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during the Early
Harappan phase. The transition between Early and Mature Harappan phases took place in the sites of Amri, Nausharo, Ghazi Shah and Banawali. By 2500 BCE in the Mature Harappan phase, the Harappan Civilization became the eastern anchor of a network of routes including the Mesopotamian city-states, the Gulf, Iranian Plateau, and Central Asia, and its urbanization emerged as a clear marker of the sociocultural complexity of the Mature Harappan Civilization. Through its urbanization, the Harappan socio-cultural context became a set of intertwined features and processes that were centered on the city while bringing together many kinds of people of different ethnic and linguistic groups into a socio-cultural whole. Due to the Harappan Civilization's participation in the art of writing, engagement in long-distance trade, and studying of abroad in Mesopotamia, it became a complex ethnic and linguistic civilization that was further felt through its architecture and town planning.
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grids divided by roads which intersected at right angles, encircled by fortifications, with each block containing a network of houses and public wells. Harappan cities featured urban and social elements such as roads, fire pits, kilns, and industrial buildings, and were primarily functional in purpose rather than aesthetic. The city sewerage, plumbing, and drainage systems were distributed in the network of the grid planning by early hydro-engineers to be functionally used and maintained. The
Harappan civilization seems to also be capable of astrological observation and alignment, as some evidence exists that Mohenjo-daro was aligned with the star "Rohini".
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structures, where “Large and impressive construction works can be used to intimidate potential attackers (Trigger 1990)”. It was also an obvious feature to show the city was strong and powerful by being able to divert resources and labor to make such a large structure and not focus all of their energy on survival. This was not the only purpose for the wall, it is thought that the wall also served as protection from floods. There is also evidence of a tapering at the bottom of the wall to guide the water away from the city.
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higher value buildings and public buildings. The acropolis was a “parallelogram that was 400–500 yards north-south and 200–300 yards east-west” It was also thought that the acropolis area would be built on the highest part of the mound in the city showing the importance and status of the area was much higher than the rest of the area. Another feature which suggests the acropolis is of higher importance is that the fortifications around the area were bigger and stronger than those around the rest of the city.
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architecture of the Indus civilization focused on functional expression rather than pure decoration. Evidence shows that the Indus culture lacked magnificent buildings such as palaces, monuments, discrepancies, and tombs, on the contrary, most buildings were large-scale public buildings, commodious houses, or practical residences, which proved to be the first complex ancient society based on egalitarianism.
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Phase. There is not much evidence to show much urbanization, however; most Early
Harappan structures were of a small scale and did not expand into public spaces or display a sense of social class. Early Harappan establishments settled in diverse landscapes, such as mountains and alluvium valleys (deposits of fertile soil).
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There is evidence that the shift from the early to mature
Harappan ages that point towards a gradual transition, with rapid development and geographical urban expansion. During this transition, a significant number of Harappan settlements were abandoned, perhaps due to shifting geography and climate.
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The mature phase spans roughly between 2500 and 1900 B.C.E. and is much more reliably dated than the Early Phase. It is distinctive in its urban development, and was shaped by the behavior and activity of a sophisticated societal network. The structures reveal a hierarchy in social classes, and also
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The
Harappa civilization revealed a complex mercantile society based on the well organized and comprehensive urban planning, which included sophisticated water management and sewerage systems to allow structures such as dams, wells, baths, and fountains. The plumbing and sewerage systems were formed
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The early
Harappan phase, as defined by M.R. Mughal, spans roughly between 3200 and 2500 B.C.E. Between the two periods, the number of archeological sites dated to the Mature Harappan Phase was roughly over double to that of the Early Harappan, implying a significant urban growth during the Early
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Art of the Indus Valley civilization architecture was indigenous and without any influence. Sculpture had no integral role in architecture; they were found separately. There was a concentration of utility factor rather than aesthetic factor presumably because they were primarily traders. Harappan
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Sites were often raised, or built on man made hills. This could be to combat flooding in the nearby areas. Another aspect of the architecture is they often built walls around their entire cities. This could have served several different needs. Many believe that the walls were built as defensive
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A notable feature of
Harappan architecture is that of a developed infrastructural city plan, in that they had sophisticated systems to control the flow of water and waste with public wells and drains that may have required advanced planning to implement. The cities were divided into rectilinear
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Dyson: "Mohenjo-daro and
Harappa may each have contained between 30,000 and 60,000 people (perhaps more in the former case). Water transport was crucial for the provisioning of these and other cities. That said, the vast majority of people lived in rural areas. At the height of the Indus valley
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The materials of houses depended on the location of the building. If the house was more rural the bricks would be mud. If the house was in an urban area then the bricks would be baked. The bricks were made in standardised ratios of 1x2x4. “Houses range from 1–2 stories in height, with a central
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The city could be split into two different sections: an upper "acropolis" or citadel and a "lower town". The lower town consisted of lower valued residential buildings located on the eastern side of the city, while the upper acropolis would be on the western side of the city which contained the
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South Asian
Harappan culture was heavily formed through its rich integration into international trade, commerce, and contact due to its location along the Indus River. Signs of urbanization in the Indus Valley began as early as 6000 BCE, and by 3200 BCE the region expanded with towns and cities
263:(upper part or political, economy rich and VIP area). Citadels were for the elite class. Roads cut at right angles and were majorly in rectangular in shape. There were of multi-storeyed buildings. Houses were created from stone, mud-brick and wood. Assembly halls are also found there.
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were found in citadels and were the reason the people from the citadels were prosperous. These are also found at Lothal
Dockyard to facilitate import and export. The "Great Granary" is the largest and one of the best examples of the granaries in the Harappan civilisation.
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McIntosh: "The enormous potential of the greater Indus region offered scope for huge population increase; by the end of the Mature Harappan period, the Harappans are estimated to have numbered somewhere between 1 and 5 million, probably well below the region's carrying
811:"The Grid and Modular Measures in The Town Planning of Mohenjodaro and Kathmandu Valley: A Study on Modular Measures in Block and Plot Divisions in the Planning of Mohenjodaro and Sirkap (Pakistan), and Thimi (Kathmandu Valley)"
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were used in water storage systems including aqueducts and basins for the purpose of water distribution in agricultural practices, some of which took advantage of the terrain height differences to convey and store water.
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The civilization's cities were noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, clusters of large non-residential buildings, and new techniques in handicraft
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were built to make efficient disposal of water waste and residual solid in a sustainable way, which had inspection manholes at regular intervals to ensure efficient operation and proper management.
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was highly developed by the Harappan civilization. Large scale water works, such as drainage systems, could be covered to cure blockages. Dams were also constructed that controlled water inlets.
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very likely grew to containing between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals, and the civilisation itself during its florescence may have contained between one and five million individuals.
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was a technique used extensively by the Harappans to construct stone arches. There is evidence of the civilization building large vaulted culverts in Mohenjo-daro.
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were used for rituals and ceremonies. There were small rooms along with the bath. No leakages and cracks on stairs. Bricks were used for making public baths.
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by early hydro-engineers to allow water and sanitation practices in the city are were effectively applied and maintained by ancient Harappan residents.
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Tsatsafinos, C. Ancient Greek Dams. In Proceedings of the Common Conference of HHA, HWA, and HCoMWR, Athens, Greece, 10–12 December 2015; pp. 997-1004.
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Yannopoulos, Stavros; Lyberatos, Gerasimos; Theodossiou, Nicolaos; Li, Wang; Valipour, Mohammad; Tamburrino, Aldo; Angelakis, Andreas (2015).
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were hydro-structure built along the Indus River for water management purposes such as collecting, storing and diverting water.
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is away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt. There is a wood lock gate system to avoid tidal flow.
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were set up and connected by water channels to supply for households for purposes of drinking and bathing.
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products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin). Its large urban centres of
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Iyengar, R. N. (2008). "Reviewed work: Harappan Architecture and Civil Engineering, J. P. Joshi".
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Iyengar, R. N. (2008). "Review of Harappan Architecture and Civil Engineering".
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A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day
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Regularity of streets and buildings suggests the influence of ancient
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civilization the subcontinent may have contained 4-6 million people."
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Khan, S.; Dialynas, E.; Kasaraneni, V. K.; Angelakis, A. N. (2020).
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Subramanian, T.S. The rise and fall of a Harappan city.
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were cut out of stone to store water, as well as rain.
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Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering
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Harappan Civilization: An Analysis in Modern Context
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Possehl, G. L. (2000). "The Mature Harappan Phase".
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626:Possehl, G. L. (2000). "The Early Harappan Phase".
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1099:The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society
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382:courtyard around which the rooms were arranged”
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1071:The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives
809:Pant, Mohan; Fumo, Shjui Fumo (May 2005).
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60: –
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54:Find sources:
48:
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32:This article
30:
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1357:Indo-Islamic
1348:Vijayanagara
1262:Māru-Gurjara
1241:
1119:29 September
1117:. Retrieved
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884:Khan Academy
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863:. Retrieved
859:
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153:Indus Valley
142:architecture
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127:Mohenjo-daro
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41:Please help
36:verification
33:
1478:Bhubaneswar
1452:Uttarakhand
1432:Maharashtra
577:Wright 2009
227:rectilinear
1536:Categories
1447:Tamil Nadu
1379:Qutb Shahi
1291:Hemadpanti
1038:Dyson, Tim
920:2018-11-15
889:2018-11-21
865:2018-11-21
592:Dyson 2018
515:References
507:capacity."
473:Sokhta Koh
422:See also:
354:Chanhudaro
302:Corbelling
146:Bronze Age
69:newspapers
1493:Hyderabad
1462:Telangana
1442:Rajasthan
1422:Karnataka
1318:Dravidian
952:: 34–71.
837:113918069
750:0011-3891
712:224872813
636:0045-9801
556:0045-9801
463:Dholavira
377:Materials
337:Fountains
273:Granaries
239:mud-brick
231:grid plan
169:carnelian
1405:By state
1328:Chalukya
1306:Rock-cut
1301:Nilachal
1267:Shikhara
1242:Harappan
1232:Buddhist
1096:(2009).
1076:ABC-Clio
1068:(2008).
1040:(2018).
758:24102770
671:24102770
644:42936617
564:42936618
468:Mehrgarh
452:See also
358:Pakistan
261:Citadels
201:Planning
187:Overview
157:Pakistan
131:Pakistan
1503:Lucknow
1483:Chennai
1471:By city
1417:Gujarat
1338:Kadamba
1333:Hoysala
1282:Sekhari
1272:Bhumija
1257:Kalinga
1031:Sources
446:Harappa
386:History
366:Toronto
177:Harappa
144:of the
140:is the
83:scholar
1508:Mumbai
1498:Jaipur
1437:Odisha
1427:Kerala
1412:Bengal
1374:Sharqi
1367:Akbari
1362:Mughal
1296:Meitei
1277:Latina
1252:Nagara
1215:Bengal
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983:2010,
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458:Lothal
370:Canada
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1488:Delhi
1237:Dzong
1225:Ratna
1220:Chala
1210:Assam
1198:Types
1007:Water
942:(PDF)
833:S2CID
754:JSTOR
708:S2CID
667:JSTOR
640:JSTOR
560:JSTOR
484:Notes
235:brick
225:with
161:India
90:JSTOR
76:books
1396:Sikh
1391:Jain
1121:2013
1108:ISBN
1080:ISBN
1052:ISBN
746:ISSN
632:ISSN
552:ISSN
432:The
324:Dams
285:The
175:and
159:and
62:news
1015:doi
954:doi
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