Heliocentrism - Knowledge

5193:, ch. 7: "A gloating account of the whole ritual is given in a letter written on the very day by a youth named Gaspar Schopp of Breslau, a recent convert to Catholicism to whom Pope Clement VIII had shown great favor, creating him Knight of St. Peter and Count of the Sacred Palace. Schopp was addressing Conrad Rittershausen. He recounts that because of his heresy Bruno had been publicly burned that day in the Square of Flowers in front of the Theatre of Pompey. He makes merry over the belief of the Italians that every heretic is a Lutheran. It is evident that he had been present at the interrogations, for he relates in detail the life of Bruno and the works and doctrines for which he had been arraigned, and he gives a vivid account of Bruno's final appearance before his judges on 8 February. To Schopp we owe the knowledge of Bruno's bearing under judgement. When the verdict had been declared, records Schopp, Bruno with a threatening gesture addressed his judges: "Perchance you who pronounce my sentence are in greater fear than I who receive it." Thus he was dismissed to the prison, gloats the convert, "and was given eight days to recant, but in vain. So today he was led to the funeral pyre. When the image of our Savior was shown to him before his death he angrily rejected it with averted face. Thus my dear Rittershausen is it our custom to proceed against such men or rather indeed such monsters." 1679:

expert opinion on the controversy, and the essay provided the "chief direct basis" for the ban. The essay focused on eighteen physical and mathematical arguments against heliocentrism. It borrowed primarily from the arguments of Tycho Brahe, and it notedly mentioned the problem that heliocentrism requires the stars to be much larger than the Sun. Ingoli wrote that the great distance to the stars in the heliocentric theory "clearly proves ... the fixed stars to be of such size, as they may surpass or equal the size of the orbit circle of the Earth itself." Ingoli included four theological arguments in the essay, but suggested to Galileo that he focus on the physical and mathematical arguments. Galileo did not write a response to Ingoli until 1624.

1389:(now known to be illusory), and used geometry to calculate that in order to both have those apparent sizes and be as far away as heliocentrism required, stars would have to be huge (much larger than the sun; the size of Earth's orbit or larger). Regarding this Tycho wrote, "Deduce these things geometrically if you like, and you will see how many absurdities (not to mention others) accompany this assumption by inference." He also cited the Copernican system's "opposition to the authority of Sacred Scripture in more than one place" as a reason why one might wish to reject it, and observed that his own geo-heliocentric alternative "offended neither the principles of physics nor Holy Scripture". 1853:. This placed heliocentrism on a firm theoretical foundation, although Newton's heliocentrism was of a somewhat modern kind. Already in the mid-1680s he recognized the "deviation of the Sun" from the center of gravity of the Solar System. For Newton it was not precisely the center of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest, but "the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World", and this center of gravity "either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line". Newton adopted the "at rest" alternative in view of common consent that the center, wherever it was, was at rest. 1137: 1662:'s position on Scripture: not to take every passage literally when the scripture in question is in a Bible book of poetry and songs, not a book of instructions or history. The writers of the Scripture wrote from the perspective of the terrestrial world, and from that vantage point the Sun does rise and set. In fact, it is the Earth's rotation which gives the impression of the Sun in motion across the sky. In February 1615, prominent Dominicans including Thomaso Caccini and Niccolò Lorini brought Galileo's writings on heliocentrism to the attention of the Inquisition, because they appeared to violate Holy Scripture and the decrees of the 1272:"There is talk of a new astrologer who wants to prove that the earth moves and goes around instead of the sky, the sun, the moon, just as if somebody were moving in a carriage or ship might hold that he was sitting still and at rest while the earth and the trees walked and moved. But that is how things are nowadays: when a man wishes to be clever he must … invent something special, and the way he does it must needs be the best! The fool wants to turn the whole art of astronomy upside-down. However, as Holy Scripture tells us, so did Joshua bid the sun to stand still and not the earth." 660:, and other later authors, rejected his innovative view about the turning Earth. It has been argued that Aryabhatta's calculations were based on an underlying heliocentric model, in which the planets orbit the Sun, although this has been rebutted.The general consensus is that a synodic anomaly (depending on the position of the Sun) does not imply a physically heliocentric orbit (such corrections being also present in late Babylonian astronomical texts), and that Aryabhata's system was not explicitly heliocentric. He also made many astronomical calculations, such as the times of the 1167:. Copernicus discussed the philosophical implications of his proposed system, elaborated it in geometrical detail, used selected astronomical observations to derive the parameters of his model, and wrote astronomical tables which enabled one to compute the past and future positions of the stars and planets. In doing so, Copernicus moved heliocentrism from philosophical speculation to predictive geometrical astronomy. In reality, Copernicus' system did not predict the planets' positions any better than the Ptolemaic system. This theory resolved the issue of planetary 1743:. Urban VIII became hostile to Galileo and he was again summoned to Rome. Galileo's trial in 1633 involved making fine distinctions between "teaching" and "holding and defending as true". For advancing heliocentric theory Galileo was forced to recant Copernicanism and was put under house arrest for the last few years of his life. According to J. L. Heilbron, informed contemporaries of Galileo's "appreciated that the reference to heresy in connection with Galileo or Copernicus had no general or theological significance." 1462: 1875: 1589: 306:

Earth maintained the same hidden face towards the central fire, rendering both it and the "counter-earth" invisible from Earth. The Pythagorean concept of uniform circular motion remained unchallenged for approximately the next 2000 years, and it was to the Pythagoreans that Copernicus referred to show that the notion of a moving Earth was neither new nor revolutionary. Kepler gave an alternative explanation of the Pythagoreans' "central fire" as the Sun, "as most sects purposely hid their teachings".

756: 6818: 345: 5951:"on the basis of the presently accepted scientific view (in accordance with the theory of Relativity) that where two bodies in space are in motion relative to one another, it is impossible scientifically to ascertain which revolves around which, or which is stationary and the other in motion. Therefore, to say that there is, or can be, 'scientific proof' that the earth revolves around the sun is quite an unscientific and uncritical statement." 1563: 1344: 1580: 894: 7865: 2095: 1535:(1609), Kepler made a diagram of the movement of Mars in relation to Earth if Earth were at the center of its orbit, which shows that Mars' orbit would be completely imperfect and never follow along the same path. To solve the apparent derivation of Mars' orbit from a perfect circle, Kepler derived both a mathematical definition and, independently, a matching ellipse around the Sun to explain the motion of the red planet. 7889: 215: 35: 7841: 7877: 7853: 2043:, who argued against heliocentrism on the grounds it contradicted scripture. Nieto merely rejected the new system on those grounds without much passion, whereas Cohn went so far as to call Copernicus "a first-born of Satan", though he also acknowledged that he would have found it difficult to proffer one particular objection based on a passage from the Talmud. 1054:(1452–1519) wrote "Il sole non si move." ("The Sun does not move.") and he was a student of a student of Bessarion according to the Mathematics Genealogy Project. It has been suggested that the idea of the Tusi couple may have arrived in Europe leaving few manuscript traces, since it could have occurred without the translation of any Arabic text into Latin. 1122:). By 1470, the accuracy of observations by the Vienna school of astronomy, of which Peuerbach and Regiomontanus were members, was high enough to make the eventual development of heliocentrism inevitable, and indeed it is possible that Regiomontanus did arrive at an explicit theory of heliocentrism before his death in 1476, some 30 years before Copernicus. 459:, who thought it was the duty of Greeks to indict Aristarchus of Samos on the charge of impiety for putting in motion the Hearth of the Universe, this being the effect of his attempt to save the phenomena by supposing the heaven to remain at rest and the earth to revolve in an oblique circle, while it rotates, at the same time, about its own axis. 2317: – this effect can change the body's mechanical energy in heliocentric reference frame (although it will not changed in the planetary one). However, such selection of "geocentric" or "heliocentric" frames is merely a matter of computation. It does not have philosophical implications and does not constitute a distinct physical or 3547: 2494:

responsible for another famous quotation which has often been misattributed to him: "Who will venture to place the authority of Copernicus above that of the Holy Spirit?" It has long been established that this line cannot be found in any of Calvin's works. It has been suggested that the quotation was

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Seeing that the stars belonging to the Milky Way appeared to encircle the Earth, Herschel carefully counted stars of given apparent magnitudes, and after finding the numbers were the same in all directions, concluded Earth must be close to the center of the Milky Way. However, there were two flaws in

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Meanwhile, the Catholic Church remained opposed to heliocentrism as a literal description, but this did not by any means imply opposition to all astronomy; indeed, it needed observational data to maintain its calendar. In support of this effort it allowed the cathedrals themselves to be used as solar

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I might very rationally put it in dispute, whether there be any such centre in nature, or no; being that neither you nor any one else hath ever proved, whether the World be finite and figurate, or else infinite and interminate; yet nevertheless granting you, for the present, that it is finite, and of

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Bruno defended himself as he had in Venice, insisting that he accepted the Church's dogmatic teachings, but trying to preserve the basis of his cosmological views. In particular, he held firm to his belief in the plurality of worlds, although he was admonished to abandon it. His trial was overseen by

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addressed an essay to Galileo disputing the Copernican system. Galileo later stated that he believed this essay to have been instrumental in the ban against Copernicanism that followed in February. According to Maurice Finocchiaro, Ingoli had probably been commissioned by the Inquisition to write an

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to abstain completely from teaching or defending this doctrine and opinion or from discussing it... to abandon completely... the opinion that the sun stands still at the center of the world and the earth moves, and henceforth not to hold, teach, or defend it in any way whatever, either orally or in

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that moved naturally. So Tycho said that the Copernican system "... expertly and completely circumvents all that is superfluous or discordant in the system of Ptolemy. On no point does it offend the principle of mathematics. Yet it ascribes to the Earth, that hulking, lazy body, unfit for motion, a

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Did Plato put the earth in motion, as he did the sun, the moon, and the five planets, which he called the instruments of time on account of their turnings, and was it necessary to conceive that the earth "which is globed about the axis stretched from pole to pole through the whole universe" was not

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You are aware that "universe" is the name given by most astronomers to the sphere, the centre of which is the centre of the earth, while its radius is equal to the straight line between the centre of the sun and the centre of the earth. This is the common account (τά γραφόμενα), as you have heard

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All Islamic astronomers from Thabit ibn Qurra in the ninth century to Ibn al-Shatir in the fourteenth, and all natural philosophers from al-Kindi to Averroes and later, are known to have accepted ... the Greek picture of the world as consisting of two spheres of which one, the celestial sphere ...

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mentions the "followers of Aristarchus" in passing, it is likely that there were other astronomers in the Classical period who also espoused heliocentrism, but whose work was lost. The only other astronomer from antiquity known by name who is known to have supported Aristarchus' heliocentric model

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revolved in uniform circular motion. This system postulated the existence of a counter-earth collinear with the Earth and central fire, with the same period of revolution around the central fire as the Earth. The Sun revolved around the central fire once a year, and the stars were stationary. The

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had the thought on different occasions that the Earth was spherical and revolving around a "mystical" central fire, and that this fire regulated the universe. In medieval Europe, however, Aristarchus' heliocentrism attracted little attention—possibly because of the loss of scientific works of the

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In February 1616, the Inquisition assembled a committee of theologians, known as qualifiers, who delivered their unanimous report condemning heliocentrism as "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture." The

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The movements of the Moon, the planets, and the Sun around the static Earth in the Ptolemaic geocentric model (upper panel) in comparison to the orbits of the planets and the daily-rotating Earth around the Sun in the Copernican heliocentric model (lower panel). In both models, the Moon rotates

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was published in 1742 by Fathers le Seur and Jacquier of the Franciscan Minims, two Catholic mathematicians, with a preface stating that the author's work assumed heliocentrism and could not be explained without the theory. In 1758 the Catholic Church dropped the general prohibition of books

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lower than the Sun." However, after the advent of the telescope showed problems with some geocentric models (by demonstrating that Venus circles the Sun, for example), the Tychonic system and variations on that system became popular among geocentrists, and the Jesuit astronomer

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of the time (modern Newtonian physics was still a century away) offered no physical explanation for the motion of a massive body like Earth, whereas it could easily explain the motion of heavenly bodies by postulating that they were made of a different sort substance called

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In this depiction of the Tychonic system, the objects on blue orbits (the Moon and the Sun) revolve around the Earth. The objects on orange orbits (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) revolve around the Sun. Around all is a sphere of fixed stars, located just beyond

4906:, p. 159. Rosen disputes the earlier conclusion of another scholar that this was referring specifically to Copernicus' theory. According to Rosen, Calvin had very likely never heard of Copernicus and was referring instead to "the traditional geokinetic cosmology". 1385:

motion as quick as that of the aethereal torches, and a triple motion at that." Likewise, Tycho took issue with the vast distances to the stars that Aristarchus and Copernicus had assumed in order to explain the lack of any visible parallax. Tycho had measured the

2005:, Greek philosophy and science under the general name "Greek wisdom" were considered dangerous. They were put under ban then and later for some periods. The first Jewish scholar to describe the Copernican system, albeit without mentioning Copernicus by name, was 407:, and that the sphere of the fixed stars, situated about the same centre as the sun, is so great that the circle in which he supposes the earth to revolve bears such a proportion to the distance of the fixed stars as the centre of the sphere bears to its surface. 227:, says that any model for describing the motions of the planets is merely a mathematical device, and since there is no actual way to know which is true, the simplest model that gets the right numbers should be used. However, he rejected the idea of a 1706:, and the Pope banned all books and letters advocating the Copernican system, which they called "the false Pythagorean doctrine, altogether contrary to Holy Scripture." In 1618, the Holy Office recommended that a modified version of Copernicus' 4817:, Vol.16, No.1/Feb, P. 37, 1985. Philolaus had the Earth moving around a Central Fire which was not the Sun, so Copernicus's reference to Aristarchus's model as possibly geodynamic does not necessarily imply that he thought it was heliocentric. 1670:

was called upon to adjudicate, and wrote in April that treating heliocentrism as a real phenomenon would be "a very dangerous thing," irritating philosophers and theologians, and harming "the Holy Faith by rendering Holy Scripture as false."

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orbit. Furthermore, to the extent that a planet's mass cannot be neglected in comparison to the Sun's mass, the center of gravity of the Solar System is displaced slightly away from the center of the Sun. (The masses of the planets, mostly

1544:, in which all the planets have elliptical orbits. This provided significantly increased accuracy in predicting the position of the planets. Kepler's ideas were not immediately accepted, and Galileo for example ignored them. In 1621, 1198:(which still survives), stating: "Philolaus believed in the mobility of the earth, and some even say that Aristarchus of Samos was of that opinion." However, in the published version he restricts himself to noting that in works by 6321: 1310:

defending the system and arguing that it was useful for computation even if its hypotheses were not necessarily true. Possibly because of that preface, the work of Copernicus inspired very little debate on whether it might be

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Aristarchus of Samos, the ancient Copernicus; a history of Greek astronomy to Aristarchus, together with Aristarchus's Treatise on the sizes and distances of the sun and moon : a new Greek text with translation and

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The remaining references to Aristarchus' heliocentrism are extremely brief, and provide no more information beyond what can be gleaned from those already cited. Ones which mention Aristarchus explicitly by name occur in

1010:. Several Byzantine Greek manuscripts containing the Tusi couple are still extant in Italy. The Mathematics Genealogy Project suggests that there is a "genealogy" of Nasir al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī → Shams al‐Dīn al‐Bukhārī → 196:

in the 3rd century BC, these ideas were not successful in replacing the view of a static spherical Earth, and from the 2nd century AD the predominant model, which would be inherited by medieval astronomy, was the

2126:: magnitude is not a reliable index to the distance of stars, and some of the areas that he mistook for empty space were actually dark, obscuring nebulae that blocked his view toward the center of the Milky Way. 4023:

Ramasubramanian, K.; Srinivas, M. D.; Sriram, M. S. (1994). "Modification of the earlier Indian planetary theory by the Kerala astronomers (c. 1500 AD) and the implied heliocentric picture of planetary motion".

775:(1031), he expressed his faith in a geocentric and stationary Earth. He was aware that if the Earth rotated on its axis, it would be consistent with his astronomical observations, but considered it a problem of 2481:(printed 1578), allegedly after a (lost) self-portrait by Copernicus himself; the Murer portrait became the template for a number of later (17th century) woodcuts, copper engravings and paintings of Copernicus. 1368:, arguably the most accomplished astronomer of his time, advocated against Copernicus' heliocentric system and for an alternative to the Ptolemaic geocentric system: a geo-heliocentric system now known as the 1683:

Inquisition also determined that the Earth's motion "receives the same judgement in philosophy and ... in regard to theological truth it is at least erroneous in faith." Bellarmine personally ordered Galileo

786:, who considered the Ptolemaic model mathematical, and not physical. His system spread throughout most of Europe in the 13th century, with debates and refutations of his ideas continued to the 16th century. 997:

was used by Copernicus in his reformulation of mathematical astronomy, there is a growing consensus that he became aware of this idea in some way. One possible route of transmission may have been through

1651:(satisfying an argument that had been made against Copernicus). As the Jesuit astronomers confirmed Galileo's observations, the Jesuits moved away from the Ptolemaic model and toward Tycho's teachings. 1301:

in 1543. Copernicus began to write it in 1506 and finished it in 1530, but did not publish it until the year of his death. Although he was in good standing with the Church and had dedicated the book to

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asked whether there was any reason to assert that the Sun (or any other point) was the center of the universe. In parallel to a mystical definition of God, Cusa wrote that "Thus the fabric of the world

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I will endeavour to show that all experiments that can be made upon the Earth are insufficient means to conclude for its mobility but are indifferently applicable to the Earth, movable or immovable...

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are examples of geocentric coordinates, used in Earth-based observations, while the heliocentric latitude and longitude are used for orbital calculations. This leads to such terms as "heliocentric

2024:: a short one, "Magen David" (1612), and a full one, "Nehmad veNaim" (published only in 1743). He described objectively three systems: those of Ptolemy, Copernicus and Brahe, without taking sides. 2443:(1890), p. 76: "Copernicus started from the observed motions of the planets, on which astronomers were agreed, and worked them out on the new hypothesis of Heliocentrism"), modelled after German 1372:

in which the Sun and Moon orbit the Earth, Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun inside the Sun's orbit of the Earth, and Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun outside the Sun's orbit of the Earth.

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An actual controversy on the Copernican model within Judaism arises only in the early 18th century. Most authors in this period had accepted Copernican heliocentrism, with opposition from

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Other scholars have argued that Copernicus could well have developed these ideas independently of the late Islamic tradition. Copernicus explicitly references several astronomers of the "

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would continue Tycho's use of physics, stellar astronomy (now with a telescope), and religion to argue against heliocentrism and for Tycho's system well into the seventeenth century.

866:(1501), Somayaji further revised his planetary system, which was mathematically more accurate at predicting the heliocentric orbits of the interior planets than both the Tychonic and 4826:

A library catalogue of a 16th-century historian, Matthew of Miechow, bears that date and contains a reference to the manuscript, so it must have begun circulating before that date (

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In particular, to support the Copernican view and oppose the objection according to which the motion of the Earth would be perceived by means of the motion of winds, clouds etc., in

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Induction and Deduction: A Historical and Critical Sketch of Successive Philosophical Conceptions Respecting the Relations Between Inductive and Deductive Thought and Other Essays

447:. These mention one detail not stated explicitly in Archimedes' account—namely, that Aristarchus' theory had the Earth rotating on an axis. The first of these reference occurs in 6322:"How would astronomers in another solar system know by observing our Sun's wobble that our Sun has not just one big planet, but nine, each with a different mass? | Astronomy.com" 254:

Problems with Ptolemy's system were well recognized in medieval astronomy, and an increasing effort to criticize and improve it in the late medieval period eventually led to the

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preached a sermon in which he denounced those who "pervert the order of nature" by saying that "the sun does not move and that it is the earth that revolves and that it turns".

2013:, arguing that no scientific theory can be reliable, which he illustrates by the new-fangled theory of heliocentrism upsetting even the most fundamental views on the cosmos. 6347:

Shen, J. & Confrey, J. (2010). "Justifying alternative models in learning the solar system: A case study on K-8 science teachers’ understanding of frames of reference".

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In Book 1 section 7 he admits that a model in which the Earth revolves with respect to the stars would be simpler but doesn't go as far as considering a heliocentric system.

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While the influence of the criticism of Ptolemy by Averroes on Renaissance thought is clear and explicit, the claim of direct influence of the Maragha school, postulated by

1934:. After the matter had been reconsidered by the Congregation of the Index and the Holy Office, Anfossi's decision was overturned. Pius VII approved a decree in 1822 by the 5843: 223:

The Ptolemaic system was a sophisticated astronomical system that managed to calculate the positions for the planets to a fair degree of accuracy. Ptolemy himself, in his

907:(5th century CE) expressed the opinion that the planets Venus and Mercury did not go about the Earth but instead circled the Sun. Capella's model was discussed in the 617:(5th century AD) expressed the opinion that the planets Venus and Mercury did not go about the Earth but instead circled the Sun. Capella's model was discussed in the 1157:("On the revolution of heavenly spheres", first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg), presented a discussion of a heliocentric model of the universe in much the same way as 377:. From his estimates, he concluded that the Sun was six to seven times wider than the Earth, and thought that the larger object would have the most attractive force. 870:, but did not propose any specific models of the universe. Nilakantha's planetary system also incorporated the Earth's rotation on its axis. Most astronomers of the 403:, wherein it appears, as a consequence of the assumptions made, that the universe is many times greater than the "universe" just mentioned. His hypotheses are that 2178:

However, "scientific arguments were marshalled against such a possibility," and this view was rejected by almost all scientists until the early 20th century, with

2110:. Herschel was the first to propose a model of the universe based on observation and measurement. At that time, the dominant assumption in cosmology was that the 1107:, who described how a reciprocating linear motion of a celestial body could be produced by a combination of circular motions similar to those proposed by al-Tusi. 7281: 2329:

do not exist at all, and any practical reference frame is only an approximation to the actual space-time, which can have higher or lower precision. Some forms of

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would otherwise be observed over the course of a year. The stars are in fact so far away that stellar parallax only became detectable when sufficiently powerful

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Swerdlow, Noel M. (December 31, 1973). "The Derivation and First Draft of Copernicus's Planetary Theory: A Translation of the Commentariolus with Commentary".

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in 1891). In spite of dropping its active resistance to heliocentrism, the Catholic Church did not lift the prohibition of uncensored versions of Copernicus'

852:, developed a computational system for a geo-heliocentric planetary model, in which the planets orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to the 490:(Πρὸς Ἀρίσταρχον) as one of Cleanthes' works, and some scholars have suggested that this might have been where Cleanthes had accused Aristarchus of impiety. 5236:"Il Sommario del Processo di Giordano Bruno, con appendice di Documenti sull'eresia e l'inquisizione a Modena nel secolo XVI", edited by Angelo Mercati, in 405:

the fixed stars and the sun remain unmoved, that the earth revolves about the sun on the circumference of a circle, the sun lying in the middle of the orbit

7318:- The development of the Heliocentric model with the contributions of Nicolaus Copernicus, Giordano Bruno, Tycho Brahe, Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler 1739:

Some ecclesiastics also interpreted the book as characterizing the Pope as a simpleton, since his viewpoint in the dialogue was advocated by the character

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afterwards maintained that it did, the former stating this as only a hypothesis (ὑποτιθέμενος μόνον), the latter as a definite opinion (καὶ ἀποφαινόμενος)?

5362: 5803:") before the Creator in order to accomplish His will. I acknowledge that the answer to this objection seems difficult for me to find", as translated by 571:. Seleucus was a proponent of the heliocentric system of Aristarchus. Seleucus may have proved the heliocentric theory by determining the constants of a 1930:, refused to license a book by a Catholic canon, Giuseppe Settele, because it openly treated heliocentrism as a physical fact. Settele appealed to pope 2028:(1591–1655) in his "Elim" (1629) says that the arguments of Copernicus are so strong, that only an imbecile will not accept them. Delmedigo studied at 5442: 3050: 1822:

became increasingly influential in the coming decades. By 1686, the model was well enough established that the general public was reading about it in

7343: 2930: 5464: 5097: 2864:). Most modern scholars share Heath's opinion that it is Cleanthes in this passage who is being held as having accused Aristarchus of impiety (see 2190:'s measurements in 1924. After Shapley and Hubble showed that the Sun is not the center of the universe, cosmology moved on from heliocentrism to 6594: 5452: 5372: 1718: 737:

based on a belief held by some of his contemporaries that the apparent motion of the stars was due to the Earth's movement, and not that of the

78:, which placed the Earth at the center. The notion that the Earth revolves around the Sun had been proposed as early as the third century BC by 5572:"The Pontifical Decrees Against the Doctrine of the Earth's Movement, and the Ultramontane Defence of Them", Rev. William Roberts, 1885, London 5523: 4168: 1841: 752:("Doubts Concerning Ptolemy", c. 1028), who found contradictions in Ptolemy's model, but al-Haytham remained committed to a geocentric model. 1832:

and translated into English and other languages in the coming years. It has been called "one of the first great popularizations of science."

6525:. Translated by Coyne, George V. (3rd English ed.). Notre Dame, IN: Vatican Observatory Publications / University of Notre Dame Press. 5953: 5286:: "I laid aside, and fell back on ellipses, believing that this was quite a different hypothesis, whereas the two ... are one in [ 2114:

was the entire universe, an assumption that has since been proven wrong with observations. Herschel concluded that it was in the shape of a

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Tycho appreciated the Copernican system, but objected to the idea of a moving Earth on the basis of physics, astronomy, and religion. The

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The arguments and evidence used resemble those used by Copernicus to support the Earth's motion. The criticism of Ptolemy as developed by

594:, which he supposedly theorized to be caused by the attraction to the Moon and by the revolution of the Earth around the Earth and Moon's 126:, the only known person to defend Copernicus' heliocentrism in his time, was burned alive at the stake in 1600. In the following century, 380:

His writings on the heliocentric system are lost, but some information about them is known from a brief description by his contemporary,

2538:. The work of Aristarchus in which he proposed his heliocentric system has not survived. We only know of it now from a brief passage in 2050:

wrote books that were given approbations by him even though one supported heliocentrism and the other geocentrism. One, a commentary on

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of the Earth, of the Earth–Moon system, of the Sun, of the Sun plus the major planets, or of the entire Solar System, can be selected.

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From Deferent to Equant: A Volume of Studies in the History of Science in the Ancient and Medieval Near East in Honor of E. S. Kennedy

1799: 2237:, also eliminating any obvious "center" of the universe as a natural origin of coordinates. Even if the discussion is limited to the 1179:

effect, as an object that one is passing seems to move backwards against the horizon. This issue was also resolved in the geocentric

24: 964:, influenced Renaissance-era European astronomy, and thus was indirectly received by Renaissance-era European astronomy and thus by 7614: 1824: 625:(5th century CE) expressed the opinion that the planets Venus and Mercury did not go about the Earth but instead circled the Sun. 374: 6223: 7818: 6137:

Berendzen, Richard (1975). "Geocentric to heliocentric to galactocentric to acentric: the continuing assault to the egocentric".

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but it did not arrive at explicit heliocentrism. The observations of the Maragha school were further improved at the Timurid-era

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model for the heliocentric theory and developing methods to compute planetary positions using this model. He may have used early

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B.L. van der Waerden, "The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy", in David A. King and George Saliba, ed.,

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Bruno anticipates some of the arguments of Galilei on the relativity principle. Note that he also uses the example now known as

502:

represented as being held together and at rest, but as turning and revolving (στρεφομένην καὶ ἀνειλουμένην), as Aristarchus and

384:, and from scattered references by later writers. Archimedes' description of Aristarchus' theory is given in the former's book, 6385:

di Bono, Mario (1995). "Copernicus, Amico, Fracastoro and Ṭūsï's Device: Observations on the Use and Transmission of a Model".

5093: 1935: 1699: 782:

In the 12th century, non-heliocentric alternatives to the Ptolemaic system were developed by some Islamic astronomers, such as

7916: 7336: 7252: 7227: 7206: 7172: 7153: 7055: 7027: 6887: 6867: 6848: 6802: 6755: 6734: 6715: 6677: 6650: 6631: 6570: 6505: 6485: 6436: 6259: 6233: 5984: 5928: 5214: 4786: 4701: 4626: 4570: 4400: 4328: 4074: 3902: 3778: 3739: 3605: 3580: 3555: 3447: 3369: 3210: 3142: 3035: 2977: 2770: 2644: 2617: 2586: 1879: 1655: 883: 2062:

written by R. Eliezer Lipmann Neusatz encouraged acceptance of the heliocentric model and other modern scientific thinking.

7047: 2896:

that have come down to us are corrupted, however, and the traditional interpretation of the passage has been challenged by

1526: 2672: 1993:. Experiments like those of Foucault were performed by V. Viviani in 1661 in Florence and by Bartolini in 1833 in Rimini. 7808: 7604: 6249: 3636: 1770: 1296: 1153: 5534: 5310: 5273: 2278: 7289: 6610: 6582: 5817: 4748: 4173: 3769: 1187:, retained as a physical reality the irregular back-and-forth motion of the planets, which Kepler characterized as a " 7360: 7100:(1998). "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy". 6992: 6778: 6590: 6530: 5701: 5612: 5001: 3168: 2956: 968:. Copernicus used such devices in the same planetary models as found in Arabic sources. The exact replacement of the 771:

Al-Biruni discussed the possibility of whether the Earth rotated about its own axis and orbited the Sun, but in his

7911: 7329: 6793: 3843: 2347: 1540: 1047: 20: 7304: 6954:, translated by Prickard, Arthur Octavius, Winchester and London: Warren & Son, Ltd. and Simpkin & Co. Ltd 3080: 2787: 1829: 6662:

Setting Aside All Authority: Giovanni Battista Riccioli and the Science against Copernicus in the Age of Galileo

5550: 4089:

Eastwood, Bruce S. (1982), "Kepler as Historian of Science: Precursors of Copernican Heliocentrism according to

3225:

Eastwood, Bruce S. (1982), "Kepler as Historian of Science: Precursors of Copernican Heliocentrism according to

1631:

Galileo was able to look at the night sky with the newly invented telescope. He published his observations that

5169:

Giordano Bruno, Teofilo, in La Cena de le Ceneri, "Third Dialogue", (1584), ed. and trans. by S.L. Jaki (1975).

4424: 3650: 1978: 1871:, where the Sun's image was projected from a hole in a window in the cathedral's lantern onto a meridian line. 1250: 1099:, which Copernicus cited. Another possible source for Copernicus' knowledge of this mathematical device is the 1003: 351:

3rd century BC calculations on the relative sizes of the Earth, Sun and Moon, from a 10th-century AD Greek copy

6450: 4237:

Guessoum, N. (June 2008), "Copernicus and Ibn Al-Shatir: does the Copernican revolution have Islamic roots?",

1965:. Bradley discovered the stellar aberration, proving the relative motion of the Earth. Bessel proved that the 1253:

delivered in Rome a series of lectures outlining Copernicus' theory. The lectures were heard with interest by

7741: 6377:

Baker, A. and Chapter, L. (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences". In M. M. Sharif, "A History of Muslim Philosophy",

5640:

Curtis Wilson, "The Newtonian achievement in astronomy", pp. 233–274 in R Taton & C Wilson (eds) (1989),

2402: 1926:. The affair was revived in 1820, when the Master of the Sacred Palace (the Catholic Church's chief censor), 1802:

in which planets do not move relative to their immediate atmosphere, but are constituted around space-matter

1710:

be allowed for use in calendric calculations, though the original publication remained forbidden until 1758.

1482:

declared Bruno a heretic, and the Inquisition issued a sentence of death. According to the correspondence of

1088:

It has been argued that Copernicus could have independently discovered the Tusi couple or took the idea from

328:(AD 395—423) later described this as the "Egyptian System," stating that "it did not escape the skill of the 4837: 4643: 1276:

This was reported in the context of a conversation at the dinner table and not a formal statement of faith.

5795:(V,8) in which our Teachers, the Rabbis, of blessed memory, explain that if the Earth is called in Hebrew " 2058:

written by R. Israel David Schlesinger resisted a heliocentric model and supported geocentrism. The other,

911:

by various anonymous 9th-century commentators and Copernicus mentions him as an influence on his own work.

900:, 15th century, asked whether there was any reason to assert that any point was the center of the universe. 6817: 6197: 5791:(part 2, p. 52b): "Remark of the author: I fear that the incredulous may draw an objection from a text of 3632: 2987: 2877: 2333:

consider the frame at rest with respect to the distant masses in the universe to have special properties.

621:

by various anonymous 9th-century commentators and Copernicus mentions him as an influence on his own work.

7263: 6275: 6050: 4117:"The first Copernican was Copernicus: the difference between Pre-Copernican and Copernican heliocentrism" 3359: 3309:"The first Copernican was Copernicus: the difference between Pre-Copernican and Copernican heliocentrism" 3270:"The first Copernican was Copernicus: the difference between Pre-Copernican and Copernican heliocentrism" 3058: 2716:

Eastwood, B. S. (November 1, 1992), "Heraclides and Heliocentrism – Texts Diagrams and Interpretations",

2233:

The concept of an absolute velocity, including being "at rest" as a particular case, is ruled out by the

1898: 1752: 1505:(a central Roman market square), naked, with his "tongue imprisoned because of his wicked words", he was 1085:, but he does not show awareness of the existence of any of the later astronomers of the Maragha school. 692: 5738: 5146: 4860: 2129:

The Herschel model remained relatively unchallenged for the next hundred years, with minor refinements.

1792:, included a heliocentric model, but Descartes abandoned it in the light of Galileo's treatment. In his 544:

reports that Seleucus the astronomer had affirmed the Earth's motion, but does not mention Aristarchus.

7831: 7315: 5598: 2201:

and acentric. As a result, soon after galactocentrism was formulated, it was abandoned in favor of the

2160: 2070: 1850: 1818:. The Galileo affair did little overall to slow the spread of heliocentrism across Europe, as Kepler's 1402: 1381: 702: 656:

and the periods of the planets were given with respect to the Sun. His immediate commentators, such as

6725:

Heilbron, John L. (2005). "Censorship of Astronomy in Italy after Galileo". In McMullin, Ernan (ed.).

2562: 2065:

Since the 20th century most Jews have not questioned the science of heliocentrism. Exceptions include

986:(d. c. 1375) of Damascus. Copernicus' lunar and Mercury models are also identical to Ibn al-Shatir's. 652:(499), influenced by Greek astronomy, propounded a planetary model in which the Earth was taken to be 7538: 5240:, vol. 101; the precise terminology for the tool used to silence Bruno before burning is recorded as 4968: 2885: 2198: 1703: 1136: 476:

Only scattered fragments of Cleanthes' writings have survived in quotations by other writers, but in

443:. The earliest of the handful of other ancient references occur in two passages from the writings of 6276:"Geocentric to heliocentric to galactocentric to acentric: the continuing assault to the egocentric" 6051:"Geocentric to heliocentric to galactocentric to acentric: the continuing assault to the egocentric" 3018: 316:

explained the apparent daily motion of the celestial sphere. It used to be thought that he believed

7072:

Russo, Lucio; Medaglia, Silvio M. (1996). "Sulla presunta accusa di empietà ad Aristarco di Samo".

5894: 4178: 2326: 2025: 1958: 1794: 1226:. These authors had proposed a moving Earth, which did not, however, revolve around a central sun. 1131: 867: 564: 324:

to revolve around the Sun, which in turn (along with the other planets) revolves around the Earth.

255: 107: 7219:

Planetary astronomy from the Renaissance to the rise of astrophysics Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton

2527: 2389: 289:(d. 390 BC), who taught that at the center of the universe was a "central fire", around which the 7533: 7352: 7133: 6963: 6940:, vol. 5, translated by Gent, A.G., Boston, MA: Little, Brown, and Company, pp. 234–292 2971: 2861: 2819: 2426: 2234: 2197:

Hubble's observations of redshift in light from distant galaxies indicated that the universe was

1774: 1548:

was placed on the Catholic Church's index of prohibited books despite Kepler being a Protestant.

267: 170: 6576: 6009: 5844:"Rabbi Reuven Landau and the Jewish Reaction to Copernican Thought in Nineteenth Century Europe" 5544: 5403:, pp. 68–69 Ingoli's essay was published in English translation for the first time in 2015. 5320: 5283: 4758: 2889: 2241:, the Sun is not at the geometric center of any planet's orbit, but rather approximately at one 1392:

The Jesuit astronomers in Rome were at first unreceptive to Tycho's system; the most prominent,

583:. A fragment of a work by Seleucus has survived in Arabic translation, which was referred to by 7680: 7553: 7488: 6971: 6933: 4973: 4778: 4772: 4459: 3439: 3013: 2869: 2609: 2603: 2210: 2006: 1982: 1884: 1258: 1043: 236: 6172: 5895:"The Sun's Path at Night: The Revolution in Rabbinic Perspectives on the Ptolemaic Revolution" 5645: 5560: 5204: 4560: 2950: 2576: 1658:", Galileo defended heliocentrism, and claimed it was not contrary to Holy Scripture. He took 1605:, despite remaining near the Sun in Earth's sky (first image). This proved that it orbits the 7921: 7716: 7645: 7383: 6978:, Harvard, MA and London: Harvard University Press and William Heinemann Ltd., pp. 1–223 6900:(1977). "Copernicus in the Hebraic Literature from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century". 6098:

van de Kamp, Peter (October 1965), "The Galactocentric Revolution, A Reminiscent Narrative",

4847: 4524: 4486: 2946: 2913: 2634: 2535: 2273:

In modern calculations, the terms "geocentric" and "heliocentric" are often used to refer to

1891:

In the mid-18th century the Church's opposition began to fade. An annotated copy of Newton's

1846: 1788: 1778: 1740: 1235: 825: 783: 182: 173:

was widely recognized in Greco-Roman astronomy from at least the 4th century BC, the Earth's

119: 7184: 6949: 5664: 3930:

Ramasubramanian, K. (1998). "Model of planetary motion in the works of Kerala astronomers".

3897:. The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West. Cambridge University Press. 2900:, who insists that it should be interpreted as having Aristarchus rhetorically suggest that 439:

No references to Aristarchus' heliocentrism are known in any other writings from before the

7787: 7528: 7478: 7398: 7373: 7015: 6665: 6394: 6361: 6287: 6146: 6107: 6062: 5122: 4655: 4500: 4408: 4388: 4353: 4246: 4044: 3939: 3855: 3433: 3247: 3180: 3092: 3005: 2796: 2725: 2342: 2297:". In this heliocentric picture, any planet of the Solar System can be used as a source of 2206: 1376: 1095: 953: 916: 810: 790: 553: 525: 503: 433: 356: 348: 244: 193: 79: 6446: 2118:, but assumed that the Sun was in the center of the disk, making the model heliocentric. 1454:

During the seven years of his trial in Rome, Bruno was held in confinement, lastly in the

671:, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon. Early followers of Aryabhata's model included 483: 424:

Aristarchus presumably took the stars to be very far away because he was aware that their

235:

the distances of the Moon, Sun, planets and stars could be determined by treating orbits'

8: 7893: 7558: 7463: 7413: 7388: 6690: 6475: 5075: 4510: 4464: 2330: 2310: 2106:

attempted to determine the shape of the universe by examining stars through his handmade

2077:

who argued that the question of heliocentrism vs. geocentrism is obsolete because of the

1915: 1643: 1393: 1319:

that the teaching of heliocentrism should be banned, but nothing came of it at the time.

1292: 1246: 1215: 1148: 1141: 1111: 1019: 946: 932: 841: 821: 798: 722: 653: 391: 313: 309: 174: 115: 83: 7019: 6669: 6398: 6291: 6150: 6111: 6066: 5126: 5079: 4659: 4619:

Light from the East: How the Science of Medieval Islam Helped to Shape the Western World

4357: 4250: 3943: 3859: 3096: 3009: 2800: 2729: 2175:. The shape of the Milky Way galaxy was expected to resemble such "islands universes." 1490:, he is said to have made a threatening gesture towards his judges and to have replied: 7881: 7869: 7792: 7706: 7117: 7085: 6975: 6917: 6811: 6410: 6326: 6031: 5138: 5112: 4964:

McGrath vs Russell on Calvin vs Copernicus: a case of the pot calling the kettle black?

4737: 4689: 4671: 4369: 4302: 4294: 4219: 3994: 3871: 3825: 3108: 3104: 2758: 2741: 2322: 2274: 2010: 1747: 1659: 1618: 1502: 1497:("Perhaps you pronounce this sentence against me with greater fear than I receive it"). 1478:, who demanded a full recantation, which Bruno eventually refused. On 20 January 1600, 1466: 1465:

The trial of Giordano Bruno by the Roman Inquisition. Bronze relief by Ettore Ferrari,

1428: 1386: 1058: 1039: 1011: 990: 776: 606:

There were occasional speculations about heliocentrism in Europe before Copernicus. In

240: 103: 96: 28: 6836: 6825: 5134: 3764: 1722:(1632), clearly advocated heliocentrism, despite his declaration in the preface that, 1716:

encouraged Galileo to publish the pros and cons of heliocentrism. Galileo's response,

7701: 7548: 7453: 7408: 7248: 7223: 7202: 7168: 7149: 7121: 7051: 7023: 6998: 6988: 6883: 6863: 6844: 6798: 6774: 6766: 6751: 6730: 6711: 6673: 6646: 6627: 6606: 6566: 6548: 6536: 6526: 6501: 6481: 6456: 6432: 6414: 6299: 6255: 6229: 6158: 6074: 6035: 5990: 5980: 5934: 5924: 5697: 5608: 5602: 5210: 5142: 5038: 5007: 4997: 4782: 4741: 4697: 4675: 4622: 4566: 4396: 4361: 4324: 4306: 4223: 4136: 4070: 3998: 3986: 3898: 3875: 3829: 3774: 3747: 3735: 3727: 3601: 3576: 3551: 3443: 3375: 3365: 3328: 3289: 3206: 3164: 3138: 3112: 3031: 2836: 2766: 2745: 2640: 2613: 2582: 2544: 2298: 2255: 2078: 1815: 1811: 1667: 1479: 1475: 1443: 1168: 1051: 1031: 999: 908: 904: 715:

to show that the distance between the Sun and the Earth varies. In the 10th century,

696: 622: 618: 614: 386: 38: 7043:

The Forgotten Revolution: How Science Was Born in 300 BC and Why it Had to Be Reborn

4443: 3394:

Das heliozentrische System in der griechischen, persischen und indischen Astronomie.

2578:

The Forgotten Revolution: How Science Was Born in 300 BC and Why it Had to Be Reborn

2557: 2020:(1541–1613), who worked with Brahe and Kepler. Gans wrote two books on astronomy in 1783: 1538:

Between 1617 and 1621, Kepler developed a heliocentric model of the Solar System in

1416:(d. 1600) is the only known person to defend Copernicus' heliocentrism in his time. 455:

Only do not, my good fellow, enter an action against me for impiety in the style of

425: 7845: 7813: 7766: 7736: 7726: 7675: 7650: 7109: 7077: 6909: 6701: 6402: 6295: 6154: 6115: 6070: 6021: 5244:, or "a vise of wood", and not an iron spike as sometimes claimed by other sources. 5130: 4729: 4663: 4286: 4211: 4128: 3978: 3863: 3817: 3320: 3281: 3134: 3100: 3023: 2733: 2500: 2318: 2294: 2242: 2183: 2141:

to Herschel's star counts, which still implied a near-central location of the Sun.

2103: 1966: 1907: 1758: 1675: 1663: 1637: 1622: 1506: 1307: 1254: 1110:

The state of knowledge on planetary theory received by Copernicus is summarized in

1074: 1035: 1015: 927: 897: 638: 584: 533: 317: 198: 178: 150: 146: 75: 6426: 4434:

Viktor Blåsjö, "A Critique of the Arguments for Maragha Influence on Copernicus",

4067:

Ordering the Heavens: Roman Astronomy and Cosmology in the Carolingian Renaissance

3396:

Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zürich. Zürich:Kommissionsverlag Leeman AG, 1970.

3203:

Ordering the Heavens: Roman Astronomy and Cosmology in the Carolingian Renaissance

2254:, amount to 0.14% of that of the Sun.) Therefore, a hypothetical astronomer on an 1962: 1461: 607: 7761: 7696: 7665: 7563: 7493: 7217: 7196: 7041: 6788: 6745: 6705: 6495: 6471: 5471: 5092: 4980: 4026: 3892: 3728:"Biṭrūjī: Nūr al‐Dīn Abū Isḥāq [Abū Jaʿfar] Ibrāhīm ibn Yūsuf al‐Biṭrūjī" 3392:

The concept of Indian heliocentrism has been advocated by B. L. van der Waerden,

2822:). The italics and parenthetical comments are as they appear in Heath's original. 2676: 2282: 2191: 2150: 2130: 2051: 1927: 1713: 1648: 1602: 1598: 1567: 1531: 1522: 1396:, commented that Tycho was "confusing all of astronomy, because he wants to have 1369: 1338: 1316: 1180: 1027: 1023: 853: 706: 568: 135: 127: 4321:

A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam

2669: 1859: 7624: 7503: 7438: 7418: 6619: 6422: 6406: 5068: 4667: 4504: 4277: 4202: 4116: 3808:

Ragep, F. Jamil (2001a), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context",

3493: 3308: 3269: 3000:

Murdin, Paul (2000), Murdin, Paul (ed.), "Seleucus of Seleucia (c. 190 BC–?)",

2832: 2737: 2314: 2179: 2154: 2066: 1990: 1868: 1632: 1557: 1483: 1413: 1007: 978: 862: 742: 228: 189: 131: 123: 7309: 6897: 5752:

Noah J. Efron. Jewish Thought and Scientific Discovery in Early Modern Europe.

5024:

Blair, Ann, "Tycho Brahe's critique of Copernicus and the Copernican system",

4696:, vol. 2, Berlin / Heidelberg / New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 1035, 4132: 3844:"Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science" 3821: 3324: 3285: 2439:

is more recent, recorded from the late 19th century (e.g. in Constance Naden,

1953:

Three apparent proofs of the heliocentric hypothesis were provided in 1727 by

1874: 1249:

was circulated in manuscript completed some time before May 1, 1514. In 1533,

7905: 7746: 7711: 7129: 7002: 5994: 5977:

New heavens and a new earth : the Jewish reception of Copernican thought

5938: 5921:

New heavens and a new earth : the Jewish reception of Copernican thought

4455: 4365: 4200:

Roberts, V.; Kennedy, E. S. (1959). "The Planetary Theory of Ibn al-Shatir".

4140: 3990: 3379: 3332: 3293: 2384: 2302: 2164: 2115: 1954: 1911: 1903: 1698:

In March 1616, after the Inquisition's injunction against Galileo, the papal

1588: 1455: 1303: 1265: 1119: 1104: 983: 926:

discussed the possibility that the Earth rotated on its axis, while Cardinal

923: 665: 661: 333: 6540: 5255: 5011: 3950: 3678:, 24 (1971): 59–81; reprinted in David A. King and Mary Helen Kennedy, ed., 2581:. Translated by Levy, Silvio. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 293–296. 2431:

Prodromus biceps cono ellipticæ et a priori demonstratæ planetarum theorices

2081:. Schneerson's followers in Chabad continue to deny the heliocentric model. 7857: 7594: 7443: 6026: 3126: 2238: 2205:

model of the acentric expanding universe. Further assumptions, such as the

2187: 1836: 1807: 1501:

He was turned over to the secular authorities. On 17 February 1600, in the

1211: 672: 576: 370: 282: 232: 158: 59: 7321: 5430: 4562:

Intellectual Curiosity and the Scientific Revolution: A Global Perspective

3969:

Dutta, Amartya Kumar (May 2006), "Āryabhata and axial rotation of earth",

1570:

opposed the Roman Catholic Church by his strong support for heliocentrism.

7433: 7378: 7113: 7097: 7037: 4716:

Kren, Claudia (1971), "The Rolling Device of Naṣir al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī in the

3854:(Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions): 49–64 & 66–71, 3794: 3156: 3083:(1987), "The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy", 2897: 2461: 2286: 2218: 2214: 2172: 2123: 2047: 2040: 2036: 1432: 1365: 1326: 1277: 1171:

by arguing that such motion was only perceived and apparent, rather than

994: 961: 857: 797:-era Persia further developed "non-Ptolemaic" planetary models involving 764: 755: 680: 676: 648: 111: 7089: 1786:' first cosmological treatise, written between 1629 and 1633 and titled 1240: 741:. Islamic astronomers began to criticize the Ptolemaic model, including 239:

as contiguous realities, which gave the stars' distance as less than 20

7751: 7568: 7513: 7473: 7403: 6921: 6686: 6603:

Defending Copernicus and Galileo: Critical Reasoning in the two Affairs

5751: 4169:"Favourite quote of founder Joost R. Ritman: God is an infinite sphere" 3982: 3027: 2539: 2465: 2306: 2222: 2138: 2107: 2017: 1970: 1735:

a terminate Spherical Figure, and that thereupon it hath its centre...

1614: 1082: 1078: 1066: 965: 957: 829: 711: 595: 580: 440: 381: 154: 7265:

Pattupattu – Ten Tamil Idylls (Tamil Verses with Englilsh Translation)

4373: 4298: 2477:

The image shows a woodcut by Christoph Murer, from Nicolaus Reusner's

540:, and an anonymous scholiast to Aristotle. Another passage in Aëtius' 344: 188:

While a moving Earth was proposed at least from the 4th century BC in

153:, and other astronomers, it was realized that the Sun, while near the 7655: 7508: 7498: 7483: 7428: 7423: 7368: 7081: 3409:, Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 500 (1987), pp. 529–534. 2839:, and to each other, caused by the Earth's revolution around the Sun. 2419: 2111: 1562: 1551: 1223: 1219: 1194:

Copernicus cited Aristarchus in an early (unpublished) manuscript of

973: 912: 760: 738: 730: 726: 643: 626: 579:

methods that were available in his time, as he was a contemporary of

456: 429: 329: 325: 286: 139: 87: 6913: 6794:

The Sleepwalkers: A history of man's changing vision of the universe

5604:

The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas

2009:, in his book "Be'er ha-Golah" (1593). Maharal makes an argument of 1364:

was the center of the universe and all celestial bodies orbited it.

919:(815-877 CE) proposed a model reminiscent of that from Tycho Brahe. 7756: 7584: 7448: 6959: 6945: 6929: 6562: 6120: 5117: 5098:"The contribution of Giordano Bruno to the principle of relativity" 4733: 4290: 4215: 3867: 2496: 2290: 2202: 1974: 1969:

of a star was greater than zero by measuring the parallax of 0.314

1931: 1803: 1761:) which included all previous condemnations of heliocentric books. 1579: 1343: 1207: 1184: 1176: 1163: 1070: 893: 817: 794: 717: 590:

Alternatively, his explanation may have involved the phenomenon of

572: 559: 444: 278: 207: 71: 5475: 3131:

Studies in Arabic versions of Greek texts and in mediaeval science

2094: 1693:

Bellarmine and the Inquisition's injunction against Galileo, 1616.

1495:

Maiori forsan cum timore sententiam in me fertis quam ego accipiam

1332: 355:

The first person known to have proposed a heliocentric system was

7660: 7523: 7518: 7468: 7458: 5707: 2251: 2246: 2194:, which states that the Milky Way is the center of the universe. 2144: 2134: 1938:

to allow the printing of heliocentric books in Rome. Copernicus'

1864: 1757:(Index of Prohibited Books, published by order of Alexander VII, 1487: 1357: 1203: 1188: 1172: 1158: 1089: 945:

have its center everywhere and circumference nowhere," recalling

802: 668: 202: 91: 5696:, University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, 2005, p. 307, IN. 4275:

Kennedy, E. S. (Autumn 1966), "Late Medieval Planetary Theory",

2785:

Rufus, W. Carl (1923), "The astronomical system of Copernicus",

2228: 1419:

In 1584, Bruno published two important philosophical dialogues (

373:, Aristarchus calculated the size of the Earth and measured the 251:

placed the stars at least two orders of magnitude more distant.

231:

as absurd as he believed it would create huge winds. Within his

86:(c. 470 – 385 BC). In the 5th century BC the Greek Philosophers 7771: 7721: 7670: 7543: 7393: 5869:"HebrewBooks.org Sefer Detail: מי מנוחות – נויזץ, אליעזר ליפמן" 5627:"Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion: 1609–1666", J. L. Russell, 4540: 3696: 2395: 2168: 2074: 2021: 2002: 1647:(1613), respectively. Around this time, he also announced that 1449: 1312: 1199: 969: 390:. The entire description comprises just three sentences, which 302: 34: 6880:

From Eudoxus to Einstein – A History of Mathematical Astronomy

5868: 4774:

Moving heaven and earth : Copernicus and the solar system

3518:

Alessandro Bausani (1973). "Cosmology and Religion in Islam".

3456: 3418:

Noel Swerdlow, "Review: A Lost Monument of Indian Astronomy,"

1845:, which provided an explanation for Kepler's laws in terms of 1315:

during the next 60 years. There was an early suggestion among

5719: 4022: 3956: 2848:

Although it could obviously be reasonably inferred therefrom.

2400: 2387: 2029: 1610: 1510: 1361: 1161:

in the 2nd century had presented his geocentric model in his

657: 611: 567:

astronomer who flourished a century after Aristarchus in the

321: 290: 214: 63: 7311:

The Heliocentric Model and Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

5670: 5382: 5350: 2261: 2171:

were actually distant "island universes" consisting of many

1946:

were then subsequently omitted from the next edition of the

192:, and a fully developed heliocentric model was developed by 7148:(6th ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 2007. 6769:

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That is, an apparent movement of the stars relative to the

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6014:

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5480: 4996:. New York: American Institute of Physics. p. 181. 1280:, however, opposed the doctrine over a period of years. 6100:

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5818:"יפח לקץ – חלק א – שלזינגר, ישראל דוד (page 13 of 134)" 5047: 4795: 3339: 1356:, the most widely accepted system had been proposed by 4598: 4460:"Islamic Science and the Making of Renaissance Europe" 3614: 1306:, the published form contained an unsigned preface by 1245:

The first information about the heliocentric views of

956:, in particular the mathematical devices known as the 7829: 7282:"Does Heliocentrism Mean That the Sun is Stationary?" 5418: 5338: 5300: 5298: 4897: 4004: 3709: 3707: 3705: 3544:

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from its proper place at the center of the universe (

2765:, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York: Springer, p. 695, 2381:

The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (6th ed., 2007)

2221:, eventually lead to the current model of cosmology, 1241:

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332:," though there is no other evidence it was known in 6966:, in Cherniss, Harold; Helmbold, William C. (eds.), 4953:. Reprint, Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1977. 4923:, volume 21, no. 3, July, pp. 431–441. Reprinted in 2963: 2961: 2959: 2258:

would observe a small "wobble" in the Sun's motion.

1427:) in which he argued against the planetary spheres ( 1295:

published the definitive statement of his system in

82:, who had been influenced by a concept presented by 4586: 2608:. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. pp. 2089: 1229: 1183:; the latter, however, while eliminating the major 493:The second of the references by Plutarch is in his 41:'s illustration of the Copernican system, from the 19:"Heliocentric" redirects here. For the albums, see 7183: 6934:"On the Face Appearing within the Orb of the Moon" 5769: 5295: 5067: 3911: 3702: 3691:G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). 3517: 2301:because it moves relatively to the Sun. A smaller 1552:Galileo Galilei and 1616 ban against Copernicanism 6985:Relativity: An introduction to the special theory 6445: 5954:""Igrot Kodesh" v. 7, p. 134, letter number 1996" 5659:(text quotations from 1729 translation of Newton 4346:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 4256: 4095:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 3573:An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines 3231:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 1910:in 1774 (nationalized in 1878, but re-founded by 952:Some historians maintain that the thought of the 820:and by the Maragha school explicitly address the 164: 7903: 7076:(in Italian). New Series, Vol. 53 (2): 113–121. 5979:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 362. 5923:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 262. 4552: 3051:"Index of Ancient Greek Philosophers-Scientists" 1521:Using measurements made at Tycho's observatory, 1435:in 1587) and affirmed the Copernican principle. 114:mathematician, astronomer, and Catholic cleric, 6554:Le Opere di Galileo Galilei, Edizione Nazionale 4422:Encyclopaedia of Islamic science and scientists 3929: 3841: 2098:William Herschel's model of the Milky Way, 1785 1719:Dialogue concerning the two chief world systems 1333:Tycho Brahe's geo-heliocentric system (c. 1587) 399:from astronomers. But Aristarchus brought out 138:presented supporting observations made using a 6874:. Original edition by Desclee (New York, 1966) 6830:From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe 6729:. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame. 6583:Institute and Museum of the History of Science 6559:The Works of Galileo Galilei, National Edition 6254:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 67–71, 5690:Censorship of Astronomy in Italy after Galileo 5607:. Princeton University Press. pp. 92–93. 4994:The eye of heaven: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler 4389:"Ibn al‐Shāṭir: ʿAlāʾ al‐Dīn ʿAlī ibn Ibrāhīm" 4199: 3642: 2892:; for example). The manuscripts of Plutarch's 2167:speculated that fuzzy patches of light called 2145:Replacement with galactocentrism and acentrism 102:It was not until the sixteenth century that a 7337: 7071: 6951:The Face Which appears on the Orb of the Moon 6581:A searchable online copy is available on the 6523:Galileo, for Copernicanism and for the church 6497:The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy 6132: 6130: 5580: 5578: 5518: 5516: 5476:arXiv:1402.6168 Original text of the decision 4509:. London: Constable and Company Ltd. p. 4157:, 2.12, p. 103, cited in Koyré (1957), p. 17. 3932:Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India 2917: 993:in 1957, remains an open question. Since the 763:'s astronomical works explains the different 709:and the geocentric model, which were used by 247:'s heliocentric scheme had centuries earlier 74:. Historically, heliocentrism was opposed to 6477:A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler 6173:"The Shape of the Milky Way from Starcounts" 5500: 5498: 5105:Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage 4393:The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers 4049:Martianus Capella and the Seven Liberal Arts 3886: 3884: 3732:The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers 3674:E. S. Kennedy, "Al-Bīrūnī's Masudic Canon", 3252:Martianus Capella and the Seven Liberal Arts 3185:Martianus Capella and the Seven Liberal Arts 2811: 2809: 1755:Alexandri VII Pontificis Maximi jussu editus 1450:Imprisonment, trial and execution, 1593–1600 877: 7351: 7261: 7215: 6987:. Singapore Teaneck, NJ: World Scientific. 6710:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 6600: 6097: 5841: 5655: 5653: 5529:Dialogo sopra i Due Massi Sistemi del Mondo 5524:The Systeme of the World: in Four Dialogues 5504: 5412: 5059: 4873: 4694:A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy 4565:. Cambridge University Press. p. 263. 4537:Claudia Kren, "The Rolling Device," p. 497. 3957:Ramasubramanian, Srinivas & Sriram 1994 3431: 2904:was being impious for wanting to shift the 2763:A history of ancient mathematical astronomy 2700: 2383:. The term is a learned formation based on 1842:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica 1202:he had found an account of the theories of 1125: 874:seem to have accepted his planetary model. 7344: 7330: 7216:Taton, René; Wilson, Curtis, eds. (1989), 6928: 6349:International Journal of Science Education 6127: 5757:, Vol. 58, No. 4 (Oct., 1997), pp. 719–732 5629:British Journal for the History of Science 5575: 5513: 5202: 4688: 4641: 4604: 4115:Carman, Christián C. (December 23, 2017). 3600:. Cambridge University Press. p. 60. 3598:The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy 3307:Carman, Christián C. (December 23, 2017). 3268:Carman, Christián C. (December 23, 2017). 3085:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 3002:Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics 2865: 2757: 2639:. Cambridge University Press. p. 76. 1050:→ Nicolaus (Mikołaj Kopernik) Copernicus. 872:Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics 479:Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers 7222:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 7167:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6882:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6643:Copernicus and the Aristotelian tradition 6618: 6459:, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 6273: 6241: 6136: 6119: 6048: 6025: 6010:"XII. On the construction of the heavens" 5597: 5588:, p. 66, Princeton University Press, 2007 5495: 5116: 4991: 4831: 4801: 4166: 3881: 3842:Ragep, F. Jamil; Al-Qushji, Ali (2001b), 3017: 2806: 2464:, the heliocentric view was expounded in 2046:In the 19th century, two students of the 915:(420 CE) described a heliocentric model. 801:. Notable astronomers of this school are 686: 629:(420 CE) described a heliocentric model. 181:was never universally accepted until the 161:, was not at any center of the universe. 25:Heliocentric (The Ocean Collective album) 7242: 7190:. New York: Greenwood Press, Publishers. 7162: 6958: 6944: 6857: 6843:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 6787: 6743: 6724: 6700: 6431:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 6247: 6093: 6091: 6007: 5725: 5713: 5676: 5650: 5556: 5540: 5489: 5388: 5356: 5332: 5316: 5279: 5253: 5209:. Oxford University Press. p. 239. 4754: 4395:. New York: Springer. pp. 569–570. 4391:. In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). 4343: 4337: 4236: 4088: 4064: 3762: 3734:. New York: Springer. pp. 133–134. 3730:. In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). 3695:, p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 3537: 3535: 3533: 3345: 3224: 3200: 2929:Diogenes Laërtius (1972, Bk 7, ch 5, p. 2881: 2715: 2313:) may gain heliocentric velocity due to 2093: 2016:Copernicus is mentioned in the books of 1985:measured the parallaxes of other stars, 1873: 1825:Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds 1561: 1460: 1342: 1210:had provided him with an account of the 1135: 892: 767:with respect to the position of the Sun. 754: 563:was Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC), a 343: 248: 213: 33: 7194: 6862:(3rd ed.). St. Augustine's Press. 6773:(2nd ed.). London: Penguin Books. 6520: 6493: 6384: 6215: 5892: 5527:(1661) Thomas Salusbury translation of 5053: 4951:Religion and the rise of modern science 4843: 4592: 4274: 3357: 2942: 1996: 1863:; i.e., they were turned into "reverse 547: 401:a book consisting of certain hypotheses 375:sizes and distances of the Sun and Moon 339: 7904: 7181: 7128: 6877: 6764: 6659: 6547: 6470: 6319: 6251:Cosmology: The Science of the Universe 6221: 5745: 5448: 5436: 5424: 5400: 5368: 5190: 5178: 4616: 4610: 4454: 4318: 4167:van Limpt, Cokky (February 17, 2003). 4114: 4110: 4108: 4010: 3917: 3835: 3807: 3758: 3756: 3713: 3680:Studies in the Islamic Exact Sciences, 3595: 3546:. Cambridge University Press. p. 3462: 3306: 3267: 3079: 2999: 2983: 2873: 2531: 2523: 1936:Sacred Congregation of the Inquisition 277:The first non-geocentric model of the 261: 7325: 7198:Galileo's Inquisition Trial Revisited 7146:The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary 7096: 7074:Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica 7048:Springer Science & Business Media 7036: 7009: 6982: 6896: 6835: 6685: 6640: 6421: 6088: 6008:Herschel, William (January 1, 1785). 5974: 5918: 5804: 5775: 5766:Sefer Elim, Amsterdam, 1629, стр. 304 5344: 5304: 5065: 4972:, volume 127, no. 6, June, pp. 8–10. 4924: 4903: 4827: 4770: 4644:"Copernicus and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi" 4546: 4262: 4121:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 4053:The Marriage of Philology and Mercury 3968: 3801: 3773:. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 3725: 3648: 3620: 3541: 3530: 3474: 3313:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 3274:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 3256:The Marriage of Philology and Mercury 3189:The Marriage of Philology and Mercury 3125: 2967: 2909: 2857: 2815: 2784: 2632: 2601: 2574: 2495:originally sourced from the works of 2433:, 1679, p. 28). The abstract noun in 1880:A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery 1656:Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina 1649:Venus exhibits a full range of phases 884:History of science in the Renaissance 7186:Giordano Bruno: His Life and Thought 6832:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Pr. 6585:, Florence, and a brief overview of 6387:Journal for the History of Astronomy 6190: 5254:David P., Stern (October 10, 2016). 5096:and Catarina Espirito Santo (2015), 5037:Gingerich, O. & Voelkel, J. R., 4861:"Religious Objections to Copernicus" 4815:Journal for the History of Astronomy 4715: 4648:Journal for the History of Astronomy 4558: 4499: 4436:Journal for the History of Astronomy 4386: 3890: 3570: 2718:Journal for the History of Astronomy 2277:. In such systems the origin in the 1887:, in which a lamp represents the Sun 1322:Some years after the publication of 258:developed in Renaissance astronomy. 6500:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 6228:, HarperCollins, pp. 150–159, 5439:, pp. 66–76, 164–175, 187–195. 5206:Discourse on Civility and Barbarity 4917:Calvin’s attitude toward Copernicus 4105: 4069:, Leiden: Brill, pp. 244–259, 3753: 3637:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3261: 3205:, Leiden: Brill, pp. 244–259, 2425:, in use from about the same time ( 2229:Special relativity and the "center" 2159:Already in the early 19th century, 1771:Science in the Age of Enlightenment 1730:and his straightforward statement, 1154:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium 13: 6696:. London: Oxford University Press. 6664:, University of Notre Dame Press, 6561:] (in Italian). Vol. 19. 4174:Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica 3770:Dictionary of Scientific Biography 3765:"Al-Bitruji Al-Ishbili, Abu Ishaq" 3481:concentrically envelops the other. 3218: 3194: 3174: 3105:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37224.x 2894:On the Face in the Orb of the Moon 2605:Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle 1896:advocating heliocentrism from the 1516: 888: 465:On the Face in the Orb of the Moon 449:On the Face in the Orb of the Moon 27:. For the heliocentric orbit, see 14: 7933: 7274: 7201:. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. 5509:. University of California Press. 5135:10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2015.03.02 4888: 2636:Man and nature in the Renaissance 2414:is first recorded in English (as 2084: 2032:and was acquainted with Galileo. 1601:observed with his telescope that 1509:. His ashes were thrown into the 1408: 835: 601: 7887: 7875: 7863: 7851: 7839: 7268:. Tamil University (1985 print). 7182:Singer, Dorothea Waley (1968) . 6816: 6480:, New York: Dover Publications, 6354: 6341: 6320:Fisher, Debra (August 1, 2006). 6313: 6267: 6248:Harrison, Edward Robert (2000), 6165: 6042: 6001: 5968: 5945: 5912: 5886: 5861: 5835: 5810: 5781: 5760: 5731: 5682: 5642:The General History of Astronomy 5634: 5621: 5591: 5566: 5458: 5394: 5247: 5230: 5196: 5184: 5172: 5163: 5086: 5031: 5018: 4985: 4956: 4943: 4930: 4909: 4882: 4867: 4853: 2484: 2348:Copernican Revolution (metaphor) 2090:William Herschel's heliocentrism 1764: 1635:and that the Sun rotates in his 1587: 1578: 1541:Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae 1230:Reception in Early Modern Europe 1094:Commentary on the First Book of 1048:Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara 982:was found in an earlier work by 779:rather than one of mathematics. 725:. According to later astronomer 632: 21:Heliocentric (Paul Weller album) 6974:, vol. 406, translated by 6902:Journal of the History of Ideas 6878:Linton, Christopher M. (2004). 6860:Galileo, Science and the Church 6660:Graney, Christopher M. (2015), 5755:Journal of the History of Ideas 5026:Journal of the History of Ideas 4921:Journal of the History of Ideas 4820: 4807: 4764: 4709: 4682: 4635: 4531: 4517: 4493: 4479: 4448: 4428: 4414: 4380: 4312: 4268: 4230: 4193: 4160: 4147: 4082: 4058: 4038: 4016: 3962: 3923: 3787: 3719: 3685: 3668: 3626: 3589: 3564: 3511: 3486: 3425: 3412: 3399: 3386: 3351: 3300: 3241: 3150: 3137:, pp. viii & 201–217, 3119: 3073: 3043: 2993: 2923: 2851: 2842: 2825: 2778: 2751: 2709: 2703:Epitome of Copernican Astronomy 2694: 2681: 2471: 1830:Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle 1820:Epitome of Copernican Astronomy 1546:Epitome astronomia Copernicanae 1425:De l'infinito universo et mondi 312:(4th century BC) said that the 272: 66:and planets revolve around the 16:Sun-centered astronomical model 7046:. Translated by Levy, Silvio. 6645:. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. 6370: 6225:Coming of Age in the Milky Way 3651:"Rediscovering Arabic Science" 2701:Kepler, Johannes (1618–1621). 2662: 2653: 2626: 2595: 2568: 2551: 2517: 2454: 2365: 1979:Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve 1251:Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter 1061:" (10th to 12th centuries) in 848:, a commentary on Aryabhata's 646:(476–550), in his magnum opus 165:Ancient and medieval astronomy 1: 7742:Inferior and superior planets 7247:. New York: Springer-Verlag. 7012:Copernicus and his Successors 6858:Langford, Jerome K. (1998) . 6626:. London: William Heinemann. 6601:Finocchiaro, Maurice (2010), 6452:Lives of Eminent Philosophers 5799:" it is because it hastens (" 5505:Finochiario, Maurice (2007). 3571:Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1993). 3542:Young, M. J. L., ed. (2006). 3163:, Feltrinelli, Milano, 2003, 2490:On the other hand, Calvin is 2353: 1849:and what came to be known as 1798:(1644), Descartes introduced 723:Earth rotates around its axis 361: 106:of a heliocentric system was 7917:Early scientific cosmologies 6936:, in Godwin, William (ed.), 6300:10.1016/0083-6656(75)90049-5 6159:10.1016/0083-6656(75)90049-5 6075:10.1016/0083-6656(75)90049-5 5260:From Stargazers to Starships 5203:Fitzgerald, Timothy (2007). 4621:. I.B. Tauris. p. 179. 4420:N.K. Singh, M. Zaki Kirmani, 2510: 2358: 2321:. From the point of view of 2102:In 1783, amateur astronomer 1431:did the same in 1586 as did 1352:Prior to the publication of 922:In the 14th century, bishop 542:Opinions of the Philosophers 530:Opinions of the Philosophers 7: 7165:Galileo: Decisive Innovator 7014:. London: Hambledon Press. 6274:Berendzen, Richard (1975). 6049:Berendzen, Richard (1975). 5842:Jeremy, Brown (2008–2009). 5599:Gillispie, Charles Coulston 4777:. Cambridge: Icon. p. 4065:Eastwood, Bruce S. (2007), 3575:. SUNY Press. p. 135. 3520:Scientia/Rivista di Scienza 3201:Eastwood, Bruce S. (2007), 2336: 1753:Index Librorum Prohibitorum 1700:Master of the Sacred Palace 1633:Jupiter is orbited by moons 1002:, which translated some of 693:Astronomy in medieval Islam 471:, c. 6, pp. 922 F – 923 A.) 179:yearly orbit around the Sun 10: 7938: 7819:Medieval Islamic astronomy 7616:On the Sizes and Distances 7163:Sharratt, Michael (1994). 6765:Joseph, George G. (2000). 6744:Heilbron, John L. (2010). 6521:Fantoli, Annibale (2003). 6407:10.1177/002182869502600203 5787:In a marginal note in his 5631:, Vol. 2, No. 1, June 1964 4940:. New York: Walker and Co. 4668:10.1177/002182867300400205 4642:Veselovsky, I. N. (1973), 4549:, pp. 261–69, 476–86. 3682:Beirut, 1983, pp. 573–595. 2738:10.1177/002182869202300401 2401: 2388: 2148: 1950:when it appeared in 1835. 1768: 1666:. Cardinal and Inquisitor 1621:, and disproved Ptolemy's 1555: 1529:between 1609 and 1619. In 1403:Giovanni Battista Riccioli 1336: 1233: 1129: 1116:Theoricae Novae Planetarum 1006:'s works from Arabic into 976:used by Copernicus in the 881: 690: 636: 551: 538:Against the Mathematicians 432:had been developed in the 265: 18: 7809:Medieval European science 7801: 7780: 7689: 7638: 7577: 7539:Sosigenes the Peripatetic 7359: 7144: 6797:. London: Penguin Books. 5851:The Torah U-Madda Journal 5692:(in McMullin, Ernan ed., 4979:October 27, 2017, at the 4133:10.1007/s00407-017-0198-3 3822:10.1017/s0269889701000060 3325:10.1007/s00407-017-0198-3 3286:10.1007/s00407-017-0198-3 2918:Russo & Medaglia 1996 2689:A History of Mathematics. 2380: 2327:inertial reference frames 1902:. The Observatory of the 1828:, published in France by 1704:Congregation of the Index 1507:burned alive at the stake 1075:Thebit (Thabit Ibn Qurra) 878:Renaissance-era astronomy 145:With the observations of 6222:Ferris, Timothy (2003), 5716:, pp. 279, 312–313. 5066:Smith, Homer W. (1952). 4992:Gingerich, Owen (1993). 4936:Gingerich, Owen (2004), 3763:Samsó, Julio (1970–80). 3596:Hoskin, Michael (1999). 3465:, pp. 393–394, 408. 2633:Debus, Allen G. (1987). 2410:"center"; the adjective 2371:Optionally capitalised, 2026:Joseph Solomon Delmedigo 1959:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel 1899:Index of Forbidden Books 1795:Principles of Philosophy 1566:In the 17th century AD, 1527:laws of planetary motion 1474:the Inquisitor Cardinal 1132:Copernican heliocentrism 1126:Copernican heliocentrism 1083:Alpetragius (Al-Bitruji) 1067:Albategnius (Al-Battani) 369:. Like his contemporary 256:Copernican heliocentrism 7912:Ancient Greek astronomy 7534:Sosigenes of Alexandria 7353:Ancient Greek astronomy 7243:Thurston, Hugh (1993). 7195:Speller, Jules (2008). 7102:Perspectives on Science 6494:Edwards, James (1998), 6472:Dreyer, John Louis Emil 4387:King, David A. (2007). 4319:Saliba, George (1995). 2563:Encyclopædia Britannica 2427:Johann Jakob Zimmermann 2235:principle of relativity 1851:Newton's laws of motion 1775:17th-century philosophy 1674:In January 1616, Msgr. 1387:apparent sizes of stars 793:school of astronomy in 729:, al-Sijzi invented an 394:translates as follows: 268:Ancient Greek astronomy 171:sphericity of the Earth 7606:On Sizes and Distances 7010:Rosen, Edward (1995). 6983:Qadir, Asghar (1989). 6972:Loeb Classical Library 6968:Plutarch's Moralia XII 6727:The Church and Galileo 6027:10.1098/rstl.1785.0012 5975:Brown, Jeremy (2013). 5919:Brown, Jeremy (2013). 5893:Rabbi Natan, Slifkin. 5793:Midrash Bereshit Rabba 5694:The Church and Galileo 5663:, Book 3 (1729 vol.2) 5470:March 2, 2021, at the 4974:Available online here. 4915:Rosen, Edward (1960), 3891:Huff, Toby E. (2003). 3483: 2888:; Cherniss 1957]], p. 2866:Gent & Godwin 1883 2675:July 29, 2012, at the 2211:cosmological principle 2099: 1888: 1810:; these rotate due to 1737: 1728: 1696: 1571: 1499: 1470: 1349: 1274: 1145: 1044:Johannes Regiomontanus 901: 768: 687:Medieval Islamic world 521: 516:Platonicae Quaestiones 488:A reply to Aristarchus 474: 469:De facie in orbe lunae 422: 352: 243:, a regression, since 220: 45: 7717:Deferent and epicycle 7646:Antikythera mechanism 6641:Goddu, André (2010). 6198:"Meet the Stargazers" 5256:"Kepler and His Laws" 5094:Alessandro De Angelis 4949:Hooykaas, R. (1973). 4891:Revolution in Science 4617:Freely, John (2015). 4501:Cook, Theodore Andrea 3726:Samsó, Julio (2007). 3478: 3422:, 64 (1973): 239–243. 3358:Plofker, Kim (2009). 2575:Russo, Lucio (2003). 2097: 1877: 1857:observatories called 1847:universal gravitation 1779:Scientific revolution 1769:Further information: 1732: 1724: 1685: 1565: 1492: 1464: 1346: 1270: 1257:and several Catholic 1236:Copernican Revolution 1139: 1079:Arzachel (Al-Zarqali) 896: 854:system later proposed 826:Samarkand observatory 784:Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji 759:An illustration from 758: 499: 453: 396: 347: 314:rotation of the Earth 217: 183:Copernican Revolution 120:Copernican Revolution 70:at the center of the 43:Harmonia Macrocosmica 37: 7788:Babylonian astronomy 7479:Hippocrates of Chios 7262:JV Chelliah (1946). 7114:10.1162/posc_a_00552 6624:The Book Nobody Read 6379:Philosophia Islamica 6362:center-of-mass frame 5739:"Viviani's pendulum" 5728:, pp. 279, 312. 5584:Weintraub, David A. 5076:Grosset & Dunlap 4962:Bye, Dan J. (2007). 4938:The Book Nobody Read 4874:Melanchthon (1549). 4771:Henry, John (2001). 4181:on November 27, 2018 3649:Covington, Richard. 3435:Mathematics in India 3432:Kim Plofker (2009). 3361:Mathematics in India 2920:, pp. 113–117). 2705:. Book IV, Part 1.2. 2602:Dicks, D.R. (1970). 2343:Copernican principle 2293:" and "heliocentric 2207:Copernican principle 2079:relativity of motion 1997:Reception in Judaism 1816:centripetal pressure 1440:La Cena de le Ceneri 1421:La Cena de le Ceneri 1377:Aristotelian physics 1118:(printed in 1472 by 954:Maragheh observatory 917:John Scotus Eriugena 844:(1444–1544), in his 654:spinning on its axis 554:Seleucus of Seleucia 548:Seleucus of Seleucia 357:Aristarchus of Samos 340:Aristarchus of Samos 310:Heraclides of Pontus 281:was proposed by the 245:Aristarchus of Samos 194:Aristarchus of Samos 80:Aristarchus of Samos 7559:Theon of Alexandria 7138:Columbia University 7020:1995cops.book.....R 6809:Available from the 6670:2015saaa.book.....G 6399:1995JHA....26..133D 6292:1975VA.....17...65B 6280:Vistas in Astronomy 6151:1975VA.....17...65B 6139:Vistas in Astronomy 6112:1965PASP...77..325V 6067:1975VA.....17...65B 6055:Vistas in Astronomy 5899:Rationalist Judaism 5822:www.hebrewbooks.org 5679:, pp. 147–175. 5391:, pp. 110–115. 5359:, pp. 110–111. 5292:] the same... " 5152:on January 26, 2016 5127:2015JAHH...18..241D 4927:, pp. 161–171. 4889:Cohen, I. Bernard. 4876:Elements of Physics 4720:of Nicole Oresme", 4660:1973JHA.....4..128V 4559:Huff, T.E. (2010). 4465:Library of Congress 4358:1973PAPhS.117..423S 4251:2008Obs...128..231G 4155:De docta ignorantia 3944:1998BASI...26...11R 3860:2001Osir...16...49R 3633:Nicolaus Copernicus 3097:1987NYASA.500..525V 3061:on January 27, 2018 3010:2000eaa..bookE3998. 2801:1923PA.....31..510R 2759:Neugebauer, Otto E. 2730:1992JHA....23..233E 2133:introduced motion, 1977:. In the same year 1916:Vatican Observatory 1906:was established by 1644:Letters on Sunspots 1603:Venus showed phases 1293:Nicolaus Copernicus 1247:Nicolaus Copernicus 1216:Heraclides Ponticus 1149:Nicolaus Copernicus 1142:Nicolaus Copernicus 1112:Georg von Peuerbach 1101:Questiones de Spera 1020:Theodore Metochites 947:Hermes Trismegistus 842:Nilakantha Somayaji 262:Classical antiquity 116:Nicolaus Copernicus 84:Philolaus of Croton 62:model in which the 51:(also known as the 7793:Egyptian astronomy 7707:Circle of latitude 7292:on August 16, 2013 6457:Hicks, Robert Drew 6327:Astronomy Magazine 5242:una morsa di legno 4506:The Curves of Life 4458:(April 27, 2006). 4153:Nicholas of Cusa, 3983:10.1007/BF02839373 3810:Science in Context 3028:10.1888/0333750888 2670:Ptolemy's Universe 2468:' work on gravity. 2323:general relativity 2100: 2071:R. M.M. Schneerson 2011:radical skepticism 1889: 1814:and the resulting 1800:a mechanical model 1748:Pope Alexander VII 1619:heliocentric model 1613:, as predicted by 1572: 1471: 1429:Christoph Rothmann 1350: 1268:purportedly said: 1146: 1059:Islamic Golden Age 1040:Basilios Bessarion 1012:Gregory Chioniades 991:Otto E. Neugebauer 902: 777:natural philosophy 769: 765:phases of the Moon 721:accepted that the 703:Muslim astronomers 512:Platonic Questions 495:Platonic Questions 353: 241:Astronomical Units 221: 104:mathematical model 97:Hellenistic period 53:heliocentric model 46: 29:Heliocentric orbit 7827: 7826: 7702:Celestial spheres 7254:978-0-387-94107-3 7229:978-0-521-24254-7 7208:978-3-631-56229-1 7174:978-0-521-56671-1 7155:978-0-19-920687-2 7057:978-3-642-18904-3 7029:978-1-85285-071-5 6938:Plutarch's Morals 6889:978-0-521-82750-8 6869:978-1-890318-25-3 6850:978-0-8014-0504-4 6804:978-0-14-019246-9 6757:978-0-19-958352-2 6736:978-0-268-03483-2 6717:978-0-674-00536-5 6702:Heilbron, John L. 6687:Heath, Sir Thomas 6679:978-0-268-02988-3 6652:978-90-04-18107-6 6633:978-0-434-01315-9 6591:Finn's fine books 6589:is available at 6579:on July 13, 2007. 6572:978-88-09-20881-0 6507:978-0-19-509539-5 6487:978-0-486-60079-6 6447:Diogenes Laërtius 6438:978-0-226-16226-3 6261:978-0-521-66148-5 6235:978-0-06-053595-7 5986:978-0-19-975479-3 5930:978-0-19-975479-3 5688:John L.Heilbron, 5586:Is Pluto a Planet 5335:, pp. 56–57. 5216:978-0-19-804103-0 4788:978-1-84046-251-7 4703:978-0-387-06995-1 4628:978-1-78453-138-6 4572:978-1-139-49535-6 4402:978-0-387-31022-0 4330:978-0-8147-8023-7 4091:De revolutionibus 4076:978-90-04-16186-3 3904:978-0-521-52994-5 3780:978-0-684-10114-9 3741:978-0-387-31022-0 3623:, pp. 5–10.. 3607:978-0-521-57600-0 3582:978-1-4384-1419-5 3557:978-0-521-02887-5 3498:Famous Scientists 3477:, pp. 317f: 3449:978-0-691-12067-6 3371:978-1-4008-3407-5 3227:De revolutionibus 3212:978-90-04-16186-3 3161:Flussi e riflussi 3144:978-965-223-626-5 3037:978-0-333-75088-9 2788:Popular Astronomy 2772:978-3-540-06995-9 2646:978-0-521-29328-0 2619:978-0-8014-0561-7 2588:978-3-540-20068-0 2545:The Sand Reckoner 2418:) in 1685, after 2299:mechanical energy 2256:extrasolar planet 2184:globular clusters 2007:Maharal of Prague 1961:, and in 1851 by 1940:De Revolutionibus 1920:De Revolutionibus 1812:centrifugal force 1708:De Revolutionibus 1668:Robert Bellarmine 1480:Pope Clement VIII 1354:De Revolutionibus 1324:De Revolutionibus 1298:De Revolutionibus 1286:De Revolutionibus 1196:De Revolutionibus 1169:retrograde motion 1063:De Revolutionibus 1052:Leonardo da Vinci 1032:Demetrios Kydones 1000:Byzantine science 933:Learned Ignorance 909:Early Middle Ages 905:Martianus Capella 868:Copernican models 846:Aryabhatiyabhasya 697:Islamic cosmology 623:Martianus Capella 619:Early Middle Ages 615:Martianus Capella 484:Diogenes Laërtius 413:The Sand Reckoner 387:The Sand Reckoner 237:celestial spheres 219:around the Earth. 132:elliptical orbits 118:, leading to the 39:Andreas Cellarius 7929: 7892: 7891: 7890: 7880: 7879: 7878: 7868: 7867: 7866: 7856: 7855: 7844: 7843: 7842: 7835: 7814:Indian astronomy 7767:Sublunary sphere 7737:Hipparchic cycle 7676:Mural instrument 7651:Armillary sphere 7630: 7620: 7610: 7600: 7590: 7346: 7339: 7332: 7323: 7322: 7312: 7301: 7299: 7297: 7288:. Archived from 7269: 7258: 7239: 7238: 7236: 7212: 7191: 7189: 7178: 7159: 7141: 7125: 7093: 7082:10.2307/20547344 7068: 7066: 7064: 7033: 7006: 6979: 6976:Cherniss, Harold 6955: 6941: 6925: 6893: 6873: 6854: 6837:Koyré, Alexandre 6826:Koyré, Alexandre 6821: 6820: 6814: 6812:Internet Archive 6808: 6789:Koestler, Arthur 6784: 6761: 6740: 6721: 6697: 6682: 6656: 6637: 6615: 6580: 6575:. Archived from 6544: 6517: 6516: 6514: 6490: 6467: 6466: 6464: 6455:, translated by 6442: 6418: 6364: 6358: 6352: 6345: 6339: 6338: 6336: 6334: 6317: 6311: 6310: 6308: 6306: 6271: 6265: 6264: 6245: 6239: 6238: 6219: 6213: 6212: 6210: 6208: 6194: 6188: 6187: 6185: 6183: 6169: 6163: 6162: 6134: 6125: 6124: 6123: 6106:(458): 324–328, 6095: 6086: 6085: 6083: 6081: 6046: 6040: 6039: 6029: 6005: 5999: 5998: 5972: 5966: 5965: 5963: 5961: 5949: 5943: 5942: 5916: 5910: 5909: 5907: 5905: 5890: 5884: 5883: 5881: 5879: 5865: 5859: 5858: 5848: 5839: 5833: 5832: 5830: 5828: 5814: 5808: 5785: 5779: 5773: 5767: 5764: 5758: 5749: 5743: 5742: 5735: 5729: 5723: 5717: 5711: 5705: 5686: 5680: 5674: 5668: 5657: 5648: 5638: 5632: 5625: 5619: 5618: 5595: 5589: 5582: 5573: 5570: 5564: 5554: 5548: 5538: 5532: 5520: 5511: 5510: 5507:Retrying Galileo 5502: 5493: 5487: 5478: 5465:Domínguez (2014) 5462: 5456: 5446: 5440: 5434: 5428: 5422: 5416: 5413:Finocchiaro 2010 5410: 5404: 5398: 5392: 5386: 5380: 5378: 5366: 5360: 5354: 5348: 5342: 5336: 5330: 5324: 5314: 5308: 5302: 5293: 5277: 5271: 5270: 5268: 5266: 5251: 5245: 5234: 5228: 5227: 5225: 5223: 5200: 5194: 5188: 5182: 5176: 5170: 5167: 5161: 5160: 5159: 5157: 5151: 5145:, archived from 5120: 5102: 5090: 5084: 5083: 5073: 5070:Man and His Gods 5063: 5057: 5051: 5045: 5040:J. Hist. Astron. 5035: 5029: 5028:, 51, 1990, 364. 5022: 5016: 5015: 4989: 4983: 4960: 4954: 4947: 4941: 4934: 4928: 4913: 4907: 4901: 4895: 4894: 4886: 4880: 4879: 4871: 4865: 4864: 4857: 4851: 4841: 4835: 4824: 4818: 4811: 4805: 4799: 4793: 4792: 4768: 4762: 4752: 4746: 4745: 4713: 4707: 4706: 4690:Neugebauer, Otto 4686: 4680: 4679: 4639: 4633: 4632: 4614: 4608: 4602: 4596: 4590: 4584: 4583: 4581: 4579: 4556: 4550: 4544: 4538: 4535: 4529: 4528: 4521: 4515: 4514: 4497: 4491: 4490: 4483: 4477: 4476: 4474: 4472: 4452: 4446: 4442:(2014), 183–195 4432: 4426: 4418: 4412: 4406: 4384: 4378: 4377: 4341: 4335: 4334: 4316: 4310: 4309: 4272: 4266: 4260: 4254: 4253: 4234: 4228: 4227: 4197: 4191: 4190: 4188: 4186: 4177:. Archived from 4164: 4158: 4151: 4145: 4144: 4112: 4103: 4102: 4086: 4080: 4079: 4062: 4056: 4042: 4036: 4035: 4020: 4014: 4008: 4002: 4001: 3966: 3960: 3954: 3948: 3947: 3927: 3921: 3915: 3909: 3908: 3888: 3879: 3878: 3839: 3833: 3832: 3816:(1–2): 145–163, 3805: 3799: 3791: 3785: 3784: 3760: 3751: 3745: 3723: 3717: 3711: 3700: 3689: 3683: 3672: 3666: 3665: 3663: 3661: 3646: 3640: 3630: 3624: 3618: 3612: 3611: 3593: 3587: 3586: 3568: 3562: 3561: 3539: 3528: 3527: 3515: 3509: 3508: 3506: 3504: 3490: 3484: 3472: 3466: 3460: 3454: 3453: 3429: 3423: 3416: 3410: 3403: 3397: 3390: 3384: 3383: 3355: 3349: 3343: 3337: 3336: 3304: 3298: 3297: 3265: 3259: 3245: 3239: 3238: 3222: 3216: 3215: 3198: 3192: 3178: 3172: 3154: 3148: 3147: 3135:Brill Publishers 3123: 3117: 3116: 3077: 3071: 3070: 3068: 3066: 3057:. Archived from 3047: 3041: 3040: 3021: 2997: 2991: 2981: 2975: 2965: 2954: 2940: 2934: 2927: 2921: 2855: 2849: 2846: 2840: 2829: 2823: 2813: 2804: 2803: 2782: 2776: 2775: 2755: 2749: 2748: 2713: 2707: 2706: 2698: 2692: 2685: 2679: 2666: 2660: 2657: 2651: 2650: 2630: 2624: 2623: 2599: 2593: 2592: 2572: 2566: 2555: 2549: 2521: 2504: 2501:Abraham Calovius 2488: 2482: 2475: 2469: 2458: 2452: 2406: 2405: 2393: 2392: 2369: 2331:Mach's principle 2319:scientific model 2295:angular momentum 2275:reference frames 2104:William Herschel 1983:Thomas Henderson 1973:of a star named 1908:Pope Clement XIV 1694: 1676:Francesco Ingoli 1664:Council of Trent 1638:Sidereus Nuncius 1623:geocentric model 1591: 1582: 1255:Pope Clement VII 1036:Gemistos Plethon 1016:Manuel Bryennios 928:Nicholas of Cusa 898:Nicholas of Cusa 822:Earth's rotation 799:Earth's rotation 750:'alā Baṭalamiyūs 749: 720: 714: 707:Ptolemaic system 639:Indian astronomy 534:Sextus Empiricus 519: 518:viii. I, 1006 C) 472: 420: 368: 366: 363: 199:geocentric model 151:Friedrich Bessel 147:William Herschel 7937: 7936: 7932: 7931: 7930: 7928: 7927: 7926: 7902: 7901: 7898: 7888: 7886: 7876: 7874: 7864: 7862: 7850: 7840: 7838: 7830: 7828: 7823: 7797: 7776: 7762:Spherical Earth 7697:Callippic cycle 7685: 7666:Equatorial ring 7634: 7628: 7618: 7608: 7598: 7588: 7573: 7564:Theon of Smyrna 7355: 7350: 7310: 7295: 7293: 7280: 7277: 7272: 7255: 7245:Early Astronomy 7234: 7232: 7230: 7209: 7175: 7156: 7062: 7060: 7058: 7030: 6995: 6914:10.2307/2708908 6890: 6870: 6851: 6815: 6810: 6805: 6781: 6758: 6737: 6718: 6680: 6653: 6634: 6620:Gingerich, Owen 6613: 6573: 6549:Favaro, Antonio 6533: 6512: 6510: 6508: 6488: 6462: 6460: 6439: 6428:Galileo At Work 6423:Drake, Stillman 6373: 6368: 6367: 6359: 6355: 6351:, 32 (1), 1–29. 6346: 6342: 6332: 6330: 6318: 6314: 6304: 6302: 6272: 6268: 6262: 6246: 6242: 6236: 6220: 6216: 6206: 6204: 6196: 6195: 6191: 6181: 6179: 6171: 6170: 6166: 6135: 6128: 6096: 6089: 6079: 6077: 6047: 6043: 6006: 6002: 5987: 5973: 5969: 5959: 5957: 5952: 5950: 5946: 5931: 5917: 5913: 5903: 5901: 5891: 5887: 5877: 5875: 5873:hebrewbooks.org 5867: 5866: 5862: 5846: 5840: 5836: 5826: 5824: 5816: 5815: 5811: 5807:, p. 220). 5786: 5782: 5774: 5770: 5765: 5761: 5750: 5746: 5737: 5736: 5732: 5724: 5720: 5712: 5708: 5687: 5683: 5675: 5671: 5658: 5651: 5639: 5635: 5626: 5622: 5615: 5596: 5592: 5583: 5576: 5571: 5567: 5555: 5551: 5539: 5535: 5521: 5514: 5503: 5496: 5488: 5481: 5472:Wayback Machine 5463: 5459: 5447: 5443: 5435: 5431: 5423: 5419: 5411: 5407: 5399: 5395: 5387: 5383: 5376: 5367: 5363: 5355: 5351: 5343: 5339: 5331: 5327: 5315: 5311: 5303: 5296: 5278: 5274: 5264: 5262: 5252: 5248: 5235: 5231: 5221: 5219: 5217: 5201: 5197: 5189: 5185: 5177: 5173: 5168: 5164: 5155: 5153: 5149: 5100: 5091: 5087: 5064: 5060: 5052: 5048: 5042:, Vol. 29, 1998 5036: 5032: 5023: 5019: 5004: 4990: 4986: 4981:Wayback Machine 4969:The Freethinker 4961: 4957: 4948: 4944: 4935: 4931: 4914: 4910: 4902: 4898: 4887: 4883: 4872: 4868: 4859: 4858: 4854: 4842: 4838: 4825: 4821: 4812: 4808: 4800: 4796: 4789: 4769: 4765: 4753: 4749: 4714: 4710: 4704: 4687: 4683: 4640: 4636: 4629: 4615: 4611: 4605:Veselovsky 1973 4603: 4599: 4591: 4587: 4577: 4575: 4573: 4557: 4553: 4545: 4541: 4536: 4532: 4523: 4522: 4518: 4498: 4494: 4485: 4484: 4480: 4470: 4468: 4453: 4449: 4433: 4429: 4419: 4415: 4403: 4385: 4381: 4342: 4338: 4331: 4317: 4313: 4285:(3): 365–378 , 4273: 4269: 4261: 4257: 4239:The Observatory 4235: 4231: 4198: 4194: 4184: 4182: 4165: 4161: 4152: 4148: 4113: 4106: 4087: 4083: 4077: 4063: 4059: 4043: 4039: 4027:Current Science 4021: 4017: 4009: 4005: 3967: 3963: 3955: 3951: 3928: 3924: 3916: 3912: 3905: 3889: 3882: 3840: 3836: 3806: 3802: 3792: 3788: 3781: 3761: 3754: 3742: 3724: 3720: 3712: 3703: 3690: 3686: 3673: 3669: 3659: 3657: 3647: 3643: 3631: 3627: 3619: 3615: 3608: 3594: 3590: 3583: 3569: 3565: 3558: 3540: 3531: 3516: 3512: 3502: 3500: 3492: 3491: 3487: 3473: 3469: 3461: 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2001:Already in the 1999: 1928:Filippo Anfossi 1869:pinhole cameras 1867:", or gigantic 1781: 1767: 1714:Pope Urban VIII 1695: 1692: 1629: 1628: 1627: 1626: 1625:(second image). 1599:Galileo Galilei 1594: 1593: 1592: 1584: 1583: 1568:Galileo Galilei 1560: 1554: 1532:Astronomia nova 1523:Johannes Kepler 1519: 1517:Johannes Kepler 1503:Campo de' Fiori 1467:Campo de' Fiori 1452: 1411: 1370:Tychonic system 1360:, in which the 1341: 1339:Tychonic system 1335: 1290: 1284:Publication of 1243: 1238: 1232: 1181:Tychonic system 1134: 1128: 1028:Nilos Kabasilas 1024:Gregory Palamas 1008:Byzantine Greek 891: 889:Medieval period 886: 880: 838: 809:(d. 1277), and 747: 716: 710: 699: 689: 641: 635: 604: 569:Seleucid Empire 556: 550: 520: 510: 473: 463: 421: 411: 364: 359: 342: 275: 270: 264: 167: 136:Galileo Galilei 128:Johannes Kepler 32: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7935: 7925: 7924: 7919: 7914: 7897: 7896: 7884: 7872: 7860: 7848: 7825: 7824: 7822: 7821: 7816: 7811: 7805: 7803: 7799: 7798: 7796: 7795: 7790: 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(1907). 6545: 6531: 6518: 6506: 6491: 6486: 6468: 6443: 6437: 6419: 6382: 6374: 6372: 6369: 6366: 6365: 6353: 6340: 6312: 6266: 6260: 6240: 6234: 6214: 6189: 6164: 6126: 6121:10.1086/128228 6087: 6041: 6000: 5985: 5967: 5956:. Otzar770.com 5944: 5929: 5911: 5885: 5860: 5834: 5809: 5780: 5768: 5759: 5744: 5730: 5718: 5706: 5681: 5669: 5665:at pp. 232–233 5649: 5633: 5620: 5613: 5590: 5574: 5565: 5549: 5533: 5512: 5494: 5492:, p. 218. 5479: 5457: 5441: 5429: 5427:, pp. 71. 5417: 5415:, pp. 72. 5405: 5393: 5381: 5361: 5349: 5347:, p. 240. 5337: 5325: 5309: 5294: 5272: 5246: 5229: 5215: 5195: 5183: 5171: 5162: 5111:(3): 241–248, 5085: 5058: 5056:, p. 109. 5046: 5030: 5017: 5002: 4984: 4955: 4942: 4929: 4908: 4896: 4893:. p. 497. 4881: 4866: 4852: 4836: 4834:, p. 32). 4832:Gingerich 2004 4830:, p. 85; 4819: 4806: 4802:Gingerich 2004 4794: 4787: 4763: 4747: 4734:10.1086/350791 4728:(4): 490–498, 4708: 4702: 4681: 4654:(2): 128–130, 4634: 4627: 4609: 4597: 4585: 4571: 4551: 4539: 4530: 4516: 4492: 4478: 4456:Saliba, George 4447: 4427: 4413: 4401: 4379: 4336: 4329: 4311: 4291:10.1086/350144 4267: 4255: 4229: 4216:10.1086/348774 4210:(3): 232–234. 4192: 4159: 4146: 4104: 4081: 4075: 4057: 4037: 4015: 4013:, p. 408. 4003: 3961: 3959:, p. 788. 3949: 3922: 3910: 3903: 3880: 3868:10.1086/649338 3850:, 2nd Series, 3834: 3800: 3795:Hikmat al-'Ain 3786: 3779: 3752: 3740: 3718: 3701: 3684: 3667: 3641: 3625: 3613: 3606: 3588: 3581: 3563: 3556: 3529: 3510: 3485: 3467: 3455: 3448: 3424: 3411: 3398: 3385: 3370: 3350: 3348:, p. 188. 3338: 3299: 3260: 3240: 3217: 3211: 3193: 3173: 3149: 3143: 3118: 3072: 3042: 3036: 2992: 2976: 2955: 2935: 2922: 2850: 2841: 2824: 2805: 2777: 2771: 2750: 2708: 2693: 2680: 2661: 2652: 2645: 2625: 2618: 2594: 2587: 2567: 2550: 2515: 2514: 2512: 2509: 2506: 2505: 2483: 2470: 2453: 2423:heliocentricus 2363: 2362: 2360: 2357: 2355: 2352: 2351: 2350: 2345: 2338: 2335: 2315:gravity assist 2279:center of mass 2270: 2262:Modern use of 2260: 2230: 2227: 2180:Harlow Shapley 2155:Big Bang model 2146: 2143: 2091: 2088: 2086: 2085:Modern science 2083: 2067:Shlomo Benizri 1998: 1995: 1991:Alpha Centauri 1942:and Galileo's 1784:René Descartes 1766: 1763: 1750:published his 1690: 1596: 1595: 1586: 1585: 1577: 1576: 1575: 1574: 1573: 1558:Galileo affair 1556:Main article: 1553: 1550: 1525:developed his 1518: 1515: 1451: 1448: 1444:Galileo's ship 1414:Giordano Bruno 1410: 1409:Giordano Bruno 1407: 1337:Main article: 1334: 1331: 1289: 1282: 1242: 1239: 1234:Main article: 1231: 1228: 1130:Main article: 1127: 1124: 979:Commentariolus 890: 887: 879: 876: 863:Tantrasamgraha 837: 836:Medieval India 834: 743:Ibn al-Haytham 688: 685: 634: 631: 608:Roman Carthage 603: 602:Late antiquity 600: 596:center of mass 552:Main article: 549: 546: 508: 461: 409: 341: 338: 274: 271: 263: 260: 229:spinning Earth 190:Pythagoreanism 175:daily rotation 166: 163: 124:Giordano Bruno 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7934: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7910: 7909: 7907: 7900: 7895: 7885: 7883: 7873: 7871: 7861: 7859: 7854: 7849: 7847: 7837: 7836: 7833: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7806: 7804: 7800: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7785: 7783: 7779: 7773: 7770: 7768: 7765: 7763: 7760: 7758: 7755: 7753: 7750: 7748: 7747:Metonic cycle 7745: 7743: 7740: 7738: 7735: 7733: 7732:Heliocentrism 7730: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7718: 7715: 7713: 7712:Counter-Earth 7710: 7708: 7705: 7703: 7700: 7698: 7695: 7694: 7692: 7688: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7664: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7644: 7643: 7641: 7637: 7631: 7627: 7623: 7621: 7619:(Aristarchus) 7617: 7613: 7611: 7607: 7603: 7601: 7597: 7593: 7591: 7587: 7583: 7582: 7580: 7576: 7570: 7567: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7415: 7412: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7395: 7392: 7390: 7387: 7385: 7382: 7380: 7377: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7367: 7366: 7364: 7362: 7358: 7354: 7347: 7342: 7340: 7335: 7333: 7328: 7327: 7324: 7317: 7313: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7291: 7287: 7283: 7279: 7278: 7267: 7266: 7260: 7256: 7250: 7246: 7241: 7231: 7225: 7221: 7220: 7214: 7210: 7204: 7200: 7199: 7193: 7188: 7187: 7180: 7176: 7170: 7166: 7161: 7157: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7119: 7115: 7111: 7107: 7103: 7099: 7095: 7091: 7087: 7083: 7079: 7075: 7070: 7059: 7053: 7049: 7045: 7044: 7039: 7035: 7031: 7025: 7021: 7017: 7013: 7008: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6994:9971-5-0612-2 6990: 6986: 6981: 6977: 6973: 6969: 6965: 6961: 6957: 6953: 6952: 6947: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6931: 6927: 6923: 6919: 6915: 6911: 6907: 6903: 6899: 6895: 6891: 6885: 6881: 6876: 6871: 6865: 6861: 6856: 6852: 6846: 6842: 6838: 6834: 6831: 6827: 6824: 6819: 6813: 6806: 6800: 6796: 6795: 6790: 6786: 6782: 6780:0-691-00659-8 6776: 6772: 6771: 6768: 6763: 6759: 6753: 6749: 6748: 6742: 6738: 6732: 6728: 6723: 6719: 6713: 6709: 6708: 6703: 6699: 6695: 6694: 6688: 6684: 6681: 6675: 6671: 6667: 6663: 6658: 6654: 6648: 6644: 6639: 6635: 6629: 6625: 6621: 6617: 6614: 6608: 6604: 6599: 6596: 6592: 6588: 6584: 6578: 6574: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6555: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6532:88-209-7427-4 6528: 6524: 6519: 6509: 6503: 6499: 6498: 6492: 6489: 6483: 6479: 6478: 6473: 6469: 6458: 6454: 6453: 6448: 6444: 6440: 6434: 6430: 6429: 6424: 6420: 6416: 6412: 6408: 6404: 6400: 6396: 6393:(2): 133–54. 6392: 6388: 6383: 6380: 6376: 6375: 6363: 6357: 6350: 6344: 6329: 6328: 6323: 6316: 6301: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6270: 6263: 6257: 6253: 6252: 6244: 6237: 6231: 6227: 6226: 6218: 6203: 6199: 6193: 6178: 6174: 6168: 6160: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6144: 6140: 6133: 6131: 6122: 6117: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6101: 6094: 6092: 6076: 6072: 6068: 6064: 6060: 6056: 6052: 6045: 6037: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6019: 6015: 6011: 6004: 5996: 5992: 5988: 5982: 5978: 5971: 5955: 5948: 5940: 5936: 5932: 5926: 5922: 5915: 5900: 5896: 5889: 5874: 5870: 5864: 5856: 5852: 5845: 5838: 5823: 5819: 5813: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5784: 5777: 5772: 5763: 5756: 5753: 5748: 5740: 5734: 5727: 5726:Heilbron 2005 5722: 5715: 5714:Heilbron 2005 5710: 5703: 5702:0-268-03483-4 5699: 5695: 5691: 5685: 5678: 5677:Heilbron 1999 5673: 5666: 5662: 5656: 5654: 5647: 5644:, Volume 2A, 5643: 5637: 5630: 5624: 5616: 5614:0-691-02350-6 5610: 5606: 5605: 5600: 5594: 5587: 5581: 5579: 5569: 5562: 5558: 5557:Heilbron 1999 5553: 5546: 5542: 5541:Koestler 1990 5537: 5530: 5526: 5525: 5519: 5517: 5508: 5501: 5499: 5491: 5490:Heilbron 2010 5486: 5484: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5466: 5461: 5454: 5450: 5445: 5438: 5433: 5426: 5421: 5414: 5409: 5402: 5397: 5390: 5389:Sharratt 1994 5385: 5374: 5370: 5365: 5358: 5357:Sharratt 1994 5353: 5346: 5341: 5334: 5333:Langford 1998 5329: 5322: 5318: 5317:Koestler 1990 5313: 5306: 5301: 5299: 5291: 5290: 5285: 5281: 5280:Koestler 1990 5276: 5261: 5257: 5250: 5243: 5239: 5238:Studi e Testi 5233: 5218: 5212: 5208: 5207: 5199: 5192: 5187: 5180: 5175: 5166: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5099: 5095: 5089: 5081: 5077: 5072: 5071: 5062: 5055: 5050: 5043: 5041: 5034: 5027: 5021: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5003:0-88318-863-5 4999: 4995: 4988: 4982: 4978: 4975: 4971: 4970: 4965: 4959: 4952: 4946: 4939: 4933: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4912: 4905: 4900: 4892: 4885: 4877: 4870: 4862: 4856: 4849: 4845: 4840: 4833: 4829: 4823: 4816: 4810: 4804:, p. 51. 4803: 4798: 4790: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4775: 4767: 4760: 4756: 4755:Koestler 1990 4751: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4712: 4705: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4685: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4638: 4630: 4624: 4620: 4613: 4606: 4601: 4594: 4589: 4574: 4568: 4564: 4563: 4555: 4548: 4543: 4534: 4526: 4520: 4512: 4508: 4507: 4502: 4496: 4488: 4482: 4467: 4466: 4461: 4457: 4451: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4431: 4425: 4423: 4417: 4410: 4404: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4383: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4340: 4332: 4326: 4323:. NYU Press. 4322: 4315: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4279: 4271: 4264: 4259: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4233: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4204: 4196: 4180: 4176: 4175: 4170: 4163: 4156: 4150: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4111: 4109: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4085: 4078: 4072: 4068: 4061: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4045:William Stahl 4041: 4033: 4029: 4028: 4019: 4012: 4007: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3977:(5): 58–72 , 3976: 3972: 3965: 3958: 3953: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3926: 3919: 3914: 3906: 3900: 3896: 3895: 3887: 3885: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3838: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3804: 3797: 3796: 3790: 3782: 3776: 3772: 3771: 3766: 3759: 3757: 3749: 3743: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3722: 3715: 3710: 3708: 3706: 3698: 3694: 3688: 3681: 3677: 3671: 3656: 3652: 3645: 3638: 3634: 3629: 3622: 3617: 3609: 3603: 3599: 3592: 3584: 3578: 3574: 3567: 3559: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3538: 3536: 3534: 3525: 3521: 3514: 3499: 3495: 3489: 3482: 3476: 3471: 3464: 3459: 3451: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3436: 3428: 3421: 3415: 3408: 3402: 3395: 3389: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3367: 3363: 3362: 3354: 3347: 3346:Thurston 1993 3342: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3303: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3264: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3248:William Stahl 3244: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3221: 3214: 3208: 3204: 3197: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3181:William Stahl 3177: 3170: 3169:88-07-10349-4 3166: 3162: 3158: 3153: 3146: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3127:Pines, Shlomo 3122: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3081:Bartel, B. L. 3076: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3046: 3039: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3020: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2996: 2989: 2985: 2980: 2973: 2969: 2964: 2962: 2960: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2939: 2932: 2926: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2882:Prickard 1911 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2854: 2845: 2838: 2834: 2828: 2821: 2817: 2812: 2810: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2789: 2781: 2774: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2754: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2712: 2704: 2697: 2691:Wiley, p. 54. 2690: 2684: 2678: 2674: 2671: 2668:Dennis Duke, 2665: 2656: 2648: 2642: 2638: 2637: 2629: 2621: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2606: 2598: 2590: 2584: 2580: 2579: 2571: 2565: 2564: 2559: 2558:Heliocentrism 2554: 2547: 2546: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2520: 2516: 2502: 2498: 2493: 2487: 2480: 2474: 2467: 2463: 2460:According to 2457: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2437: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2421: 2417: 2416:heliocentrick 2413: 2409: 2404: 2398: 2397: 2391: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2377:heliocentrism 2374: 2373:Heliocentrism 2368: 2364: 2349: 2346: 2344: 2341: 2340: 2334: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2269: 2265: 2259: 2257: 2253: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2226: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2195: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2176: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2165:Immanuel Kant 2162: 2161:Thomas Wright 2156: 2152: 2142: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2127: 2125: 2119: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2096: 2082: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2063: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2044: 2042: 2038: 2033: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2014: 2012: 2008: 2004: 1994: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1963:Léon Foucault 1960: 1957:, in 1838 by 1956: 1955:James Bradley 1951: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1922:or Galileo's 1921: 1917: 1913: 1912:Pope Leo XIII 1909: 1905: 1904:Roman College 1901: 1900: 1894: 1886: 1885:Joseph Wright 1882: 1881: 1876: 1872: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1861: 1854: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1843: 1838: 1833: 1831: 1827: 1826: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1796: 1791: 1790: 1785: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1765:Age of Reason 1762: 1760: 1756: 1754: 1749: 1744: 1742: 1736: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1721: 1720: 1715: 1711: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1689: 1684: 1680: 1677: 1672: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1654:In his 1615 " 1652: 1650: 1646: 1645: 1640: 1639: 1634: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1590: 1581: 1569: 1564: 1559: 1549: 1547: 1543: 1542: 1536: 1534: 1533: 1528: 1524: 1514: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1498: 1496: 1491: 1489: 1485: 1484:Gaspar Schopp 1481: 1477: 1468: 1463: 1459: 1457: 1456:Tower of Nona 1447: 1445: 1441: 1436: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1417: 1415: 1406: 1404: 1399: 1395: 1390: 1388: 1383: 1378: 1373: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1345: 1340: 1330: 1328: 1325: 1320: 1318: 1314: 1309: 1305: 1304:Pope Paul III 1300: 1299: 1294: 1287: 1281: 1279: 1273: 1269: 1267: 1266:Martin Luther 1262: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1237: 1227: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1192: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1165: 1160: 1156: 1155: 1150: 1143: 1138: 1133: 1123: 1121: 1120:Regiomontanus 1117: 1113: 1108: 1106: 1105:Nicole Oresme 1102: 1098: 1097: 1091: 1086: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1073:(Ibn Rushd), 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1055: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 996: 992: 987: 985: 984:Ibn al-Shatir 981: 980: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 950: 948: 944: 940: 939:machina mundi 935: 934: 929: 925: 924:Nicole Oresme 920: 918: 914: 910: 906: 899: 895: 885: 875: 873: 869: 865: 864: 859: 855: 851: 847: 843: 833: 832:(1403–1474). 831: 827: 823: 819: 814: 812: 808: 804: 800: 796: 792: 787: 785: 780: 778: 774: 773:Masudic Canon 766: 762: 757: 753: 751: 744: 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 719: 713: 708: 705:accepted the 704: 698: 694: 684: 682: 678: 674: 670: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 650: 645: 640: 633:Ancient India 630: 628: 624: 620: 616: 613: 609: 599: 597: 593: 588: 586: 582: 578: 577:trigonometric 574: 570: 566: 561: 555: 545: 543: 539: 535: 531: 527: 517: 513: 507: 505: 498: 496: 491: 489: 485: 481: 480: 470: 466: 460: 458: 452: 450: 446: 442: 437: 435: 431: 427: 418: 414: 408: 406: 402: 395: 393: 389: 388: 383: 378: 376: 372: 358: 350: 346: 337: 335: 334:ancient Egypt 331: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 280: 269: 259: 257: 252: 250: 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 216: 212: 210: 209: 204: 201:described in 200: 195: 191: 186: 184: 180: 176: 172: 162: 160: 156: 152: 148: 143: 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 109: 105: 100: 98: 93: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 69: 65: 61: 58: 54: 50: 49:Heliocentrism 44: 40: 36: 30: 26: 22: 7922:Solar System 7899: 7894:Solar System 7731: 7625: 7615: 7609:(Hipparchus) 7605: 7596:Catasterismi 7595: 7585: 7444:Eratosthenes 7296:November 27, 7294:. Retrieved 7290:the original 7285: 7264: 7244: 7233:, retrieved 7218: 7197: 7185: 7164: 7145: 7137: 7105: 7101: 7098:Sabra, A. I. 7073: 7061:. Retrieved 7042: 7038:Russo, Lucio 7011: 6984: 6967: 6950: 6937: 6905: 6901: 6898:Neher, André 6879: 6859: 6840: 6829: 6792: 6770: 6767: 6746: 6726: 6706: 6691: 6661: 6642: 6623: 6605:, Springer, 6602: 6586: 6577:the original 6558: 6553: 6522: 6511:, retrieved 6496: 6476: 6461:, retrieved 6451: 6427: 6390: 6386: 6378: 6356: 6348: 6343: 6331:. Retrieved 6325: 6315: 6303:. Retrieved 6286:(1): 65–83. 6283: 6279: 6269: 6250: 6243: 6224: 6217: 6205:. Retrieved 6201: 6192: 6180:. Retrieved 6176: 6167: 6145:(1): 65–83. 6142: 6138: 6103: 6099: 6078:. Retrieved 6061:(1): 65–83. 6058: 6054: 6044: 6017: 6013: 6003: 5976: 5970: 5958:. Retrieved 5947: 5920: 5914: 5902:. Retrieved 5898: 5888: 5876:. Retrieved 5872: 5863: 5854: 5850: 5837: 5825:. 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5156:January 19, 5078:. pp. 5044:, pp. 1, 24 4578:October 31, 4409:PDF version 4127:(1): 1–20. 4011:Joseph 2000 3918:Joseph 2000 3748:PDF version 3714:Saliba 1999 3463:Joseph 2000 3319:(1): 1–20. 3280:(1): 1–20. 3157:Lucio Russo 2984:Dreyer 1953 2898:Lucio Russo 2874:Dreyer 1953 2858:Heath (1913 2816:Heath (1913 2534:, pp. 2532:Linton 2004 2526:, pp. 2524:Dreyer 1953 2499:theologian 2462:Lucio Russo 2287:declination 2219:dark matter 2215:dark energy 2182:'s work on 2124:methodology 2122:Herschel's 2048:Hatam sofer 2041:Tobias Cohn 2037:David Nieto 1641:(1610) and 1433:Tycho Brahe 1366:Tycho Brahe 1327:John Calvin 1278:Melanchthon 1175:: it was a 995:Tusi couple 962:Tusi couple 858:Tycho Brahe 850:Aryabhatiya 813:(d. 1274). 681:Bhaskara II 677:Brahmagupta 649:Aryabhatiya 565:Hellenistic 283:Pythagorean 249:necessarily 130:introduced 112:Renaissance 76:geocentrism 7906:Categories 7802:Influenced 7781:Influences 7752:Octaeteris 7681:Triquetrum 7569:Timocharis 7554:Theodosius 7514:Posidonius 7474:Hipparchus 7464:Heraclides 7404:Aristyllus 7389:Apollonius 7384:Andronicus 7286:Scienceray 6305:August 26, 6080:August 26, 5878:August 14, 5827:August 14, 5776:Neher 1977 5559:, p. 5543:, p. 5451:, p. 5345:Drake 1978 5319:, p. 5305:Smith 1952 5282:, p. 5118:1504.01604 4925:Rosen 1995 4904:Rosen 1995 4846:, p. 4828:Koyré 1973 4757:, p. 4547:Goddu 2010 4352:(6): 424. 4263:Sabra 1998 4101:: 367–394. 4051:, vol. 2, 4047:, trans., 4034:: 784–790. 3938:: 11–31 . 3621:Qadir 1989 3526:(67): 762. 3475:Sabra 1998 3254:, vol. 2, 3250:, trans., 3237:: 367–394. 3187:, vol. 2, 3183:, trans., 2986:, p. 2970:, p. 2968:Heath 1913 2912:, p. 2910:Russo 2013 2884:, p. 2876:, p. 2868:, p. 2860:, p. 2818:, p. 2724:(4): 233, 2687:Boyer, C. 2540:Archimedes 2466:Hipparchus 2451:(c. 1870). 2399:"Sun" and 2354:References 2307:artificial 2264:geocentric 2247:elliptical 2223:Lambda-CDM 2139:luminosity 2108:telescopes 2018:David Gans 1971:arcseconds 1883:(1766) by 1839:published 1615:Copernicus 1476:Bellarmine 1317:Dominicans 966:Copernicus 958:Urdi lemma 882:See also: 840:In India, 805:(d. 1266) 712:al-Battani 691:See also: 637:See also: 587:(b. 865). 581:Hipparchus 441:common era 430:telescopes 382:Archimedes 365: 270 266:See also: 169:While the 155:barycenter 57:superseded 7846:Astronomy 7656:Astrolabe 7589:(Ptolemy) 7509:Philolaus 7499:Oenopides 7484:Hypsicles 7429:Cleomedes 7424:Callippus 7414:Autolycus 7369:Aglaonice 7122:117426616 7003:841809663 6791:(1990) . 6474:(1953) , 6449:(1972) , 6415:118330488 6177:Astro 801 6036:186213203 5995:808316428 5939:808316428 5904:August 8, 5661:Principia 5646:at p. 233 5143:118420438 4742:144526697 4676:118453340 4366:0003-049X 4307:143569912 4224:143592051 4141:0003-9519 3999:118434268 3991:0973-712X 3971:Resonance 3876:142586786 3830:145372613 3676:Al-Abhath 3380:650305544 3333:0003-9519 3294:0003-9519 3113:222087224 3014:CiteSeerX 2902:Cleanthes 2746:118643709 2511:Citations 2420:Neo-Latin 2359:Footnotes 2199:expanding 2112:Milky Way 1893:Principia 1860:meridiane 1835:In 1687, 1789:The World 1746:In 1664, 1741:Simplicio 1660:Augustine 1313:heretical 1264:In 1539, 1259:cardinals 1224:Ecphantus 1220:Philolaus 1206:and that 1185:epicycles 974:epicycles 913:Macrobius 860:. In the 807:Al-Katibi 761:al-Biruni 748:Al-Shukūk 739:firmament 735:al-zūraqī 731:astrolabe 727:al-Biruni 644:Aryabhata 627:Macrobius 573:geometric 457:Cleanthes 417:Arenarius 330:Egyptians 326:Macrobius 287:Philolaus 140:telescope 108:presented 88:Philolaus 7757:Solstice 7690:Concepts 7586:Almagest 7529:Seleucus 7489:Menelaus 7449:Euctemon 7132:(1999). 7090:20547344 7063:June 13, 7040:(2013). 6962:(1957), 6960:Plutarch 6948:(1911), 6946:Plutarch 6932:(1883), 6930:Plutarch 6839:(1973). 6828:(1957). 6704:(1999). 6689:(1913). 6622:(2004). 6587:Le Opere 6563:Florence 6541:52897897 6513:July 16, 6463:July 16, 6425:(1978). 6333:July 15, 5601:(1960). 5468:Archived 5012:24247242 4977:Archived 4718:De spera 4692:(1975), 4503:(1914). 4471:March 1, 4093:I, 10", 3229:I, 10", 3129:(1986), 3004:: 3998, 2761:(1975), 2673:Archived 2497:Lutheran 2337:See also 2305:(either 2291:velocity 2203:Big Bang 1975:61 Cygni 1967:parallax 1944:Dialogue 1932:Pius VII 1924:Dialogue 1865:sundials 1804:vortices 1691:— 1688:writing. 1609:and not 1597:In 1610 1308:Osiander 1208:Plutarch 1177:parallax 1164:Almagest 1071:Averroes 960:and the 818:Averroes 795:Ilkhanid 718:al-Sijzi 669:eclipses 560:Plutarch 509:— 504:Seleucus 462:— 445:Plutarch 426:parallax 410:— 279:universe 225:Almagest 208:Almagest 72:universe 7832:Portals 7661:Dioptra 7524:Pytheas 7519:Ptolemy 7469:Hicetas 7459:Geminus 7454:Eudoxus 7409:Attalus 7374:Agrippa 7316:YouTube 7016:Bibcode 6922:2708908 6750:. OUP. 6747:Galileo 6666:Bibcode 6395:Bibcode 6288:Bibcode 6207:June 6, 6182:June 5, 6147:Bibcode 6108:Bibcode 6063:Bibcode 5801:ratseta 5373:297–298 5222:May 11, 5181:, ch. 7 5123:Bibcode 5080:310–311 4656:Bibcode 4354:Bibcode 4247:Bibcode 3940:Bibcode 3856:Bibcode 3798:, p. 78 3639:(2004). 3093:Bibcode 3006:Bibcode 2837:equator 2797:Bibcode 2726:Bibcode 2560:at the 2528:135–148 2408:kentron 2403:κέντρον 2311:natural 2252:Jupiter 2245:of the 2169:nebulae 2135:density 2054:titled 2052:Genesis 1914:as the 1513:river. 1488:Breslau 1469:, Rome. 1394:Clavius 1358:Ptolemy 1348:Saturn. 1204:Hicetas 1189:pretzel 1159:Ptolemy 1151:in his 1090:Proclus 1004:al-Tusi 972:by two 941:) will 930:in his 811:Al-Tusi 803:Al-Urdi 791:Maragha 745:in his 733:called 419:I, 4–7) 318:Mercury 303:planets 203:Ptolemy 157:of the 110:by the 92:Hicetas 55:) is a 7772:Zodiac 7722:Equant 7671:Gnomon 7549:Thales 7544:Strabo 7394:Aratus 7251: 7226: 7205: 7171: 7152: 7120: 7088: 7054: 7026: 7001: 6991: 6920: 6886: 6866: 6847: 6801: 6777: 6754: 6733: 6714: 6676: 6649: 6630: 6609: 6593:, and 6569: 6539: 6529: 6504: 6484: 6435: 6413: 6258: 6232: 6034: 5993: 5983: 5937: 5927: 5857:: 142. 5700: 5611: 5531:(1632) 5213: 5141: 5010: 5000: 4785: 4740: 4700: 4674: 4625: 4569: 4399: 4374:986461 4372: 4364: 4327: 4305: 4299:228366 4297: 4222: 4139: 4073: 3997: 3989: 3901: 3874: 3848:Osiris 3828: 3777: 3738: 3697:UNESCO 3604: 3579: 3554: 3446: 3378: 3368: 3331: 3292: 3209: 3167: 3141: 3111: 3034: 3016: 2769: 2744: 2643: 2616: 2585: 2479:Icones 2396:Helios 2217:, and 2209:, the 2137:, and 2075:Chabad 2022:Hebrew 2003:Talmud 1777:, and 1382:aether 1288:(1543) 1222:, and 1200:Cicero 1144:(1578) 1096:Euclid 1081:, and 970:equant 830:Qushji 828:under 679:, and 610:, the 585:Rhazes 558:Since 526:Aëtius 486:lists 134:, and 7858:Stars 7578:Works 7494:Meton 7439:Conon 7118:S2CID 7086:JSTOR 6918:JSTOR 6693:notes 6557:[ 6411:S2CID 6032:S2CID 5847:(PDF) 5797:eretz 5150:(PDF) 5139:S2CID 5113:arXiv 5101:(PDF) 4738:S2CID 4672:S2CID 4370:JSTOR 4303:S2CID 4295:JSTOR 4220:S2CID 3995:S2CID 3872:S2CID 3826:S2CID 3109:S2CID 2945:, p. 2742:S2CID 2390:ἥλιος 2385:Greek 2243:focus 2030:Padua 1948:Index 1611:Earth 1511:Tiber 1362:Earth 943:quasi 666:lunar 662:solar 658:Lalla 612:pagan 592:tides 434:1830s 322:Venus 291:Earth 233:model 64:Earth 7419:Bion 7298:2018 7249:ISBN 7237:2009 7224:ISBN 7203:ISBN 7169:ISBN 7150:ISBN 7065:2017 7052:ISBN 7024:ISBN 6999:OCLC 6989:ISBN 6884:ISBN 6864:ISBN 6845:ISBN 6799:ISBN 6775:ISBN 6752:ISBN 6731:ISBN 6712:ISBN 6674:ISBN 6647:ISBN 6628:ISBN 6607:ISBN 6595:here 6567:ISBN 6537:OCLC 6527:ISBN 6515:2018 6502:ISBN 6482:ISBN 6465:2018 6433:ISBN 6391:xxvi 6360:See 6335:2024 6307:2020 6256:ISBN 6230:ISBN 6209:2018 6202:WHYY 6184:2018 6082:2020 5991:OCLC 5981:ISBN 5962:2012 5935:OCLC 5925:ISBN 5906:2017 5880:2017 5829:2017 5698:ISBN 5609:ISBN 5267:2019 5224:2017 5211:ISBN 5158:2016 5008:OCLC 4998:ISBN 4783:ISBN 4722:Isis 4698:ISBN 4623:ISBN 4580:2020 4567:ISBN 4473:2008 4397:ISBN 4362:ISSN 4325:ISBN 4278:Isis 4203:Isis 4187:2018 4137:ISSN 4071:ISBN 3987:ISSN 3899:ISBN 3775:ISBN 3736:ISBN 3662:2018 3602:ISBN 3577:ISBN 3552:ISBN 3505:2018 3444:ISBN 3420:Isis 3376:OCLC 3366:ISBN 3329:ISSN 3290:ISSN 3207:ISBN 3165:ISBN 3139:ISBN 3067:2018 3032:ISBN 2835:and 2767:ISBN 2641:ISBN 2614:ISBN 2583:ISBN 2536:38f. 2436:-ism 2303:body 2285:and 2266:and 2186:and 2163:and 2153:and 2116:disk 2069:and 2039:and 1989:and 1987:Vega 1981:and 1759:P.M. 1423:and 1398:Mars 1173:real 789:The 695:and 664:and 320:and 301:and 299:Moon 177:and 90:and 23:and 7314:on 7110:doi 7078:doi 6910:doi 6403:doi 6296:doi 6155:doi 6116:doi 6071:doi 6022:doi 5561:203 5545:491 5453:320 5321:433 5289:sic 5284:338 5131:doi 4966:in 4919:in 4759:212 4730:doi 4664:doi 4511:390 4444:ADS 4350:117 4287:doi 4243:128 4212:doi 4129:doi 4099:126 3979:doi 3864:doi 3818:doi 3548:413 3524:108 3440:111 3321:doi 3282:doi 3235:126 3101:doi 3089:500 3024:doi 2988:139 2972:305 2951:455 2931:281 2906:Sun 2878:138 2870:240 2862:304 2820:302 2734:doi 2492:not 2447:or 2375:or 2309:or 2073:of 1806:in 1617:'s 1607:Sun 1486:of 1191:". 1114:'s 1103:of 1092:'s 856:by 367:BC) 295:Sun 205:'s 68:Sun 7908:: 7284:. 7136:. 7116:. 7104:. 7084:. 7050:. 7022:. 6997:. 6970:, 6916:. 6906:38 6904:. 6672:, 6535:. 6409:. 6401:. 6389:. 6324:. 6294:. 6284:17 6282:. 6278:. 6200:. 6175:. 6153:. 6143:17 6141:. 6129:^ 6114:, 6104:77 6102:, 6090:^ 6069:. 6059:17 6057:. 6053:. 6030:. 6018:75 6016:. 6012:. 5989:. 5933:. 5897:. 5871:. 5855:15 5853:. 5849:. 5820:. 5667:). 5652:^ 5577:^ 5515:^ 5497:^ 5482:^ 5474:; 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