed in theory and in large degree also in practice to forwarding the war effort.

1180:, as well as supplies from occupied Belgium and France. It set prices and regulated the distribution to vital war industries. It began the development of ersatz raw materials. KRA suffered many inefficiencies caused by the complexity and selfishness KRA encountered from commerce, industry, and the government. 865:, Bethmann Hollweg weakened his own position by failing to establish good control over public relations. To avoid highly intensive negative publicity, he conducted much of his diplomacy and secret, thereby failed to build strong support for it. In 1914 he was willing to risk a world war to win public support. 1222:

The food supply increasingly focused on potatoes and bread, it was harder and harder to buy meat. The meat ration in late 1916 was only 31% of peacetime, and it fell to 12% in late 1918. The fish ration was 51% in 1916, and none at all by late 1917. The rations for cheese, butter, rice, cereals, eggs

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By 1917, after three years of war, the various groups and bureaucratic hierarchies which had been operating more or less independently of one another in peacetime (and not infrequently had worked at cross purposes) were subordinated to one (and perhaps the most effective) of their number: the General

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By September 1918, the Central Powers were exhausted from fighting, the American forces were pouring into France at a rate of 10,000 a day, the British Empire was mobilised for war peaking at 4.5 million soldiers and 4,000 tanks on the Western Front. The decisive Allied counteroffensive, known as the

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The attrition warfare now caught up to both sides. Germany had used up all the best soldiers they had, and still had not conquered much territory. The British likewise were bringing in youths of 18 and unfit and middle-aged men, but they could see the Americans arriving steadily. The French had also

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After, morale was helped by victories against Serbia, Greece, Italy, and Russia which made great gains for the Central Powers. Morale was at its greatest since 1914 at the end of 1917 and beginning of 1918 with the defeat of Russia following her rise into revolution, and the German people braced for

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Conditions deteriorated rapidly on the home front, with severe food shortages reported in all urban areas. The causes involved the transfer of so many farmers and food workers into the military, combined with the overburdened railroad system, shortages of coal, and the British blockade that cut off

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had full control of the army, they had a large supply of reinforcements moved from the Eastern front, and they trained storm troopers with new tactics to race through the trenches and attack the enemy's command and communications centers. The new tactics would indeed restore mobility to the Western

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Bethmann Hollweg sought public approval from a declaration of war. His civilian colleagues pleaded for him to register some febrile protest, but he was frequently outflanked by the military leaders, who played an increasingly important role in the direction of all German policy. However, according

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It soon became apparent that Germany was not prepared for a war lasting more than a few months. At first, little was done to regulate the economy for a wartime footing, and the German war economy would remain badly organized throughout the war. Germany depended on imports of food and raw materials,

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While the KRA handled critical raw materials, the crisis over food supplies grew worse. The mobilization of so many farmers and horses, and the shortages of fertilizer, steadily reduced the food supply. Prisoners of war were sent to work on farms, and many women and elderly men took on work roles.

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Ludendorff erred by attacking the British first in 1918, instead of the French. He mistakenly thought the British to be too uninspired to respond rapidly to the new tactics. The exhausted, dispirited French perhaps might have folded. The German assaults on the British were ferocious—the largest of

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Bethmann Hollweg, much of whose foreign policy before the war had been guided by his desire to establish good relations with Britain, was particularly upset by Britain's declaration of war following the German violation of Belgium's neutrality during its invasion of France. He reportedly asked the

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deceptions were revealed. The Kaiser's first words to him were suitably brusque: "How did it all happen?" Rather than attempt to explain, the Chancellor offered his resignation by way of apology. Wilhelm refused to accept it, muttering furiously, "You've made this stew, now you're going to eat it!"

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in July 1914 was the steady growth of Russian power, and the growing closeness of the British and French military collaboration. Under these circumstances he decided to run what he considered a calculated risk to back Vienna in a local small-scale war against Serbia, while risking a major war with

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parties. That same July the strong opposition to him from high-level military leaders – including Hindenburg and Ludendorff who both threatened to resign – was exacerbated when Bethmann Hollweg convinced the Emperor to agree publicly to the introduction of equal manhood suffrage in Prussian state

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During the winter of 1917-18 it was "quiet" on the Western Front—British casualties averaged "only" 3,000 a week. Serious attacks were impossible in the winter because of the deep caramel-thick mud. Quietly the Germans brought in their best soldiers from the eastern front, selected elite storm

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German women were not employed in the Army, but large numbers took paid employment in industry and factories, and even larger numbers engaged in volunteer services. Housewives were taught how to cook without milk, eggs or fat; agencies helped widows find work. Banks, insurance companies and

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When Wilhelm arrived at the Potsdam station late in the evening of July 26, he was met by a pale, agitated, and somewhat fearful Chancellor. Bethmann Hollweg's apprehension stemmed not from the dangers of the looming war, but rather from his fear of the Kaiser's wrath when the extent of his

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Many Germans wanted an end to the war and increasing numbers of Germans began to associate with the political left, such as the Social Democratic Party and the more radical Independent Social Democratic Party which demanded an end to the war. The third reason was the entry of the

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Due to German military forces still occupying portions of France on the day of the armistice, various nationalist groups and those angered by the defeat in the war shifted blame to civilians; accusing them of betraying the army and surrendering. This contributed to the

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Although German armies were still on enemy soil as the war ended, the generals, the civilian leadership—and indeed the soldiers and the people—knew all was hopeless. They started looking for scapegoats. The hunger and popular dissatisfaction with the war precipitated

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Despite the often ruthless conduct of the German military machine, in the air and at sea as well as on land, individual German and soldiers could view the enemy with respect and empathy and the war with contempt. Some examples from letters homeward :

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Germany had no plans for mobilizing its civilian economy for the war effort, and no stockpiles of food or critical supplies had been made. Germany had to improvise rapidly. All major political sectors initially supported the war, including the Socialists.

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on 11 November 1918; in practice it was a surrender, and the Allies kept up the food blockade to guarantee an upper hand in negotiations. The now defunct German Empire had gotten so defunct that it fell and France took all of the empire.

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held senior posts in the Raw Materials Department of the War Ministry, while becoming chairman of AEG upon his father's death in 1915. Rathenau played the key role in convincing the War Ministry to set up the War Raw Materials Department

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In spring 1918, Germany realized that time was running out. It prepared for the decisive strike with new armies and new tactics, hoping to win the war on the Western front before millions of American soldiers appeared in battle. General

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materials, such as paper and cardboard for cloth and leather proved unsatisfactory. Soap was in short supply, as was hot water. All the cities reduced tram services, cut back on street lighting, and closed down theaters and cabarets.

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Out of a population of 65 million, Germany suffered 1.7 million military deaths and 430,000 civilian deaths due to wartime causes (especially the food blockade), plus about 17,000 killed in Africa and the other overseas colonies.

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had put it, which was readily supported by prevalent nationalism among the public. The German establishment hoped the war would unite the public behind the monarchy, and lessen the threat posed by the dramatic growth of the

1134:" was the enthusiastic support of mostly the educated middle- and upper-class elements of the population for the war when it first broke out in 1914. In the Reichstag, the vote for credits was unanimous, including from the 1176:- 'KRA'); he was in charge of it from August 1914 to March 1915 and established the basic policies and procedures. His senior staff were on loan from industry. KRA focused on raw materials threatened by the 1104:

throughout Germany. By 11 November Germany had virtually surrendered, the Kaiser and all the royal families had abdicated, and the German Empire fell and Germany actually never became a country of today.

850:'s mediation at the end of 1916 came to nothing. Over Bethmann Hollweg's objections, Hindenburg and Ludendorff forced the adoption of unrestricted submarine warfare in March 1917, adopted as a result of 733:

for quick victory against a poorly prepared France. By rushing through Belgium, Germany expanded the war to include England. Bethmann thus failed to keep France and Britain out of the conflict.

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Cox, Mary Elisabeth (2015-05-01). "Hunger games: or how the Allied blockade in the First World War deprived German children of nutrition, and Allied food aid subsequently saved them".

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and when Russia attacked in this region it diverted German forces intended for the Western Front. Germany defeated Russia in a series of battles collectively known as the First

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German soldiers on the way to the front in 1914. A message on the freight car spells out "Trip to Paris"; early in the war, all sides expected the conflict to be a short one.

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The drafting of miners reduced the main energy source, coal. The textile factories produced Army uniforms, and warm clothing for civilians ran short. The device of using

838:, which was a survey of ideas from the elite should Germany win the war. Bethmann Hollweg, with all credibility and power now lost, conspired over Falkenhayn's head with 1424: 2770: 729:

Russia. He calculated that France would not support Russia. It failed when Russia decided on general mobilization, and his own Army demanded the opportunity to use the

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called for the mobilization of all economic resources to produce artillery, shells, and machine guns. Church bells and copper roofs were ripped out and melted down.

4274: 2621: 939:(5–12 September). The last days of this battle signified the end of mobile warfare in the west. The French offensive into Germany launched on 7 August with the 2822: 550: 4304: 4209: 595:

fronts, although German territory itself remained relatively safe from widespread invasion for most of the war, except for a brief period in 1914 when

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elections. The combination of political and military opposition forced Bethmann Hollweg's resignation and replacement by a relatively unknown figure,

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The German population responded to the outbreak of war in 1914 with a complex mix of emotions, in a similar way to the populations of emotions in the

1096:, began on 8 August 1918—what Ludendorff called the "Black Day of the German army." The Allied armies advanced steadily as German defenses faltered. 1075: 4299: 709:

Bethmann Hollweg in uniform. He never served in the army, but after the war started, he was appointed to an honorary rank with a general's uniform.

1274:, they quickly spread the revolt across Germany. Meanwhile, Hindenburg and the senior generals lost confidence in the Kaiser and his government. 4169: 3956: 3204: 3047: 429: 1010: 4144: 3409: 2425:

A History of the Blockade of Germany and the Countries Associated with Her in the Great War, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey, 1914–1918

1573: 954:(17 August – 2 September), but this diversion exacerbated problems of insufficient speed of advance from rail-heads not foreseen by the 819:, writing in the 1960s, Bethmann Hollweg made more concessions to the nationalist right than had previously been thought. He supported the 4199: 2173:(Pen and Sword Military, 2010). This book is a compilation of German soldiers' letters and memoirs. All the references come from this book. 1024: 2445:

Burchardt, Lothar. "The Impact of the War Economy on the Civilian Population of Germany during the First and the Second World Wars," in

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Wolfgang J. Mommsen,"Public opinion and foreign policy in Wilhelmian Germany, 1897–1914." Central European History 24.4 (1991): 381-401.

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and the workers' and soldiers' councils, the Kaiser and all German ruling princes abdicated. On 9 November 1918, the Social Democrat

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Wilhelm Diest and E. J. Feuchtwanger, "The Military Collapse of the German Empire: the Reality Behind the Stab-in-the-Back Myth,"

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Posters of the German Military Government in the Generalgouvernement Warshau (German occupied Poland) from World War I, 1915-1916

2092: 1297: 877: 669:. The war was presented inside Germany as the chance for the nation to secure "our place under the sun," as the Foreign Minister 596: 102: 2834: 1008:(SAG, "Social Democratic Working Group"). On 17 January they expelled them, and in April 1917 the left-wing went on to form the 1004:

In early 1917 the SPD leadership became concerned about the activity of its anti-war left-wing which had been organising as the

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Great War, Total War: Combat and Mobilization on the Western Front, 1914-1918 (Publications of the German Historical Institute)

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When the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum was presented to Serbia, Kaiser Wilhelm II ended his vacation and hurried back to Berlin.

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into the war in April 1917, which tipped the long-run balance of power even more to the Allies. The end of October 1918, in

771:, were instrumental in assuring Austria-Hungary of Germany's unconditional support, regardless of Austria's actions against 4229: 3476: 2852: 3986: 3949: 3323: 3306: 3139: 2281:

German and Austrian Aviation of World War I: A Pictorial Chronicle of the Airmen and Aircraft That Forged German Airpower

1177: 691: 536: 310: 78: 2840: 2470:

Dasey, Robyn. "Women's Work and the Family: Women Garment Workers in Berlin and Hamburg before the First World War," in

1241: 4340: 3214: 3179: 3124: 2618: 2226: 1301: 1135: 991: 675: 608: 449: 243: 98: 756:, "Russian mobilisation measures would compel us to mobilise and that then European war could scarcely be prevented." 4264: 3663: 3567: 3404: 2816: 2439: 2288: 2273: 1857: 1830: 1603: 1495: 858:. Bethmann Hollweg had been a reluctant participant and opposed it in cabinet. The US entered the war in April 1917. 2846: 1517: 4021: 2510:

Donson, Andrew. "Why did German youth become fascists? Nationalist males born 1900 to 1908 in war and revolution,"

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Terraine, John. "'An Actual Revolutionary Situation': In 1917 there was little to sustain German morale at home,"

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Germany's Defeat in the First World War: The Lost Battles and Reckless Gambles That Brought Down the Second Reich

797: 255: 120: 1183: 913:, the German soldiers bound westwards to France and those bound eastwards to Russia smilingly salute each other. 4088: 4083: 3942: 3512: 3328: 3012: 2870: 2828: 2708: 1655: 1267: 1146: 124: 83: 2876: 2725: 1538:

Konrad H. Jarausch, "The Illusion of Limited War: Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg's Calculated Risk, July 1914."

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Total Warfare and Compulsory Labor: A Study of the Military-Industrial Complex in Germany during World War I

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The Silent Dictatorship: The Politics of the German High Command under Hindenburg and Ludendorff, 1916–1918

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N.P. Howard, N.P. "The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918-19,"

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The German Family: Essays on the Social History of the Family in Nineteenth-and Twentieth-Century Germany,

2442:. Covers France, UK, USA, Russia, Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and the Netherlands 1312:

7 million soldiers and sailors were quickly demobilized. Some joined right-wing organizations such as the

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Feldman, Gerald D. "The Political and Social Foundations of Germany's Economic Mobilization, 1914-1916,"

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Feldman, Gerald D. "The Political and Social Foundations of Germany's Economic Mobilization, 1914-1916,"

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Bethmann Hollweg remained in office until July 1917, when a Reichstag revolt resulted in the passage of

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N. P. Howard, "The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918-19,"

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were limited, then rationing was introduced. In 1915 five million pigs were massacred in the so-called

315: 285: 58: 2555:

Howard, N.P. "The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918-19,"

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N.P. Howard, "The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918-19,"

4330: 4259: 4184: 4037: 3981: 3796: 2981: 2570: 2373:(U. of Nebraska Press, 1982); Contains design and production figures, as well as economic influences. 936: 816: 679: 132: 128: 63: 4254: 4098: 4073: 3773: 3735: 3572: 3343: 1236: 851: 140: 2606:

Moeller, Robert G. "Dimensions of Social Conflict in the Great War: A View from the Countryside,"

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War and Revolution in Leipzig, 1914–1918: Socialist Politics and Urban Evolution in a German City

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Marquis, H. G. "Words as Weapons: Propaganda in Britain and Germany during the First World War."

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Allen, Keith. "Sharing Scarcity: Bread Rationing and the First World War in Berlin, 1914– 1923,"

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edited by Richard Wall and Jay M. Winter, (Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 289–416.

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Keith Allen, "Sharing scarcity: Bread rationing and the First World War in Berlin, 1914-1923,"

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Keith Allen, "Sharing scarcity: Bread rationing and the First World War in Berlin, 1914-1923,"

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edited by Richard Wall and Jay M. Winter, (Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 159–96.

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caused severe food shortages in the cities, especially in the winter of 1916–17, known as the

4219: 4093: 4042: 3871: 3690: 3675: 3638: 2899: 1327: 1290: 584: 470: 112: 2810: 2797: 1645: 670: 3653: 3597: 3481: 3419: 3414: 3384: 3316: 3294: 3242: 3144: 955: 737: 683: 465: 293: 280: 172: 2790: 607:. At the end of the war, Germany's defeat and widespread popular discontent triggered the 8: 4113: 3836: 3730: 3705: 3700: 3577: 3522: 3461: 3367: 3098: 3032: 2908: 1294: 1060: 979: 862: 839: 824: 653:

have been challenged by more recent scholarship. The German government, dominated by the

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Despite its membership in the 3950: 2929: 2634:(1991), on food supply of Britain and Germany 2458:Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918 2027:Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914-1918 1874:Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914-1918 1395:Anonymous Bavarian soldier, 17 October 1914. 544: 2498:Authority and Upheaval in Leipzig, 1910–1920 2447:The German Military in the Age of Total War, 2430:Broadberry, Stephen and Mark Harrison, eds. 2337:Hubatsch, Walther; Backus, Oswald P (1963), 2040:Germany, Propaganda and Total War, 1914-1918 1686: 412: 298: 3048:Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16) 2883:War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Germany) 2743:War Experiences in Rural Germany, 1914-1923 2567:Facing total war: German society, 1914-1918 2514:Aug2006, Vol. 31, Issue 3, pp. 337–358 1318:; radicals or the far Left helped form the 1025:Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany 3957: 3943: 2936: 2922: 2341:, Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas, 1970:April 1993, Vol. 11, Issue 2, pp. 161-188. 946:In the east, only one Field Army defended 748:himself was preparing a secret mission to 551: 537: 2720:Winter, Jay, and Jean-Louis Robert, eds. 2660:The Allied Blockade of Germany, 1914–1916 2379:The German Army on the Somme: 1914 - 1916 2134:April 1996, Vol. 3, Issue 2, pp. 186-207. 1650:. 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Nijhoff, 1964) 2147:(Yale University Press, 1940) 2097:Deutsches Historisches Museum 1420:Home front during World War I 1405:German entry into World War I 1348:German trench destroyed by a 1333: 1108: 796:departing British Ambassador 720:German entry into World War I 713: 629:German entry into World War I 4326:German Empire in World War I 2907:From the Collections at the 2871:Propaganda at Home (Germany) 2829:Food and Nutrition (Germany) 2432:The Economics of World War I 1592:Butler, David Allen (2010). 1260:German Revolution of 1918–19 1113: 892: 7: 2877:Warfare 1914-1918 (Germany) 2460:(1998), wide-ranging survey 2232: 2093:"Der Matrosenaufstand 1918" 1985:The Economic History Review 1846:Tucker, Spencer C. (2005). 1705:Canadian Journal of History 1572:(1997), pp. 70-89 at p. 71. 1570:The Outbreak of World War I 1398: 1304:called for and received an 919:Western Front (World War I) 622: 583:. German forces fought the 10: 4367: 3155:North German Confederation 3135:Confederation of the Rhine 2865:Press/Journalism (Germany) 2519:Armed Forces & Society 2366:(London: Croom Helm, 1976) 2331:A Companion to World War I 1955:Journal of Social History, 1941:(1976), 3#1, pp. 121-145. 1939:Armed Forces & Society 1690:Neue Deutsche Biographie 2 1337: 1320:Communist Party of Germany 1234: 1158: 1047: 989: 916: 717: 626: 316:North German Confederation 286:Confederation of the Rhine 4341:Modern history of Germany 4292: 4132: 4061: 4030: 3974: 3889: 3749: 3629: 3620: 3503: 3494: 3375: 3366: 3302: 3293: 3256: 3235: 3117: 3071: 2995: 2964: 2955: 2765:Lutz, Ralph Haswell, ed. 2404:Journal of Social History 2066:Journal of Social History 1744:Fred R. Van Hartesveldt, 1555:15#3 (1990), pp. 120–50, 1464:(1993), 11#2, pp. 161-88 937:First Battle of the Marne 3307:Administrative divisions 2684:Central European History 2648:(1998), pp. 234–83. 2608:Central European History 2418:Central European History 2307:Zeppelins of World War I 1852:ABC-CLIO. p. 1256. 1540:Central European History 1435: 1237:Aftermath of World War I 852:Henning von Holtzendorff 597:East Prussia was invaded 2887:Whalen, Robert Weldon: 2671:excerpt and text search 2586:(1938) a brief survey 2326:(1996), mostly military 2283:(2000). Osprey Pub Co. 1819:Millett, Allan (1991). 1451:(Cambridge U.P., 2000). 1383:Dominik Richert, 1914. 1302:German Social Democrats 1174:Kriegsrohstoffabteilung 1145:According to historian 1050:German spring offensive 1043: 985: 961: 929:Battle of the Frontiers 4346:World War I by country 3568:Science and technology 3269:History of Brandenburg 3160:Unification of Germany 3150:Frankfurt Constitution 2571:online at ACLS e-books 2377:Sheldon, Jack (2005). 2305:Cross, Wilbur (1991), 1902:(1991 edition) p. 742. 1779:Bruce I. Gudmundsson, 1553:International Security 1525:Encyclopedia Americana 1478:Strachan, Hew (1998). 1361: 1353: 1340:World War I casualties 1246: 1211: 1188: 1127: 1094:Hundred Days Offensive 1084: 1019: 1001: 971: 914: 902: 807:), which was the 1839 792: 785: 710: 642: 413: 299: 168:Linear Pottery culture 3969:by region and country 3205:Flight and expulsions 2900:Spartacus Educational 2863:Altenhöner, Florian: 2859:War Finance (Germany) 2851:Ullmann, Hans-Peter: 2796:Articles relating to 2791:"The First World War" 2787:"Der Erste Weltkrieg" 2582:Lutz, Ralph Haswell. 2239:Cecil, Lamar (1996), 1372:Soldiers' experiences 1359: 1347: 1328:Stab-in-the-back myth 1298:proclaimed a Republic 1266:at the prospect of a 1244: 1209: 1186: 1121: 1078: 1048:Further information: 999: 969: 943:had limited success. 908: 900: 790: 780: 708: 640: 94:Territorial evolution 3877:World Heritage Sites 3555:German states by GDP 3145:German Confederation 2889:War Losses (Germany) 2833:Oppelland, Torsten: 2769:(2 vol 1932). 868pp 2294:Cruttwell, C.R.M.F. 1900:The Rise of the West 1898:William H. McNeill, 1809:(1935), pp. 505-35r. 1805:C.R.M.F. Cruttwell, 1389:Hermann Baur, 1915. 956:German General Staff 952:Battle of Tannenberg 752:. He wrote to Count 684:Second International 615:and established the 611:which overthrew the 430:Expulsion of Germans 396:Contemporary Germany 294:German Confederation 3513:Automobile industry 3099:Carolingian dynasty 3033:History of the Huns 2909:Library of Congress 2821:Bruendel, Steffen: 2807:Hirschfeld, Gerhard 2741:Ziemann, Benjamin. 2644:Richie, Alexandra. 2613:Moeller, Robert G. 2456:Chickering, Roger. 2221:Watson, Alexander. 2081:(1998), pp. 277-80. 1849:World War I: A - D. 1796:(2011), pp. 30-111. 1783:(1989), pp. 155-70. 1295:Philipp Scheidemann 1291:German High Command 1061:Paul von Hindenburg 863:Wolfgang J. Mommsen 840:Paul von Hindenburg 825:Polish Border Strip 692:blockade of Germany 244:Early Modern period 231:Eastward settlement 3583:Telecommunications 3264:History of Prussia 3180:Revolution of 1918 3175:War guilt question 3094:Carolingian Empire 3063:Sack of Rome (410) 2972:History of Germany 2881:Löffelbein, Nils: 2875:Pöhlmann, Markus: 2815:Fehlemann, Silke: 2703:Verhey, Jeffrey. 2624:2016-03-09 at the 2596:(1978) 12: 467–98. 2548:Herwig, Holger H. 2490:2020-11-17 at the 2322:Herwig, Holger H. 2079:Faust's Metropolis 2077:Alexandra Richie, 2025:Roger Chickering, 1887:Faust's Metropolis 1872:Roger Chickering, 1766:Holger H. Herwig, 1748:(1996), pp. 26-27. 1732:The Guns of August 1707:2.2 (1967): 49-61. 1628:The Guns of August 1579:2022-01-29 at the 1542:2.1 (1969): 48-76. 1410:History of Germany 1362: 1354: 1270:, and by means of 1247: 1212: 1189: 1147:William H. MacNeil 1140:Hindenburg Program 1128: 1126:, who is in a car. 1085: 1059:and Field Marshal 1002: 972: 941:Battle of Mulhouse 915: 903: 870:Matthias Erzberger 823:of Poles from the 793: 769:Gottlieb von Jagow 711: 671:Bernhard von Bülow 643: 524:History portal 510:Germany portal 261:Kingdom of Prussia 221:Kingdom of Germany 193:Barbarian kingdoms 4313: 4312: 4022:Southern Rhodesia 4017:South West Africa 3932: 3931: 3885: 3884: 3616: 3615: 3530:Chemical Triangle 3490: 3489: 3477:Political parties 3425:Foreign relations 3362: 3361: 3289: 3288: 3200:Allied occupation 3104:Holy Roman Empire 2898:article index at 2839:Stibbe, Matthew: 2773:, primary sources 2717:(IB Tauris, 2014) 2599:McKibbin, David. 2545:(1977), economics 2527:Feldman, Gerald. 2478:Davis, Belinda J. 2423:Bell, Archibald. 2409:Armeson, Robert. 2388:978-1-84415-269-8 2362:Kitchen, Martin. 2329:Horne, John, ed. 2316:978-1-55778-382-0 2309:, Paragon House, 2250:978-0-8078-2283-8 1997:10.1111/ehr.12070 1792:David Stevenson, 1729:Barbara Tuchman, 1625:Barbara Tuchman, 1285:suing for peace, 1231:Defeat and revolt 1079:German troops in 836:Septemberprogramm 802:ein Fetzen Papier 742:Leopold Berchtold 561: 560: 492: 491: 386: 385: 226:Holy Roman Empire 103:Holy Roman Empire 4358: 4331:1910s in Germany 3959: 3952: 3945: 3936: 3935: 3912: 3905: 3898: 3862:Prussian virtues 3627: 3626: 3535:Economic history 3501: 3500: 3395: 3373: 3372: 3324:Cities and towns 3300: 3299: 3280:Baden Revolution 3084:Treaty of Verdun 3053:Marcomannic Wars 3008:Migration Period 3003:Germanic peoples 2987:Military history 2962: 2961: 2938: 2931: 2924: 2915: 2914: 2857:Gross, Stephen: 2827:Davis, Belinda: 2785: 2534:Ferguson, Niall 2392: 2349: 2319: 2298:(1935) ch 15-29 2261: 2210: 2204: 2198: 2192: 2186: 2180: 2174: 2167: 2161: 2154: 2148: 2141: 2135: 2128: 2122: 2115: 2109: 2108: 2106: 2104: 2088: 2082: 2075: 2069: 2062: 2056: 2053:Imperial Germany 2049: 2043: 2036: 2030: 2029:(2004) p. 141-42 2023: 2017: 2016: 1980: 1971: 1964: 1958: 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3664:Ethnic groups 3662: 3661: 3660: 3657: 3655: 3652: 3650: 3647: 3645: 3642: 3640: 3637: 3635: 3632: 3631: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3619: 3609: 3606: 3604: 3601: 3599: 3596: 3594: 3591: 3589: 3586: 3584: 3581: 3579: 3576: 3574: 3571: 3569: 3566: 3564: 3562: 3558: 3556: 3553: 3551: 3548: 3546: 3543: 3541: 3538: 3536: 3533: 3531: 3528: 3524: 3521: 3520: 3519: 3516: 3514: 3511: 3509: 3506: 3505: 3502: 3499: 3497: 3493: 3483: 3480: 3478: 3475: 3473: 3470: 3468: 3465: 3463: 3460: 3458: 3455: 3453: 3450: 3446: 3443: 3441: 3438: 3436: 3433: 3432: 3431: 3428: 3426: 3423: 3421: 3418: 3416: 3413: 3411: 3408: 3406: 3403: 3401: 3398: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3386: 3383: 3381: 3378: 3377: 3374: 3371: 3369: 3365: 3355: 3352: 3350: 3347: 3345: 3342: 3340: 3337: 3335: 3332: 3330: 3327: 3325: 3322: 3318: 3315: 3313: 3310: 3309: 3308: 3305: 3304: 3301: 3298: 3296: 3292: 3281: 3278: 3275: 3272: 3270: 3267: 3265: 3262: 3261: 3259: 3255: 3249: 3246: 3244: 3243:Reunification 3241: 3240: 3238: 3234: 3226: 3223: 3221: 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G. 2757: 2756: 2748: 2745:(Berg, 2007) 2744: 2740: 2737: 2734:Winter, Jay. 2733: 2731: 2727: 2726:vol 1 excerpt 2723: 2719: 2716: 2712: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2699: 2695: 2692: 2688: 2685: 2681: 2678: 2677:History Today 2674: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2661: 2657: 2654: 2651:Ryder, A. J. 2650: 2647: 2643: 2640: 2636: 2633: 2629: 2627: 2623: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2609: 2605: 2602: 2598: 2595: 2591: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2578: 2574: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2551: 2547: 2544: 2540: 2537: 2533: 2530: 2526: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2513: 2509: 2506: 2502: 2499: 2495: 2493: 2489: 2486: 2482: 2479: 2476: 2473: 2469: 2466: 2463:Daniel, Ute. 2462: 2459: 2455: 2452: 2451:Wilhelm Deist 2448: 2444: 2441: 2440:0-521-85212-9 2437: 2433: 2429: 2426: 2422: 2419: 2415: 2412: 2408: 2405: 2401: 2400: 2390: 2384: 2380: 2375: 2372: 2368: 2365: 2361: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2335: 2332: 2328: 2325: 2321: 2318: 2312: 2308: 2303: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2290: 2289:1-84176-069-2 2286: 2282: 2278: 2275: 2274:0-521-77352-0 2271: 2267: 2263: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2246: 2242: 2237: 2236: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2219: 2208: 2203: 2196: 2191: 2184: 2179: 2172: 2166: 2159: 2153: 2146: 2140: 2133: 2127: 2120: 2117:A. J. Ryder, 2114: 2098: 2094: 2087: 2080: 2074: 2067: 2061: 2054: 2048: 2041: 2038:David Welch, 2035: 2028: 2022: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1979: 1977: 1969: 1963: 1956: 1950: 1944: 1940: 1934: 1927: 1921: 1914: 1908: 1901: 1895: 1889:, pp. 272-75. 1888: 1882: 1875: 1869: 1861: 1859:9781851094202 1855: 1851: 1850: 1842: 1834: 1832:9780029215968 1828: 1824: 1823: 1815: 1808: 1802: 1795: 1789: 1782: 1776: 1769: 1763: 1754: 1747: 1741: 1734: 1733: 1726: 1719: 1716:Jeff Lipkes, 1713: 1706: 1700: 1692: 1691: 1683: 1674: 1659: 1653: 1649: 1648: 1643: 1637: 1630: 1629: 1622: 1607: 1605:9781935149576 1601: 1597: 1596: 1588: 1582: 1578: 1575: 1571: 1565: 1558: 1554: 1548: 1541: 1535: 1527: 1526: 1520: 1513: 1512:public domain 1507: 1499: 1497:9780198206149 1493: 1489: 1484: 1483: 1474: 1467: 1463: 1457: 1450: 1444: 1440: 1431: 1428: 1426: 1423: 1421: 1418: 1416: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1406: 1403: 1402: 1396: 1394: 1390: 1388: 1384: 1382: 1378: 1369: 1366: 1358: 1351: 1346: 1341: 1331: 1329: 1323: 1321: 1317: 1316: 1310: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1275: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1252:United States 1243: 1238: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1217: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1198: 1193: 1185: 1181: 1179: 1175: 1170: 1165: 1152: 1151: 1150: 1148: 1143: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1125: 1120: 1106: 1103: 1097: 1095: 1089: 1082: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1062: 1058: 1051: 1041: 1039: 1036:what General 1033: 1031: 1027: 1026: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1012: 1007: 998: 993: 983: 981: 977: 968: 959: 957: 953: 949: 944: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 920: 912: 907: 899: 890: 888: 883: 879: 875: 871: 866: 864: 861:According to 859: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 832: 830: 829:Germanisation 826: 822: 818: 817:Fritz Fischer 815:to historian 812: 810: 803: 799: 789: 784: 779: 776: 774: 770: 766: 762: 757: 755: 751: 750:St Petersburg 747: 743: 739: 738:Hoyos Mission 734: 732: 727: 721: 707: 703: 701: 697: 693: 687: 685: 681: 677: 672: 668: 664: 660: 656: 652: 648: 639: 634: 630: 620: 618: 614: 610: 606: 605:Turnip Winter 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 579:by its ally, 578: 574: 570: 569:German Empire 566: 554: 549: 547: 542: 540: 535: 534: 532: 531: 525: 514: 511: 500: 499: 498: 497: 487: 485: 482: 481: 477: 472: 469: 467: 466:Reunification 464: 463: 461: 460: 456: 451: 448: 444: 441: 440: 438: 437: 433: 431: 428: 427: 423: 417: 416: 411: 409: 406: 405: 403: 402: 397: 392: 391: 381: 379: 376: 375: 371: 369: 366: 365: 361: 359: 356: 355: 351: 349: 346: 345: 341: 339: 338:German Empire 336: 335: 330: 325: 324: 317: 314: 312: 309: 303: 302: 297: 295: 292: 291: 289: 287: 284: 282: 281:Mediatisation 279: 278: 275: 270: 269: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 248: 245: 240: 239: 232: 229: 227: 224: 222: 219: 217: 214: 213: 207: 206: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169: 166: 165: 162:Early history 159: 158: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 110: 107: 104: 100: 97: 95: 92: 90: 87: 85: 82: 80: 77: 75: 72: 70: 67: 65: 62: 60: 57: 56: 50: 49: 45: 41: 40: 37: 31: 30: 25: 20: 19: 16: 4179: 4012:South Africa 3910:Bibliography 3784:Coat of arms 3764:Architecture 3741:Trade unions 3721:Prostitution 3681:Homelessness 3644:Demographics 3593:Trade unions 3560: 3550:German model 3523:Central bank 3467:Conservatism 3430:Human rights 3415:Court system 3410:Constitution 3390: 3236:Contemporary 3225:West Germany 3220:East Germany 3195:World War II 3190:Nazi Germany 3169: 3130:18th-century 3089:East Francia 3043:Cimbrian War 2766: 2759: 2742: 2735: 2721: 2714: 2704: 2697: 2690: 2683: 2676: 2666: 2659: 2652: 2645: 2638: 2631: 2614: 2607: 2600: 2593: 2583: 2576: 2566: 2556: 2549: 2542: 2535: 2528: 2518: 2511: 2504: 2497: 2480: 2471: 2464: 2457: 2446: 2431: 2424: 2417: 2410: 2403: 2378: 2370: 2363: 2353: 2338: 2330: 2323: 2306: 2295: 2280: 2265: 2240: 2222: 2206: 2202: 2194: 2190: 2182: 2178: 2170: 2165: 2160:(1993) p 162 2157: 2152: 2144: 2139: 2131: 2126: 2118: 2113: 2101:. 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First 623:Overview 613:monarchy 450:division 109:Monarchs 69:Military 24:a series 22:Part of 4293:Oceania 4283:Ireland 4270:Ukraine 4240:Romania 4195:Ireland 4190:Hungary 4180:Germany 4170:Estonia 4165:Denmark 4160:Croatia 4150:Belgium 4140:Albania 4119:Vietnam 4007:Morocco 4002:Liberia 3896:Outline 3802:Fashion 3789:Cuisine 3751:Culture 3716:Poverty 3659:Germans 3622:Society 3603:Welfare 3588:Tourism 3545:Exports 3518:Banking 3496:Economy 3400:Cabinet 3339:Islands 3334:Geology 3257:Regions 3023:Teutons 2996:Ancient 2958:History 2945:Germany 2811:Germany 2798:Germany 2709:excerpt 2707:(2006) 2669:(2008) 2500:(2000). 2483:(2000) 2434:(2005) 2358:excerpt 2227:excerpt 1611:30 July 1514:: 1159:Economy 700:Germany 667:Britain 655:Junkers 593:western 589:eastern 563:During 137:Prussia 133:Bavaria 129:Austria 84:Judaism 74:Economy 35:Germany 4260:Sweden 4250:Serbia 4245:Russia 4230:Poland 4220:Norway 4185:Greece 4175:France 4133:Europe 4043:Canada 4038:Brazil 3982:Angola 3975:Africa 3924:Portal 3779:Cinema 3759:Anthem 3726:Racism 3540:Energy 3354:Rivers 3312:States 3282:, 1848 3118:Modern 2947: 2738:(1995) 2662:(1957) 2641:(2004) 2561:online 2531:(1966) 2523:online 2467:(1997) 2438: 2385: 2345: 2333:(2012) 2313: 2287: 2272: 2257: 2247: 2121:(2008) 2011: 2003: 1943:online 1856: 1829: 1735:(1962) 1720:(2007) 1663:7 July 1654: 1602: 1574:online 1494: 1466:online 1352:, 1917 1216:ersatz 1016:German 976:Verdun 882:Centre 880:, and 773:Serbia 663:Russia 659:France 585:Allies 577:Serbia 567:, the 141:Saxony 113:Queens 53:Topics 26:on the 4279:Wales 4255:Spain 4200:Italy 4124:Yemen 4099:Japan 4084:India 4074:China 3992:Egypt 3903:Index 3867:Sport 3852:Names 3847:Music 3842:Media 3797:Dance 3669:Women 3634:Crime 3608:Women 3344:Lakes 3018:Goths 2209:, 51. 2197:, 64. 2185:, 77. 2009:S2CID 1436:Notes 1130:The " 89:Women 4114:Siam 4094:Iraq 4089:Iran 4062:Asia 3817:Flag 3774:Arts 3440:LGBT 2436:ISBN 2383:ISBN 2343:OCLC 2311:ISBN 2285:ISBN 2270:ISBN 2255:OCLC 2245:ISBN 2105:2024 2001:ISSN 1854:ISBN 1827:ISBN 1665:2009 1652:ISBN 1613:2012 1600:ISBN 1492:ISBN 1256:Kiel 1081:Kiev 1044:1918 986:1917 978:and 962:1916 842:and 665:and 631:and 591:and 478:1990 447:East 443:West 121:1918 79:LGBT 3769:Art 3452:Law 2800:at 1993:doi 1488:125 872:'s 854:'s 763:in 4322:: 4281:, 2809:: 2728:; 2253:, 2007:. 1999:. 1989:68 1987:. 1975:^ 1522:. 1490:. 1322:. 1262:. 1149:: 1018:: 889:. 661:, 619:. 147:, 143:, 139:, 135:, 131:, 127:, 123:, 119:, 115:, 4285:) 4277:( 3958:e 3951:t 3944:v 2937:e 2930:t 2923:v 2391:. 2107:. 2015:. 1995:: 1862:. 1835:. 1667:. 1615:. 1559:. 1528:. 1500:. 1326:" 1172:( 1014:( 805:" 552:e 545:t 538:v 445:– 151:) 111:( 105:) 101:(

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