42:
755:. It is a form of isothermal heat treatment applied after an initial quench, typically in a molten salt bath, at a temperature just above the "martensite start temperature". At this temperature, residual stresses within the material are relieved and some bainite may be formed from the retained austenite which did not have time to transform into anything else. In industry, this is a process used to control the ductility and hardness of a material. With longer marquenching, the ductility increases with a minimal loss in strength; the steel is held in this solution until the inner and outer temperatures of the part equalize. Then the steel is cooled at a moderate speed to keep the temperature gradient minimal. Not only does this process reduce internal stresses and stress cracks, but it also increases impact resistance.
1456:
622:
544:'s definition of carbon steel allows up to 1.65% manganese by weight. There are two types of higher carbon steels which are high carbon steel and the ultra high carbon steel. The reason for the limited use of high carbon steel is that it has extremely poor ductility and weldability and has a higher cost of production. The applications best suited for the high carbon steels is its use in the spring industry, farm industry, and in the production of wide range of high-strength wires.
797:
meaning they can not be hardened throughout thick sections. Alloy steels have a better hardenability, so they can be through-hardened and do not require case hardening. This property of carbon steel can be beneficial, because it gives the surface good wear characteristics but leaves the core flexible
699:
might still exist if the carbon content is greater than the eutectoid). The steel must then be cooled slowly, in the realm of 20 °C (36 °F) per hour. Usually it is just furnace cooled, where the furnace is turned off with the steel still inside. This results in a coarse pearlitic structure,
737:
Carbon steel with at least 0.4 wt% C is heated to normalizing temperatures and then rapidly cooled (quenched) in water, brine, or oil to the critical temperature. The critical temperature is dependent on the carbon content, but as a general rule is lower as the carbon content increases. This results
356:
Carbon steel is susceptible to rust and corrosion, especially in environments with high moisture levels and/or salt. It can be shielded from corrosion by coating it with paint, varnish, or other protective material. Alternatively, it can be made from a stainless steel alloy that contains chromium,
728:
Carbon steel is heated to approximately 550 °C (1,000 °F) for 1 hour; this ensures the steel completely transforms to austenite. The steel is then air-cooled, which is a cooling rate of approximately 38 °C (100 °F) per minute. This results in a fine pearlitic structure, and a
678:
Spheroidite forms when carbon steel is heated to approximately 700 °C (1,300 °F) for over 30 hours. Spheroidite can form at lower temperatures but the time needed drastically increases, as this is a diffusion-controlled process. The result is a structure of rods or spheres of cementite
380:
Mild steel (iron containing a small percentage of carbon, strong and tough but not readily tempered), also known as plain-carbon steel and low-carbon steel, is now the most common form of steel because its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many
357:
which provides excellent corrosion resistance. Carbon steel can be alloyed with other elements to improve its properties, such as by adding chromium and/or nickel to improve its resistance to corrosion and oxidation or adding molybdenum to improve its strength and toughness at high temperatures.
352:
Carbon steel is often divided into two main categories: low-carbon steel and high-carbon steel. It may also contain other elements, such as manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon, which can affect its properties. Carbon steel can be easily machined and welded, making it versatile for various
777:
The austempering process is the same as martempering, except the quench is interrupted and the steel is held in the molten salt bath at temperatures between 205 and 540 °C (400 and 1,000 °F), and then cooled at a moderate rate. The resulting steel, called bainite, produces an acicular
721:
It is a process in which hypoeutectoid steel is heated above the upper critical temperature. This temperature is maintained for a time and then reduced to below the lower critical temperature and is again maintained. It is then cooled to room temperature. This method eliminates any temperature
648:
phase; therefore all heat treatments, except spheroidizing and process annealing, start by heating the steel to a temperature at which the austenitic phase can exist. The steel is then quenched (heat drawn out) at a moderate to low rate allowing carbon to diffuse out of the austenite forming
778:
microstructure in the steel that has great strength (but less than martensite), greater ductility, higher impact resistance, and less distortion than martensite steel. The disadvantage of austempering is it can be used only on a few sheets of steel, and it requires a special salt bath.
714:
A process used to relieve stress in a cold-worked carbon steel with less than 0.3% C. The steel is usually heated to 550 to 650 °C (1,000 to 1,200 °F) for 1 hour, but sometimes temperatures as high as 700 °C (1,300 °F). The image above shows the process annealing
639:
The purpose of heat treating carbon steel is to change the mechanical properties of steel, usually ductility, hardness, yield strength, or impact resistance. Note that the electrical and thermal conductivity are only slightly altered. As with most strengthening techniques for steel,
738:
in a martensitic structure; a form of steel that possesses a super-saturated carbon content in a deformed body-centered cubic (BCC) crystalline structure, properly termed body-centered tetragonal (BCT), with much internal stress. Thus quenched steel is extremely hard but
413:. The first yield point (or upper yield point) is higher than the second and the yield drops dramatically after the upper yield point. If a low-carbon steel is only stressed to some point between the upper and lower yield point then the surface develops
653:
temperature (about 727 °C or 1,341 °F) affects the rate at which carbon diffuses out of austenite and forms cementite. Generally speaking, cooling swiftly will leave iron carbide finely dispersed and produce a fine grained
679:
within primary structure (ferrite or pearlite, depending on which side of the eutectoid you are on). The purpose is to soften higher carbon steels and allow more formability. This is the softest and most ductile form of steel.
763:
This is the most common heat treatment encountered because the final properties can be precisely determined by the temperature and time of the tempering. Tempering involves reheating quenched steel to a temperature below the
360:
It is an environmentally friendly material, as it is easily recyclable and can be reused in various applications. It is energy-efficient to produce, as it requires less energy than other metals such as aluminium and copper.
381:
applications. Mild steel contains approximately 0.05–0.30% carbon making it malleable and ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and easy to form. Surface hardness can be increased with
666:
formed on the grain boundaries. A eutectoid steel (0.77% carbon) will have a pearlite structure throughout the grains with no cementite at the boundaries. The relative amounts of constituents are found using the
768:
temperature and then cooling. The elevated temperature allows very small amounts spheroidite to form, which restores ductility but reduces hardness. Actual temperatures and times are carefully chosen for each
417:. Low-carbon steels contain less carbon than other steels and are easier to cold-form, making them easier to handle. Typical applications of low carbon steel are car parts, pipes, construction, and food cans.
742:, usually too brittle for practical purposes. These internal stresses may cause stress cracks on the surface. Quenched steel is approximately three times harder (four with more carbon) than normalized steel.
425:
High-tensile steels are low-carbon, or steels at the lower end of the medium-carbon range, which have additional alloying ingredients in order to increase their strength, wear properties or specifically
1531:
Alvarenga HD, Van de Putte T, Van
Steenberge N, Sietsma J, Terryn H (October 2014). "Influence of Carbide Morphology and Microstructure on the Kinetics of Superficial Decarburization of C-Mn Steels".
605:
Ultra-high-carbon steel has approximately 1.25–2.0% carbon content. Steels that can be tempered to great hardness. Used for special purposes such as (non-industrial-purpose) knives, axles, and
793:
Case hardening processes harden only the exterior of the steel part, creating a hard, wear-resistant skin (the "case") but preserving a tough and ductile interior. Carbon steels are not very
589:
Medium-carbon steel has approximately 0.3–0.5% carbon content. It balances ductility and strength and has good wear resistance. It is used for large parts, forging and automotive components.
41:
649:
iron-carbide (cementite) and leaving ferrite, or at a high rate, trapping the carbon within the iron thus forming martensite. The rate at which the steel is cooled through the
658:
and cooling slowly will give a coarser pearlite. Cooling a hypoeutectoid steel (less than 0.77 wt% C) results in a lamellar-pearlitic structure of iron carbide layers with α-
662:(nearly pure iron) between. If it is hypereutectoid steel (more than 0.77 wt% C) then the structure is full pearlite with small grains (larger than the pearlite lamella) of
942:
644:(elasticity) is unaffected. All treatments of steel trade ductility for increased strength and vice versa. Iron has a higher solubility for carbon in the
512:
Carbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have a carbon content in the range of 0.30–1.70% by weight. Trace impurities of various other
1385:
1357:
1347:
597:
High-carbon steel has approximately 0.6 to 1.0% carbon content. It is very strong, used for springs, edged tools, and high-strength wires.
501:
495:
488:
476:
708:, with no internal stresses, which is often necessary for cost-effective forming. Only spheroidized steel is softer and more ductile.
729:
more-uniform structure. Normalized steel has a higher strength than annealed steel; it has a relatively high strength and hardness.
1186:
1035:
17:
1726:
1707:
1688:
1659:
1254:
541:
240:
563:
1750:
116:
321:) and high strength wires. These applications require a much finer microstructure, which improves the toughness.
1277:
388:
The density of mild steel is approximately 7.85 g/cm (7,850 kg/m; 0.284 lb/cu in) and the
1371:
1295:
1469:
978:
1494:
1205:
570:(UK), AFNOR (France), UNI (Italy), SS (Sweden) , UNE (Spain), JIS (Japan), ASTM standards, and others.
1455:
687:
Carbon steel is heated to approximately 400 °C (750 °F) for 1 hour; this ensures all the
293:
or the specified maximum for any of the following elements does not exceed the percentages noted:
121:
758:
682:
528:
grade, contains about 0.05% sulfur and melt around 1,426–1,538 °C (2,600–2,800 °F).
1231:
524:, that is, brittle and crumbly at high working temperatures. Low-alloy carbon steel, such as
353:
applications. It can also be heat treated to improve its strength, hardness, and durability.
329:
317:. High carbon steel has many different uses such as milling machines, cutting tools (such as
239:
content from about 0.05 up to 2.1 percent by weight. The definition of carbon steel from the
1421:
Nishimura, Naoya; Murase, Katsuhiko; Ito, Toshihiro; Watanabe, Takeru; Nowak, Roman (2012).
1176:
1540:
1434:
606:
8:
1321:
1544:
1438:
1420:
1556:
688:
659:
641:
389:
58:
1722:
1703:
1684:
1655:
1648:
1560:
1365:
1289:
1182:
610:
567:
1548:
1442:
997:
559:
553:
513:
427:
370:
172:
167:
1745:
1149:
1016:
537:
310:
162:
629:, showing the temperature and carbon ranges for certain types of heat treatments
1108:
788:
634:
213:
157:
137:
87:
49:
1552:
1447:
1423:"Ultrasonic detection of spall damage induced by low-velocity repeated impact"
1422:
516:
can significantly affect the quality of the resulting steel. Trace amounts of
414:
1739:
794:
626:
533:
382:
333:
621:
1087:
1055:
922:
772:
745:
218:
208:
147:
1530:
1386:"Introduction to Carbon Steel | Types, Properties, Uses and Applications"
1103:
1092:
410:
341:
314:
152:
96:
581:
Low-carbon steel has 0.05 to 0.15% carbon (plain carbon steel) content.
344:. In carbon steels, the higher carbon content lowers the melting point.
324:
As the carbon content percentage rises, steel has the ability to become
668:
573:
Carbon steel is broken down into four classes based on carbon content:
483:
471:
466:
455:
435:
283:, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect;
256:
203:
177:
111:
73:
1645:
1256:
Modulus of
Elasticity, Strength Properties of Metals – Iron and Steel
765:
732:
696:
692:
663:
650:
645:
529:
525:
521:
443:
294:
280:
198:
193:
68:
63:
671:. The following is a list of the types of heat treatments possible:
340:. Regardless of the heat treatment, a higher carbon content reduces
751:
Martempering is not actually a tempering procedure, hence the term
701:
655:
451:
431:
325:
276:
272:
268:
248:
101:
78:
27:
Steel in which the main interstitial alloying constituent is carbon
1114:
1098:
739:
705:
439:
337:
298:
264:
106:
609:. Most steels with more than 2.5% carbon content are made using
1354:
1082:
536:
of low-carbon steels. These additions turn the material into a
517:
459:
447:
318:
287:
260:
252:
236:
1646:
Brady, George S.; Clauser, Henry R.; Vaccari A., John (1997).
558:
The following classification method is based on the
American
232:
1409:
1679:
DeGarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003),
1284:. 21 May 2022. Archived from the original on 1 May 2023.
1095:(a low-cost precipitation-hardened high-strength steel)
309:
may also be used in reference to steel which is not
1678:
1647:
1308:
1181:(2nd ed.), Taylor & Francis, p. 1,
462:have their maximum allowable content restricted.
1737:
1719:Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering
1360:. Archived from the original on 18 October 2006.
247:no minimum content is specified or required for
1150:"Classification of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels"
801:
498:– 2.521% nickel-chromium-molybdenum steel
1111:(precipitation-hardened high-strength steels)
1716:
1654:(14th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
1633:
1621:
1609:
1597:
1585:
1573:
1518:
704:are thick. Fully annealed steel is soft and
375:
1717:Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2006),
600:
562:. Other international standards including
1524:
1446:
1681:Materials and Processes in Manufacturing
1639:
1322:"What Are the Different Types of Steel?"
1200:
1198:
620:
1702:(25th ed.), Industrial Press Inc,
1427:Central European Journal of Engineering
1174:
507:
313:; in this use carbon steel may include
14:
1738:
584:
547:
1697:
1195:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1132:
430:. These alloying ingredients include
420:
592:
576:
24:
1129:
961:5.0% nickel (case-hardening) steel
25:
1762:
1229:
782:
616:
241:American Iron and Steel Institute
1454:
1309:DeGarmo, Black & Kohser 2003
1175:Knowles, Peter Reginald (1987),
1036:Austenitic chromium–nickel steel
40:
1698:Oberg, E.; et al. (1996),
1672:
1627:
1615:
1603:
1591:
1579:
1567:
1512:
1487:
1462:
1414:
1403:
1378:
1340:
1314:
1302:
1270:
1247:
1223:
1178:Design of structural steelwork
1168:
1156:. Key to Metals. November 2001
532:is often added to improve the
13:
1:
1721:(4th ed.), McGraw-Hill,
1122:
520:in particular make the steel
347:
814:Maximum forging temperature
802:Forging temperature of steel
7:
1075:
700:which means the "bands" of
409:where the material has two
336:; however, it becomes less
10:
1767:
786:
632:
551:
405:Low-carbon steels display
368:
286:the specified minimum for
186:Other iron-based materials
1553:10.1007/s11661-014-2600-y
1448:10.2478/s13531-012-0013-5
1370:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1294:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
816:
813:
810:
540:by some definitions, but
1634:Smith & Hashemi 2006
1622:Smith & Hashemi 2006
1610:Smith & Hashemi 2006
1598:Smith & Hashemi 2006
1586:Smith & Hashemi 2006
1574:Smith & Hashemi 2006
1519:Smith & Hashemi 2006
376:Mild or low-carbon steel
122:Widmanstätten structures
1751:Metallurgical processes
1683:(9th ed.), Wiley,
979:Chromium–vanadium steel
601:Ultra-high-carbon steel
566:(Germany), GB (China),
364:
1117:(high-strength steels)
630:
290:does not exceed 0.40%;
1470:"Medium-carbon steel"
943:nickel–chromium steel
798:and shock-absorbing.
624:
454:. Impurities such as
1700:Machinery's Handbook
1533:Metall Mater Trans A
1348:"MSDS, carbon steel"
817:Burning temperature
718:Isothermal annealing
508:Higher-carbon steels
301:0.60%; copper 0.60%.
1545:2015MMTA...46..123A
1495:"High-carbon steel"
1439:2012CEJE....2..650N
585:Medium-carbon steel
548:AISI classification
392:is 200 GPa (29
117:Tempered martensite
1650:Materials Handbook
1624:, pp. 387–388
1612:, pp. 389–390
1600:, pp. 373–377
1588:, pp. 386–387
1206:"Low-carbon steel"
631:
421:High-tensile steel
407:yield-point runout
18:High-tensile steel
1188:978-0-903384-59-9
1073:
1072:
1054:Silico-manganese
711:Process annealing
611:powder metallurgy
593:High-carbon steel
560:AISI/SAE standard
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16:(Redirected from
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1233:Density of Steel
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1202:
1193:
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998:High-speed steel
808:
807:
691:transforms into
577:Low-carbon steel
554:SAE steel grades
428:tensile strength
398:
397:
371:SAE steel grades
173:Weathering steel
168:High-speed steel
44:
32:
31:
21:
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1326:Metal Exponents
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1319:
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1307:
1303:
1287:
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1275:
1271:
1261:
1259:
1253:
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1248:
1238:
1236:
1228:
1224:
1214:
1212:
1204:
1203:
1196:
1189:
1173:
1169:
1159:
1157:
1148:
1147:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1078:
1017:Stainless steel
804:
791:
785:
642:Young's modulus
637:
619:
603:
595:
587:
579:
556:
550:
538:low-alloy steel
510:
423:
395:
393:
390:Young's modulus
378:
373:
367:
350:
311:stainless steel
243:(AISI) states:
163:Stainless steel
88:Microstructures
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1764:
1754:
1753:
1748:
1734:
1733:
1727:
1714:
1708:
1695:
1689:
1674:
1671:
1668:
1667:
1660:
1638:
1626:
1614:
1602:
1590:
1578:
1566:
1539:(1): 123–133.
1523:
1511:
1486:
1461:
1433:(4): 650–655.
1413:
1402:
1377:
1339:
1313:
1301:
1269:
1246:
1230:Elert, Glenn,
1222:
1194:
1187:
1167:
1127:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1118:
1112:
1109:Maraging steel
1106:
1101:
1096:
1090:
1085:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1051:
1050:
1047:
1044:
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1038:
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1028:
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1022:
1019:
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990:
987:
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981:
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974:
971:
968:
965:
962:
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938:
937:
934:
931:
928:
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918:
917:
914:
911:
908:
905:
901:
900:
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894:
891:
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884:
883:
880:
877:
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871:
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857:
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837:
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823:
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800:
789:Case hardening
787:Main article:
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783:Case hardening
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756:
749:
748:(marquenching)
743:
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730:
726:
723:
719:
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712:
709:
685:
683:Full annealing
680:
676:
635:Heat treatment
633:Main article:
618:
617:Heat treatment
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363:
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302:
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224:
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214:Malleable iron
211:
206:
201:
196:
188:
187:
183:
182:
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160:
158:Maraging steel
155:
150:
145:
140:
138:Crucible steel
132:
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9:
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3:
2:
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1741:
1730:
1728:0-07-295358-6
1724:
1720:
1715:
1711:
1709:0-8311-2599-3
1705:
1701:
1696:
1692:
1690:0-471-65653-4
1686:
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1661:0-07-007084-9
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675:Spheroidizing
674:
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636:
628:
627:phase diagram
623:
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582:
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569:
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539:
535:
534:hardenability
531:
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391:
386:
384:
383:carburization
372:
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334:heat treating
331:
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1673:Bibliography
1649:
1641:
1629:
1617:
1605:
1593:
1581:
1569:
1536:
1532:
1526:
1514:
1502:. Retrieved
1498:
1489:
1477:. Retrieved
1473:
1464:
1430:
1426:
1416:
1405:
1393:. Retrieved
1390:MaterialsWiz
1389:
1380:
1342:
1330:. Retrieved
1325:
1316:
1304:
1281:
1278:"1020 Steel"
1272:
1260:, retrieved
1255:
1249:
1237:, retrieved
1232:
1225:
1213:. Retrieved
1209:
1177:
1170:
1158:. Retrieved
1153:
1088:Cold working
1056:spring steel
923:nickel steel
805:
792:
773:Austempering
769:composition.
753:marquenching
752:
746:Martempering
638:
625:Iron-carbon
604:
596:
588:
580:
572:
557:
511:
424:
411:yield points
406:
404:
402: psi).
399:
387:
379:
359:
355:
351:
323:
315:alloy steels
307:carbon steel
306:
304:
229:Carbon steel
228:
227:
219:Wrought iron
209:Ductile iron
148:Spring steel
143:Carbon steel
142:
29:
1104:Hot working
1093:Eglin steel
904:0.2% carbon
887:0.5% carbon
870:0.9% carbon
853:1.1% carbon
836:1.5% carbon
811:Steel type
725:Normalizing
415:LĂĽder bands
342:weldability
153:Alloy steel
97:Spheroidite
1740:Categories
1410:Vitzmetals
1358:AmeriSteel
1332:29 January
1123:References
795:hardenable
695:(although
669:lever rule
552:See also:
502:EN26 steel
496:EN25 steel
489:300M steel
484:4340 steel
477:4145 steel
472:4140 steel
467:41xx steel
456:phosphorus
436:molybdenum
369:See also:
348:Properties
257:molybdenum
204:White iron
178:Tool steel
112:Ledeburite
74:Martensite
1561:136871961
1395:18 August
766:eutectoid
759:Tempering
733:Quenching
722:gradient.
697:cementite
693:austenite
664:cementite
651:eutectoid
646:austenite
530:Manganese
522:red-short
444:manganese
305:The term
295:manganese
281:zirconium
199:Gray iron
194:Cast iron
69:Cementite
64:Austenite
1504:29 April
1479:29 April
1366:cite web
1290:cite web
1262:23 April
1239:23 April
1215:29 April
1160:29 April
1076:See also
702:pearlite
656:pearlite
514:elements
452:vanadium
432:chromium
332:through
330:stronger
277:vanadium
273:tungsten
269:titanium
249:chromium
102:Pearlite
79:Graphite
1541:Bibcode
1435:Bibcode
1115:Welding
1099:Forging
740:brittle
706:ductile
689:ferrite
660:ferrite
607:punches
440:silicon
338:ductile
319:chisels
299:silicon
297:1.65%;
265:niobium
130:Classes
107:Bainite
59:Ferrite
1746:Steels
1725:
1706:
1687:
1658:
1559:
1499:eFunda
1474:eFunda
1355:Gerdau
1210:eFunda
1185:
1083:Aermet
1069:1,350
1049:1,420
1030:1,385
1011:1,385
992:1,349
973:1,449
956:1,371
936:1,371
916:1,471
899:1,349
882:1,221
865:1,171
848:1,140
518:sulfur
460:sulfur
450:, and
448:nickel
326:harder
288:copper
261:nickel
253:cobalt
237:carbon
50:Phases
35:Steels
1557:S2CID
1351:(PDF)
1066:2,460
1063:1,249
1060:2,280
1046:2,590
1043:1,299
1040:2,370
1027:2,520
1024:1,282
1021:2,340
1008:2,520
1005:1,299
1002:2,370
989:2,460
986:1,249
983:2,280
970:2,640
967:1,271
964:2,320
953:2,500
950:1,249
947:2,280
941:3.0%
933:2,500
930:1,249
927:2,280
921:3.0%
913:2,680
910:1,321
907:2,410
896:2,460
893:1,249
890:2,280
879:2,230
876:1,121
873:2,050
862:2,140
859:1,082
856:1,980
845:2,080
842:1,049
839:1,920
831:(°C)
828:(°F)
825:(°C)
822:(°F)
715:area.
568:BS/EN
235:with
233:steel
231:is a
1723:ISBN
1704:ISBN
1685:ISBN
1656:ISBN
1506:2023
1481:2023
1397:2022
1372:link
1334:2021
1296:link
1264:2009
1241:2009
1217:2023
1183:ISBN
1162:2023
542:AISI
458:and
365:Type
328:and
1549:doi
1443:doi
564:DIN
526:A36
1742::
1555:.
1547:.
1537:46
1535:.
1497:.
1472:.
1441:.
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1425:.
1388:.
1368:}}
1364:{{
1353:.
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1292:}}
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1280:.
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1197:^
1152:.
1131:^
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446:,
442:,
438:,
434:,
396:10
385:.
279:,
275:,
271:,
267:,
263:,
259:,
255:,
251:,
1731:.
1712:.
1693:.
1664:.
1563:.
1551::
1543::
1508:.
1483:.
1451:.
1445::
1437::
1431:2
1399:.
1374:)
1336:.
1298:)
1267:.
1244:.
1219:.
1191:.
1164:.
400:^
394:Ă—
20:)
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