732:
20:
925:
244:
916:
184:
But
Aristarchus has brought out a book consisting of certain hypotheses, wherein it appears, as a consequence of the assumptions made, that the universe is many times greater than the 'universe' just mentioned. His hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, that the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle, the Sun lying in the middle of the Floor, and that the sphere of the fixed
783:
1028:
302:—by which the rotational axis was offset and not completely at the center. The planets were also made to have exhibit irregular motions that deviated from a uniform and circular path. The eccentrics of the planets motions were analyzed to have made reverse motions over periods of observations. This retrograde motion created the foundation for why these particular pathways became known as epicycles.
309:—a point about which the center of a planet's epicycle moved with uniform angular velocity, but which was offset from the center of its deferent. This violated one of the fundamental principles of Aristotelian cosmology—namely, that the motions of the planets should be explained in terms of uniform circular motion, and was considered a serious defect by many medieval astronomers.
487:). By 1470, the accuracy of observations by the Vienna school of astronomy, of which Peuerbach and Regiomontanus were members, was high enough to make the eventual development of heliocentrism inevitable, and indeed it is possible that Regiomontanus did arrive at an explicit theory of heliocentrism before his death in 1476, some 30 years before Copernicus.
696:, explaining his ostensible motive in writing the book as relating to the inability of earlier astronomers to agree on an adequate theory of the planets, and noting that if his system increased the accuracy of astronomical predictions it would allow the Church to develop a more accurate calendar. At that time, a reform of the
617:
was found in an earlier work by al-Shatir. Al-Shatir's lunar and
Mercury models are also identical to those of Copernicus. This has led some scholars to argue that Copernicus must have had access to some yet to be identified work on the ideas of those earlier astronomers. However, no likely candidate
972:
From a modern point of view, the
Copernican model has a number of advantages. Copernicus gave a clear account of the cause of the seasons: that the Earth's axis is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit. In addition, Copernicus's theory provided a strikingly simple explanation for the apparent
773:
that moved naturally. So Tycho said that the
Copernican system “... expertly and completely circumvents all that is superfluous or discordant in the system of Ptolemy. On no point does it offend the principle of mathematics. Yet it ascribes to the Earth, that hulking, lazy body, unfit for motion, a
759:
For his contemporaries, the ideas presented by
Copernicus were not markedly easier to use than the geocentric theory and did not produce more accurate predictions of planetary positions. Copernicus was aware of this and could not present any observational "proof", relying instead on arguments about
517:
revolving around the fixed Sun once a year and turning on its axis once a day. But while
Copernicus put the Sun at the center of the celestial spheres, he did not put it at the exact center of the universe, but near it. Copernicus' system used only uniform circular motions, correcting what was seen
358:
based on a belief held by some of his contemporaries "that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky". That others besides al-Sijzi held this view is further confirmed by a reference from an Arabic work in the 13th century which states: "According to the geometers
763:
Tycho Brahe's arguments against
Copernicus are illustrative of the physical, theological, and even astronomical grounds on which heliocentric cosmology was rejected. Tycho, arguably the most accomplished astronomer of his time, appreciated the elegance of the Copernican system, but objected to the
472:, who was in turn the teacher of Copernicus. There is a possibility that Regiomontanus already arrived at a theory of heliocentrism before his death in 1476, as he paid particular attention to the heliocentric theory of Aristarchus in a late work and mentions the "motion of the Earth" in a letter.
370:
proposed a complete alternative to the
Ptolemaic system (although not heliocentric). He declared the Ptolemaic system as an imaginary model, successful at predicting planetary positions but not real or physical. Al-Btiruji's alternative system spread through most of Europe during the 13th century.
183:
You are aware the 'universe' is the name given by most astronomers to the sphere the center of which is the center of the Earth, while its radius is equal to the straight line between the center of the Sun and the center of the Earth. This is the common account as you have heard from astronomers.
278:
drew on many previous theories that viewed Earth as a stationary center of the universe. Stars were embedded in a large outer sphere which rotated relatively rapidly, while the planets dwelt in smaller spheres between—a separate one for each planet. To account for apparent anomalies in this view,
1015:
argued that
Copernicus only transferred "some properties to the Sun's many astronomical functions previously attributed to the earth." Historians have since argued that Kuhn underestimated what was "revolutionary" about Copernicus' work, and emphasized the difficulty Copernicus would have had in
525:
circles with more epicycles. 1,500 years of
Ptolemy's model help create a more accurate estimate of the planets motions for Copernicus. This is the main reason that Copernicus' system had even more epicycles than Ptolemy's. The more epicycles proved to have more accurate measurements of how the
586:
revolve around a central Sun. Copernicus cited Aristarchus and Philolaus in an early manuscript of his book which survives, stating: "Philolaus believed in the mobility of the earth, and some even say that Aristarchus of Samos was of that opinion". For unknown reasons (although possibly out of
746:
From publication until about 1700, few astronomers were convinced by the Copernican system, though the work was relatively widely circulated (around 500 copies of the first and second editions have survived, which is a large number by the scientific standards of the time). Few of Copernicus'
229:, amended an accusative (identifying the object of the verb) with a nominative (the subject of the sentence), and vice versa, so that the impiety accusation fell over the heliocentric sustainer. The resulting misconception of an isolated and persecuted Aristarchus is still transmitted today.
883:(evidence that the Solar System contained bodies that did not orbit Earth), the phases of Venus (more observational evidence not properly explained by the Ptolemaic theory) and the rotation of the Sun about a fixed axis as indicated by the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots;
755:
went so far as to construct a cosmology precisely equivalent to that of Copernicus, but with the Earth held fixed in the center of the celestial sphere instead of the Sun. It was another generation before a community of practicing astronomers appeared who accepted heliocentric cosmology.
618:
for this conjectured work has come to light, and other scholars have argued that Copernicus could well have developed these ideas independently of the late Islamic tradition. Nevertheless, Copernicus cited some of the Islamic astronomers whose theories and observations he used in
981:'s conviction that the theory was substantially correct. In the heliocentric model the planets' apparent retrograde motions' occurring at opposition to the Sun are a natural consequence of their heliocentric orbits. In the geocentric model, however, these are explained by the
768:
of the time (modern Newtonian physics was still a century away) offered no physical explanation for the motion of a massive body like Earth, but could easily explain the motion of heavenly bodies by postulating that they were made of a different sort of substance called
1599:"Averroes' criticism of Ptolemaic astronomy precipitated this debate in Europe. The recovery of Ptolemy's texts and their translation from Greek into Latin in the middle of the fifteenth century stimulated further consideration of these issues." Osler (2010), p. 42
642:. It has been suggested that the idea of the Tusi couple may have arrived in Europe leaving few manuscript traces, since it could have occurred without the translation of any Arabic text into Latin. One possible route of transmission may have been through
668:. This cleric stated that Copernicus wrote his heliocentric account of the Earth's movement as a mathematical hypothesis, not as an account that contained truth or even probability. Since Copernicus' hypothesis was believed to contradict the
676:
10:12-13), this was apparently written to soften any religious backlash against the book. However, there is no evidence that Copernicus himself considered the heliocentric model as merely mathematically convenient, separate from reality.
2943:
2250:
Fixed, that is, in the Copernican system. In a geostatic system the apparent annual variation in the motion of sunspots could only be explained as the result of an implausibly complicated precession of the Sun's axis of rotation
188:, situated about the same center as the Sun, is so great that the circle in which he supposes the Earth to revolve bears such a proportion to the distance of the fixed stars as the center of the sphere bears to its surface.
532:
that he handed only to friends, probably in the 1510s. The "little commentary" was never printed. Its existence was only known indirectly until a copy was discovered in Stockholm around 1880, and another in
467:
in 1454, but not printed until 1472. Peuerbach attempts to give a new, mathematically more elegant presentation of Ptolemy's system, but he does not arrive at heliocentrism. Regiomontanus was the teacher of
509:), was a compendium of six books published during the year of his death, though he had arrived at his theory several decades earlier. The work marks the beginning of the shift away from a geocentric (and
2624:
591:
290:
A complementary theory to Ptolemy's employed homocentric spheres: the spheres within which the planets rotated could themselves rotate somewhat. This theory predated Ptolemy (it was first devised by
89:
Although he had circulated an outline of his own heliocentric theory to colleagues sometime before 1514, he did not decide to publish it until he was urged to do so later by his pupil
287:
was used. The planet was said to revolve in a small circle (the epicycle) about a center, which itself revolved in a larger circle (the deferent) about a center on or near the Earth.
93:. Copernicus's challenge was to present a practical alternative to the Ptolemaic model by more elegantly and accurately determining the length of a solar year while preserving the
526:
planets were truly positioned, "although not enough to get excited about". The Copernican system can be summarized in several propositions, as Copernicus himself did in his early
221:) as a worshiper of the Sun and opponent to the heliocentric model, was jokingly told by Aristarchus that he should be charged with impiety. Ménage, shortly after the trials of
872:
along with the claim all planets had elliptical orbits and non-uniform motion, stating "And finally... the sun itself... will melt all this Ptolemaic apparatus like butter".
774:
motion as quick as that of the aethereal torches, and a triple motion at that.” Thus many astronomers accepted some aspects of Copernicus's theory at the expense of others.
847:, for leading astronomers such as Erasmus Reinhold, the key attraction of Copernicus's ideas was that they reinstated the idea of uniform circular motion for the planets.
710:
The second is mainly theoretical, presenting the principles of spherical astronomy and a list of stars (as a basis for the arguments developed in the subsequent books).
425:(especially the works of al-Urdi, al-Tusi and al-Shatir). It has been argued that Copernicus could have independently discovered the Tusi couple or took the idea from
394:(5th century CE) expressed the opinion that the planets Venus and Mercury did not go about the Earth but instead circled the Sun. Capella's model was discussed in the
1011:
attempted to deconstruct the Copernican "revolution" by portraying Copernicus as a coward who was reluctant to publish his work due to a crippling fear of ridicule.
97:
implications of a mathematically ordered cosmos. Thus, his heliocentric model retained several of the Ptolemaic elements, causing inaccuracies, such as the planets'
444:, who described how a reciprocating linear motion of a celestial body could be produced by a combination of circular motions similar to those proposed by al-Tusi.
325:
about its axis, which he explains as the cause of what appears to be an apparent westward motion of the stars. He also believed that the orbits of planets are
363:), the earth is in constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the earth and not the stars".
2448:
556:
Retrograde motion of the planets is explained by the Earth's motion, which in short was also influenced by planets and other celestial bodies around Earth.
417:
in 1957 argued that the debate in 15th-century Latin scholarship must also have been informed by the criticism of Ptolemy produced after Averroes, by the
1227:
Aryabhata... believed that the apparent rotation of the heavens was due to the axial rotation of the Earth... that the orbits of the planets are ellipses
1137:
1930:
Swerdlow, Noel M. (1973-12-31). "The Derivation and First Draft of Copernicus's Planetary Theory: A Translation of the Commentariolus with Commentary".
1218:
613:
in the same planetary models as found in Arabic sources. Furthermore, the exact replacement of the equant by two epicycles used by Copernicus in the
2949:
270:
it was spoken of as the authoritative text on astronomy, although its author remained a little understood figure frequently mistaken as one of the
2603:
Cultural foundations of mathematics: the nature of mathematical proof and the transmission of the calculus from India to Europe in the 16th c. CE
409:
Since the 13th century, European scholars were well aware of problems with Ptolemaic astronomy. The debate was precipitated by the reception by
664:
When Copernicus' compendium was published, it contained an unauthorized, anonymous preface by a friend of Copernicus, the Lutheran theologian
2809:
350:
questioned the Earth's apparent immobility and centrality within the universe. Some accepted that the Earth rotates around its axis, such as
760:
what would be a more complete and elegant system. The Copernican model appeared to be contrary to common sense and to contradict the Bible.
333:, where his principles of the diurnal rotation of Earth, among others, were followed and a number of secondary works were based on them.
383:
for geocentric models of planetary motions closely resemble some of the techniques used later by Copernicus in his heliocentric models.
251:
The prevailing astronomical model of the cosmos in Europe in the 1,400 years leading up to the 16th century was the Ptolemaic System, a
165:
theories (speaking of a "revolution of the Earth on its axis" every 24 hours). Though his original text has been lost, a reference in
894:
843:, who adopted, championed and (especially in Kepler's case) sought to improve it. However, in the years following publication of
347:
202:
It is a common misconception that the heliocentric view was rejected by the contemporaries of Aristarchus. This is the result of
2978:
2968:
2958:
2341:
di Bono, Mario (1995). "Copernicus, Amico, Fracastoro and Ṭūsï's Device: Observations on the Use and Transmission of a Model".
1016:
putting forward a new astronomical theory relying alone on simplicity in geometry, given that he had no experimental evidence.
413:
of Ptolemy, and it was again revived by the recovery of Ptolemy's text and its translation into Latin in the mid-15th century.
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2766:
2610:
2582:
2563:
2539:
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2412:
2235:
1986:
1790:
1711:
1562:
1466:
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827:
497:
28:
1774:
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1914:
1835:
1505:
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1412:
1254:
835:. While not warmly received by his contemporaries, his model did have a large influence on later scientists such as
587:
reluctance to quote pre-Christian sources), Copernicus did not include this passage in the publication of his book.
2553:
2529:
1306:
1003:
747:
contemporaries were ready to concede that the Earth actually moved. Even forty-five years after the publication of
469:
2782:
1577:
Eastwood, Bruce S. (1982), "Kepler as Historian of Science: Precursors of Copernican Heliocentrism according to
3031:
2868:
707:
The first is a general vision of the heliocentric theory, and a summarized exposition of his idea of the World.
436:, which Copernicus cited. Another possible source for Copernicus' knowledge of this mathematical device is the
2463:
850:
During the 17th century, several further discoveries eventually led to the wider acceptance of heliocentrism:
3021:
866:
at one focus and its speed varied with its distance to the Sun. This discovery was detailed in his 1609 book
550:
Around the Sun, in order, are Mercury, Venus, the Earth and Moon, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the fixed stars.
1653:
132:
3026:
2795:
1222:
398:
by various anonymous 9th-century commentators and Copernicus mentions him as an influence on his own work.
1080:
997:
Whether Copernicus' propositions were "revolutionary" or "conservative" has been a topic of debate in the
697:
3000:
1181:"The first Copernican was Copernicus: the difference between Pre-Copernican and Copernican heliocentrism"
689:
2898:
1276:
770:
372:
299:
280:
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998:
681:
371:
Mathematical techniques developed in the 13th to 14th centuries by the Arab and Persian astronomers
118:
The distance from the Earth to the Sun is small compared to the distance from the Sun to the stars.
1352:
731:
700:
was considered necessary and was one of the major reasons for the Church's interest in astronomy.
563:
Inspiration came to Copernicus not from observation of the planets, but from reading two authors,
2098:
736:
544:
Heavenly motions are uniform, eternal, and circular or compounded of several circles (epicycles).
1784:
2875:
2113:
553:
The Earth has three motions: daily rotation, annual revolution, and annual tilting of its axis.
112:
The Earth has three motions: daily rotation, annual revolution, and annual tilting of its axis.
2279:
2275:
2040:
2015:
2011:
941:, despite remaining near the Sun in Earth's sky (first image). This proved that it orbits the
2921:
2882:
2837:
2287:
977:
displacements resulting from the Earth's motion around the Sun—an important consideration in
798:
367:
284:
102:
1353:"Fakhr Al-Din Al-Razi on Physics and the Nature of the Physical World: A Preliminary Survey"
654:. Several Byzantine Greek manuscripts containing the Tusi-couple are still extant in Italy.
109:
The Earth is one of several planets revolving around a stationary sun in a determined order.
2963:
2938:
2696:
2638:
2350:
1994:
1974:
1939:
1871:
1665:
1532:
1318:
1092:
Lucio Russo, Silvio M. Medaglia, Sulla presunta accusa di empietà ad Aristarco di Samo, in
1041:
765:
432:
422:
403:
376:
321:, influenced by Greek astronomy, propounded a planetary model that explicitly incorporated
179:) describes a work in which Aristarchus advanced the heliocentric model. Archimedes wrote:
154:
713:
The third is mainly dedicated to the apparent motions of the Sun and to related phenomena.
8:
2818:
2118:
1247:
Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures
722:
The sixth is further concrete exposition of the new system, including planetary latitude.
575:
476:
460:
322:
162:
86:
that had prevailed for centuries, which had placed Earth at the center of the Universe.
48:
44:
2700:
2642:
2354:
2063:
Light from the East: How the Science of Medieval Islam Helped to Shape the Western World
1943:
1875:
1669:
1322:
2712:
2549:
2380:
2366:
1955:
1887:
1747:
1699:
1681:
1634:
1626:
1334:
1288:
954:
898:
814:
688:, urging Copernicus to publish his theory. Then, in a lengthy introduction, Copernicus
647:
414:
1491:
590:
559:
The distance from the Earth to the Sun is small compared to the distance to the stars.
455:(1436–1476). The state of the question as received by Copernicus is summarized in the
2762:
2716:
2664:
2606:
2578:
2559:
2535:
2511:
2487:
2430:
2408:
2402:
2387:
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2231:
2199:
2066:
1982:
1947:
1910:
1891:
1831:
1751:
1707:
1685:
1638:
1558:
1501:
1474:
1462:
1454:
1433:
1408:
1338:
1292:
1250:
1200:
786:
680:
Copernicus' actual compendium began with a letter from his (by then deceased) friend
643:
395:
391:
291:
271:
194:
171:
19:
719:
The fifth is a concrete exposition of the new system, including planetary longitude.
447:
In Copernicus' day, the most up-to-date version of the Ptolemaic system was that of
2933:
2904:
2704:
2646:
2555:
The Copernican Revolution—Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought
2358:
1879:
1739:
1673:
1618:
1609:
Saliba, George (1979). "The First Non-Ptolemaic Astronomy at the Maraghah School".
1326:
1280:
1192:
1033:
958:
880:
806:
665:
627:
513:) universe with the Earth at its center. Copernicus held that the Earth is another
510:
475:
The state of knowledge on planetary theory received by Copernicus is summarized in
275:
252:
238:
79:
1555:
Ordering the Heavens: Roman Astronomy and Cosmology in the Carolingian Renaissance
203:
2525:
2505:
2481:
2321:
1764:
1455:"Biṭrūjī: Nūr al-Dīn Abū Isḥāq [Abū Jaʿfar] Ibrāhīm ibn Yūsuf al-Biṭrūjī"
1008:
978:
938:
934:
868:
840:
567:
and Plutarch. In Cicero's writings, Copernicus found an account of the theory of
222:
157:
proposed what was, so far as is known, the first serious model of a heliocentric
2160:
1907:
A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam
2854:
2756:
2708:
2444:
2422:
2362:
1883:
1677:
1267:
Ragep, F. Jamil (2001a), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context",
1180:
802:
673:
651:
528:
226:
98:
94:
2651:
1706:, vol. 2, Berlin / Heidelberg / New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 1035,
1307:"Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science"
1284:
1196:
421:-era (13th to 14th centuries) Persian school of astronomy associated with the
3015:
2620:
2109:
2094:
1951:
1242:
1204:
924:
887:
764:
idea of a moving Earth on the basis of physics, astronomy, and religion. The
693:
669:
484:
464:
452:
441:
380:
128:
23:
901:
of gravitational attraction to explain Kepler's elliptical planetary orbits.
595:
Nicolai Copernicito Torinensis De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Libri VI
832:
822:
572:
243:
158:
2507:
Intellectual Curiosity and the Scientific Revolution: A Global Perspective
2990:
2449:"Galileo, the Impact of the Telescope, and the Birth of Modern Astronomy"
1726:
Kren, Claudia (1971), "The Rolling Device of Naṣir al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī in the
1317:(Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions): 49–64 & 66–71,
1238:
1012:
855:
752:
610:
330:
267:
2732:
825:, spanned over a century, beginning with the publication of Copernicus'
950:
639:
631:
623:
606:
166:
150:
71:
2787:
1959:
1630:
582:, and Ecphantes. These authors had proposed a moving Earth, which did
2501:
986:
876:
579:
418:
410:
399:
355:
318:
214:
142:
1004:
The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe
406:(815-877 CE) proposed a model reminiscent of that from Tycho Brahe.
153:' theories about a spherical, moving globe. In the 3rd century BCE,
115:
Retrograde motion of the planets is explained by the Earth's motion.
1743:
1622:
1330:
974:
915:
635:
448:
351:
295:
261:
218:
207:
90:
75:
56:
1862:
Gingerich, O. (1985). "Did Copernicus Owe a Debt to Aristarchus".
105:, and uniform speeds, while at the same time using ideas such as:
2323:
Theories of the World from Antiquity to the Copernican Revolution
836:
568:
426:
326:
256:
83:
2687:
Veselovsky, I.N. (1973). "Copernicus and Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī".
716:
The fourth is a description of the Moon and its orbital motions.
982:
782:
564:
534:
522:
514:
306:
64:
1379:
Alessandro Bausani (1973). "Cosmology and Religion in Islam".
989:, whose revolutions are mysteriously tied to that of the Sun.
946:
810:
685:
506:
67:
60:
2575:
From Eudoxus to Einstein—A History of Mathematical Astronomy
78:, and at uniform speeds. The Copernican model displaced the
2097:, "Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?"
859:
813:
as a stationary body at the center of the universe, to the
185:
1543:, 854, 857, New York: Columbia Univ. Pr, 1977, pp. 332–333
2747:
Analyses the varieties of argument used by Copernicus in
942:
863:
818:
505:(first edition 1543 in Nuremberg, second edition 1566 in
298:). Also popular with astronomers were variations such as
52:
16:
Heliocentric model of solar system by Nicolaus Copernicus
599:
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, in six books
2677:
2633:
2230:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 183.
2198:, New York: American Institute of Physics, 1993, 181,
2114:"Islamic Science and the Making of Renaissance Europe"
1105:
Lucio Russo, The forgotten revolution, Springer (2004)
657:
177:
Archimedis Syracusani Arenarius & Dimensio Circuli
145:(4th century BCE) was one of the first to hypothesize
1405:
Religion, Learning and Science in the 'Abbasid Period
809:
of the heavens, which described the cosmos as having
518:
by many as the chief inelegance in Ptolemy's system.
463:, compiled from lecture notes by Peuerbach's student
305:
Ptolemy's unique contribution to this theory was the
2558:. Cambridge, Mississippi: Harvard University Press.
1221:. University of St Andrews, Scotland. Archived from
1023:
650:
translated some of al-Tusi's works from Arabic into
386:
329:. Aryabhata's followers were particularly strong in
2754:
789:'s illustration of the Copernican system, from the
317:In 499 CE, the Indian astronomer and mathematician
294:; by the time of Copernicus it was associated with
133:
Heliocentrism § Ancient and medieval astronomy
2379:
1378:
2594:Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe
2456:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
1932:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
1583:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
1430:An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines
51:and published in 1543. This model positioned the
3013:
2950:Astronomer Copernicus, or Conversations with God
672:account of the Sun's movement around the Earth (
2678:Valls-Gabaud, D.; Boskenberg, A., eds. (2009).
2386:. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
2176:
1304:
217:(a contemporary of Aristarchus and head of the
2326:. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc.
2196:The eye of heaven: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler
1975:"Ibn al-Shāṭir: ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn ʿAlī ibn Ibrāhīm"
2803:
2591:
2462:(2), Philadelphia PA: 134–141, archived from
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1850:
1593:
1162:
1114:
540:The major features of Copernican theory are:
2680:The Role of Astronomy in Society and Culture
2658:
2524:
2256:
2149:
1979:The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers
1814:
1803:
1537:Martianus Capella and the Seven Liberal Arts
1459:The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers
1125:
973:retrograde motions of the planets—namely as
879:, in 1610 Galileo discovered the four large
2085:Claudia Kren, "The Rolling Device," p. 497.
1789:sfn error: no target: CITEREFKoestler1990 (
1704:A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy
1407:. Cambridge University Press. p. 413.
703:The work itself is divided into six books:
547:The center of the universe is near the Sun.
211:On the Apparent Face in the Orb of the Moon
2810:
2796:
2686:
2572:
2271:
2252:
2244:
2048:
2007:
1698:
1651:
601:) (title page of 2nd edition, Basel, 1566)
503:On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
34:On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
2663:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2650:
2577:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2510:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2483:Copernicus and the Aristotelian tradition
2443:
2377:
2319:
2303:
2283:
2260:
1861:
1855:
1830:. American Inst. of Physics. p. 37.
1825:
1350:
1305:Ragep, F. Jamil; Al-Qushji, Ali (2001b),
1076:
605:Copernicus used what is now known as the
402:(420 CE) described a heliocentric model.
266:dating from about 150 CE. Throughout the
2400:
2025:
2000:
1977:. In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.).
1929:
1923:
1898:
1780:
1576:
1552:
1520:
1489:
1457:. In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.).
1398:
1396:
1394:
992:
967:
781:
777:
730:
589:
521:The Copernican model replaced Ptolemy's
242:
18:
2817:
2340:
2044:
1981:. New York: Springer. pp. 569–70.
3014:
2730:
2625:"Islamic reception of Greek astronomy"
2619:
2225:
2165:
2060:
2054:
2019:
1904:
1608:
1485:
1483:
1461:. New York: Springer. pp. 133–4.
1298:
1266:
1178:
1061:
1059:
1057:
571:. Plutarch provided an account of the
341:
2791:
2479:
2032:
1654:"Copernicus and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi"
1541:The Marriage of Philology and Mercury
1500:. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
1452:
1402:
1391:
1344:
1260:
1185:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
1094:Quaderni urbinati di cultura classica
2689:Journal for the History of Astronomy
2682:. Proceedings IAU Symposium No. 260.
2634:Valls-Gabaud & Boskenberg (2009)
2600:
2548:
2500:
2343:Journal for the History of Astronomy
2291:
2182:
2036:
1972:
1864:Journal for the History of Astronomy
1725:
1658:Journal for the History of Astronomy
1427:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1065:
957:and disproved the then conventional
490:
247:Line art drawing of Ptolemaic system
2862:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
2758:The Astronomer: A Novel of Suspense
2161:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1557:, Leiden: Brill, pp. 244–259,
1480:
1428:Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1993-01-01).
1403:Young, M. J. L., ed. (2006-11-02).
1179:Carman, Christián C. (2017-12-23).
1054:
828:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
726:
659:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
498:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
232:
29:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
13:
2724:
2637:, vol. 260, pp. 149–65,
1497:Dictionary of Scientific Biography
1492:"Al-Bitruji Al-Ishbili, Abu Ishaq"
1096:, n.s. 53 (82) (1996), pp. 113–121
890:saw the phases of Mercury in 1639;
14:
3043:
2928:Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe
2776:
1167:
937:observed with his telescope that
862:'s orbit was an ellipse with the
387:European astronomers post-Ptolemy
2761:. New York: Walker and Company.
1026:
923:
914:
470:Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara
431:Commentary on the First Book of
26:model from Nicolaus Copernicus'
2737:Medieval Science and Philosophy
2573:Linton, Christopher M. (2004).
2297:
2265:
2219:
2208:
2188:
2154:
2143:
2132:
2102:
2088:
2079:
1966:
1844:
1819:
1808:
1797:
1758:
1719:
1692:
1645:
1602:
1570:
1546:
1526:
1514:
1446:
1421:
1372:
1241:(1997) "Astronomy in India" in
1232:
1211:
905:
854:Using detailed observations by
2869:Locationes mansorum desertorum
2486:. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.
1771:, Penguin Books, 1959, p. 212.
1249:, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
1156:
1130:
1119:
1108:
1099:
1086:
1070:
893:Isaac Newton in 1687 proposed
336:
206:translation of a passage from
1:
2429:. London: William Heinemann.
2313:
1905:Saliba, George (1995-07-01).
735:Statue of Copernicus next to
255:created by the Roman citizen
122:
2755:Goldstone, Lawrence (2010).
2215:Gingerich (2004), pp. 23, 55
831:and ending with the work of
312:
283:of the planets, a system of
137:
7:
3001:Copernicus (Martian crater)
2733:"Deconstructing Copernicus"
2661:Galileo: Decisive Innovator
2605:. Pearson Education India.
2407:. Oxford University Press.
2404:The Oxford history of Islam
2065:. I.B.Tauris. p. 179.
2061:Freely, John (2015-03-30).
1851:Gingerich (2004), pp. 31–32
1815:Koestler (1989), pp. 579–80
1553:Eastwood, Bruce S. (2007),
1432:. SUNY Press. p. 135.
1381:Scientia/Rivista di Scienza
1144:. Columbia University Press
1019:
161:, having developed some of
10:
3050:
2899:Lucas Watzenrode the Elder
2709:10.1177/002182867300400205
2659:Sharratt, Michael (1994).
2401:Esposito, John L. (1999).
2363:10.1177/002182869502600203
2320:Crowe, Michael J. (2001).
2033:(2010, pp. 261–69, 476–86)
1884:10.1177/002182868501600102
1678:10.1177/002182867300400205
1652:Veselovsky, I. N. (1973),
1277:Cambridge University Press
1126:Koestler (1989), pp. 69–72
481:Theoricae Novae Planetarum
457:Theoricae novae planetarum
281:apparent retrograde motion
236:
126:
2996:Copernicus (lunar crater)
2914:
2891:
2846:
2825:
2652:10.1017/S1743921311002237
2592:McCluskey, S. C. (1998).
2261:Drake, 1970, pp. 191–196)
1285:10.1017/s0269889701000060
1197:10.1007/s00407-017-0198-3
999:historiography of science
875:Using the newly invented
684:, Cardinal Archbishop of
213:. Plutarch reported that
2833:Copernican heliocentrism
2378:Drake, Stillman (1970).
2228:From Eudoxus to Einstein
2172:Gingerich (2004), p. 248
2139:Gingerich (2004), p. 139
1826:Gingerich, Owen (1993).
1490:Samsó, Julio (1970–80).
1047:
495:Copernicus' major work,
41:Copernican heliocentrism
1973:King, David A. (2007).
1804:Koestler (1989), p. 194
1163:Gingerich (2004), p. 53
1115:McCluskey (1998), p. 27
373:Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi
285:deferents and epicycles
149:, probably inspired by
2876:Monetae cudendae ratio
2731:Hannam, James (2007).
2226:Linton, C. M. (2004).
2150:Koestler (1989), p.196
794:
743:
682:Nikolaus von Schönberg
602:
248:
200:
70:around it in circular
37:
3032:Copernican Revolution
2922:Scientific Revolution
2883:Theophylact Simocatta
2838:Copernican Revolution
2783:Heliocentric Pantheon
2480:Goddu, André (2010).
2257:Sharratt, 1994, p.166
1453:Samsó, Julio (2007).
1219:"Aryabhata the Elder"
993:Modern historiography
968:Substantially correct
821:at the center of the
799:Copernican Revolution
791:Harmonia Macrocosmica
785:
778:Copernican Revolution
734:
593:
368:Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji
366:In the 12th century,
246:
181:
147:movement of the Earth
55:at the center of the
22:
3022:History of astronomy
2939:Copernican principle
2601:Raju, C. K. (2007).
2427:The Book Nobody Read
2253:(Linton, 2004, p.212
1042:Copernican principle
858:, Kepler discovered
766:Aristotelian physics
483:(printed in 1472 by
423:Maragheh observatory
404:John Scotus Eriugena
377:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
163:Heraclides Ponticus'
155:Aristarchus of Samos
43:is the astronomical
3027:Nicolaus Copernicus
2819:Nicolaus Copernicus
2701:1973JHA.....4..128V
2643:2011IAUS..260..149S
2355:1995JHA....26..133D
2119:Library of Congress
1944:1973PAPhS.117..423S
1876:1985JHA....16...37G
1730:of Nicole Oresme",
1670:1973JHA.....4..128V
1357:Islam & Science
1323:2001Osir...16...49R
939:Venus showed phases
576:Heraclides Ponticus
537:a few years later.
477:Georg von Peuerbach
461:Georg von Peuerbach
438:Questiones de Spera
411:Averroes' criticism
348:Islamic astronomers
342:Islamic astronomers
59:, motionless, with
49:Nicolaus Copernicus
2944:Frombork Cathedral
2306:, pp. 134–135
2294:, pp. 165–167
2185:, pp. 200–202
2112:(April 27, 2006).
2020:(2009, pp. 160–65)
1351:Adi Setia (2004),
1269:Science in Context
1138:"Ptolemaic System"
955:heliocentric model
949:, as predicted by
899:inverse-square law
886:With a telescope,
815:heliocentric model
795:
744:
690:dedicated the book
648:Gregory Chioniades
603:
415:Otto E. Neugebauer
354:, who invented an
249:
38:
3009:
3008:
2826:Scientific career
2768:978-0-8027-1986-7
2749:De revolutionibus
2612:978-81-317-0871-2
2596:. Cambridge: CUP.
2584:978-0-521-82750-8
2565:978-0-674-17103-9
2541:978-0-14-019246-9
2517:978-0-521-17052-9
2493:978-90-04-18107-6
2414:978-0-19-510799-9
2237:978-0-521-82750-8
1988:978-0-387-31022-0
1828:The Eye of Heaven
1713:978-0-387-06995-1
1579:De revolutionibus
1564:978-90-04-16186-3
1468:978-0-387-31022-0
895:universal gravity
845:de Revolutionibus
787:Andreas Cellarius
751:, the astronomer
749:De Revolutionibus
737:Cracow University
644:Byzantine science
620:De Revolutionibus
491:Copernican theory
396:Early Middle Ages
392:Martianus Capella
292:Eudoxus of Cnidus
195:The Sand Reckoner
172:The Sand Reckoner
3039:
2905:Lucas Watzenrode
2881:Translations of
2812:
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2798:
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2531:The Sleepwalkers
2526:Koestler, Arthur
2521:
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2194:Owen Gingerich,
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1036:
1034:Astronomy portal
1031:
1030:
1029:
959:geocentric model
927:
918:
881:moons of Jupiter
727:Early criticisms
666:Andreas Osiander
628:Thabit ibn Qurra
451:(1423–1461) and
323:Earth's rotation
276:Ptolemaic system
272:Ptolemaic rulers
257:Claudius Ptolemy
253:geocentric model
239:Geocentric model
233:Ptolemaic system
198:
80:geocentric model
3049:
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2727:
2725:Further reading
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2613:
2585:
2566:
2550:Kuhn, Thomas S.
2542:
2518:
2494:
2472:
2470:
2466:
2451:
2445:Gingerich, Owen
2437:
2423:Gingerich, Owen
2415:
2394:
2382:Galileo Studies
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1989:
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1765:Arthur Koestler
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1225:on 2012-10-19.
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1025:
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1009:Arthur Koestler
995:
979:Johannes Kepler
970:
965:
964:
963:
962:
961:(second image).
935:Galileo Galilei
930:
929:
928:
920:
919:
908:
869:Astronomia nova
841:Johannes Kepler
807:Ptolemaic model
780:
741:Collegium Novum
729:
698:Julian Calendar
662:
652:Byzantine Greek
511:anthropocentric
493:
389:
344:
339:
315:
241:
235:
204:Gilles Ménage's
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127:Main articles:
125:
99:circular orbits
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2934:Copernicus Law
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2855:Commentariolus
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2777:External links
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1738:(4): 490–498,
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2447:(June 2011),
2446:
2442:
2438:
2436:0-434-01315-3
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2393:0-472-08283-3
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2348:
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2333:0-486-41444-2
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2110:George Saliba
2105:
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2095:George Saliba
2091:
2082:
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2072:9781784531386
2068:
2064:
2057:
2050:
2047:, Veselovsky
2046:
2042:
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2017:
2013:
2009:
2003:
1996:
1990:
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1980:
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1961:
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1941:
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1933:
1926:
1918:
1916:9780814780237
1912:
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1781:Koestler 1990
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1533:William Stahl
1529:
1523:, p. 289
1522:
1521:Esposito 1999
1517:
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1507:0-684-10114-9
1503:
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695:
694:Pope Paul III
691:
687:
683:
678:
675:
671:
670:Old Testament
667:
660:
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637:
633:
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531:
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519:
516:
512:
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486:
485:Regiomontanus
482:
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473:
471:
466:
465:Regiomontanus
462:
458:
454:
453:Regiomontanus
450:
445:
443:
442:Nicole Oresme
439:
435:
434:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
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382:
381:Ibn al-Shatir
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130:
129:Heliocentrism
117:
114:
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100:
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2736:
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2482:
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2464:the original
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2342:
2322:
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2246:
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2134:
2123:. Retrieved
2117:
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2081:
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2056:
2027:
2002:
1978:
1968:
1935:
1931:
1925:
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1268:
1262:
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1239:Sarma, K. V.
1234:
1226:
1223:the original
1213:
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1158:
1146:. Retrieved
1142:Encyclopedia
1141:
1132:
1121:
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1101:
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1077:Heath (1913)
1072:
1002:
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906:Modern views
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849:
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833:Isaac Newton
826:
823:Solar System
796:
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762:
758:
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740:
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360:
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260:
250:
210:
201:
193:
182:
176:
170:
159:Solar System
146:
141:
95:metaphysical
88:
40:
39:
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24:Heliocentric
2991:Copernicium
2964:Los Angeles
2041:pp. 263–64)
1995:PDF version
1475:PDF version
1279:: 145–163,
1191:(1): 1–20.
1013:Thomas Kuhn
975:parallactic
856:Tycho Brahe
753:Tycho Brahe
611:Tusi couple
337:Middle Ages
331:South India
268:Middle Ages
3016:Categories
2955:Monuments
2742:2007-08-17
2695:: 128–30.
2534:. Arkana.
2473:2016-04-13
2314:References
2125:2008-03-01
2043:, di Bono
1938:(6): 424.
1783:, p.
1589:: 367–394.
1539:, vol. 2,
1535:, trans.,
1387:(67): 762.
1366:2010-03-02
1148:4 December
951:Copernicus
640:al-Bitruji
632:al-Zarqali
624:al-Battani
607:Urdi lemma
361:muhandisīn
327:elliptical
300:eccentrics
208:Plutarch's
167:Archimedes
151:Pythagoras
123:Background
2717:118453340
2371:118330488
2292:Kuhn 1985
2288:pp. 90–92
2183:Kuhn 1985
2018:, Saliba
1952:0003-049X
1892:118851788
1870:: 37–42.
1752:144526697
1686:118453340
1639:144332379
1339:142586786
1293:145372613
1245:(editor)
1205:0003-9519
1066:Kuhn 1985
987:epicycles
877:telescope
817:with the
805:from the
622:, namely
580:Philolaus
449:Peuerbach
400:Macrobius
356:astrolabe
319:Aryabhata
313:Aryabhata
215:Cleanthes
143:Philolaus
138:Antiquity
103:epicycles
76:epicycles
2969:Montreal
2623:(2009),
2552:(1985).
2528:(1989).
2504:(2010).
2425:(2004).
1728:De spera
1702:(1975),
1581:I, 10",
1257:, p. 116
1020:See also
1007:(1959),
945:and not
933:In 1610
897:and the
636:Averroes
609:and the
419:Ilkhanid
352:Al-Sijzi
346:Several
296:Averroes
262:Almagest
191:—
91:Rheticus
68:orbiting
57:Universe
2959:Chicago
2915:Related
2907:(uncle)
2697:Bibcode
2639:Bibcode
2351:Bibcode
2286:(2001,
2274:(2004,
2035:, Huff
2016:137–38)
2006:Linton
1940:Bibcode
1872:Bibcode
1666:Bibcode
1319:Bibcode
1275:(1–2),
985:use of
837:Galileo
569:Hicetas
427:Proclus
259:in his
223:Galileo
169:' book
84:Ptolemy
65:planets
2984:Warsaw
2979:Kraków
2892:Family
2765:
2715:
2667:
2609:
2581:
2562:
2538:
2514:
2490:
2433:
2411:
2390:
2369:
2330:
2276:pp.138
2272:Linton
2234:
2202:
2069:
2049:(1973)
2045:(1995)
2031:Goddu
2010:, pp.
1985:
1960:986461
1958:
1950:
1913:
1890:
1834:
1750:
1710:
1684:
1637:
1631:230725
1629:
1561:
1504:
1465:
1436:
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1311:Osiris
1291:
1253:
1203:
1081:p. 302
983:ad hoc
793:(1660)
771:aether
674:Joshua
638:, and
565:Cicero
535:Vienna
523:equant
515:planet
433:Euclid
379:, and
307:equant
219:Stoics
2974:Toruń
2847:Works
2713:S2CID
2628:(PDF)
2467:(PDF)
2452:(PDF)
2367:S2CID
2284:Crowe
2037:(2010
2008:(2004
1956:JSTOR
1888:S2CID
1748:S2CID
1682:S2CID
1635:S2CID
1627:JSTOR
1335:S2CID
1289:S2CID
1048:Notes
947:Earth
811:Earth
686:Capua
507:Basel
186:stars
72:paths
61:Earth
45:model
2763:ISBN
2665:ISBN
2607:ISBN
2579:ISBN
2560:ISBN
2536:ISBN
2512:ISBN
2488:ISBN
2431:ISBN
2409:ISBN
2388:ISBN
2347:xxvi
2328:ISBN
2232:ISBN
2200:ISBN
2067:ISBN
1983:ISBN
1948:ISSN
1911:ISBN
1832:ISBN
1791:help
1732:Isis
1708:ISBN
1611:Isis
1559:ISBN
1502:ISBN
1463:ISBN
1434:ISBN
1409:ISBN
1251:ISBN
1201:ISSN
1150:2019
860:Mars
839:and
801:, a
797:The
225:and
131:and
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2012:124
1936:117
1880:doi
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1193:doi
953:'s
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864:Sun
819:Sun
739:'s
692:to
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479:'s
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