1051:- hydrogen induced or hydrogen assisted cracking is a real weldability concern that must be addressed in HY-80 steels. Hydrogen embrittlement is a high risk under all conditions for HY-80 and falls into zone 3 for the AWS method. HAC/HIC can occur in either the Fusion Zone or the Heat Affected Zone. As mentioned previously the HAZ and FZ are both susceptible to the formation of martensite and thus are at risk for HAC/HIC. The Fusion Zone HIC/HAC can be addressed with the use of a proper filler metal, while the HAZ HIC/HAC must be addressed with preheat and weld procedures. Low hydrogen practice is always recommended when welding on HY-80 steels.
20:
71:(80,000 psi, 100,000 psi and 130,000 psi). HY-80 and HY-100 are both weldable grades, whereas the HY-130 is generally considered unweldable. Modern steel manufacturing methods that can precisely control time/temperature during processing of HY steels has made the cost to manufacture more economical. HY-80 is considered to have good corrosion resistance and has good formability to supplement being weldable. Using HY-80 steel requires careful consideration of the welding processes, filler metal selection and joint design to account for microstructure changes, distortion and stress concentration.
1100:) can have a significant influence of the fracture toughness of the material. SAW as an example can temper previous weld passes due to its generally high heat input characteristics. The detailed hardness profiles of HY-80 weldments varies with different processes (gradients vary dramatically), but the peak values for hardness remains constant among the different processes. This holds true for both HAZ and weld metal.
91:, their new independence from the surface for an air supply for their diesel engines meant that they could focus on hidden operation at depth, rather than operating largely as surface-cruising submersibles. The increased power of a nuclear reactor allowed their hulls to become larger and faster. Developments in sonar made them able to hunt effectively at depth, rather than relying on visual observations from
1059:
cooling rates. Slow cooling rates can be as detrimental as rapid cooling rates in the HAZ. Rapid cooling will form untempered martensite; however, very slow cooling rates caused by high preheat or a combination of preheat and high heat input from the weld procedures can create a very brittle martensite due to high carbon concentrations that form in the HAZ.
1114:
due to non-uniform expansion and contraction. This mechanical effect can cause residual stresses that can lead to a variety of failures immediately after the weld or in service failures when put under load. In HY-80 steels the level of distortion is proportional to the level of weld heat input, the
1062:
Preheating should be considered to allow diffusible hydrogen to diffuse and to reduce the cooling temperature gradient. The slower cooling rate will reduce the likelihood of martensite formation. If the preheat temperature is not high enough the cooling temperature gradient will be too steep and it
1058:
HY-80 due to the formation of untempered martensite. Use of filler metals is required to introduce alloying materials that serve to form oxides that promote the nucleation of acicular ferrite. The HAZ is still a concern that must be addressed with proper preheat and weld procedures to control the
257:
The final microstructure of the weldment will be directly related to the composition of the material and the thermal cycle(s) it has endured, which will vary across the base material, Heat
Affected Zone (HAZ) and Fusion Zone (FZ). The microstructure of the material will directly correlate to the
1087:
The selection of the welding process can have a significant impact on the areas affected by welding. The heat input can alter the microstructure in HAZ and the fusion zone alike and weld metal/HAZ toughness is a key consideration/requirement for HY-80 weldments. It is important to consider the
173:
Although the operating depths of submarines are highly secret, their crush depth limits can be calculated approximately, solely from knowledge of the steel strength. With the stronger HY-80 steel, this depth increased to 1,800 feet (550 m) and with HY-100 a depth of 2,250 feet (690 m).
191:, the lead boat of this class, was lost in an accident in 1963. At the time, this unexplained accident raised much controversy about its cause and the new HY-80 steel used was looked at suspiciously, especially for theories about weld cracking having been the cause of the loss.
301:
Manganese ā Cleans impurities in steels (most commonly used to tie up sulfur) and also forms oxides that are necessary for the nucleation of acicular ferrite. Acicular ferrite is desirable in HY-80 steels because it promotes excellent yield strength and toughness.
277:
The alloy content will vary slightly according to the thickness of the plate material. Thicker plate will be more restrictive in its compositional alloy ranges due to the added weldability challenges created by enhanced stress concentrations in connective joints.
98:
The strength of a submarine hull is constrained not merely by yield strength, but also fatigue strength. As well as the obvious need for a hull strong enough not to be crushed at depth, the cyclical effect of hundreds of dives over a submarine's lifetime mean that
286:
Carbon ā Controls the peak hardness of the material and is an austenite stabiliser, which is necessary for martensite formation. HY-80 is prone to the formation of martensite and martensite's peak hardness is dependent on its carbon content. HY-80 is an
1063:
will create brittle welds. Multipass welds require a minimum and maximum inter-pass temperature with the purpose to maintain yield strength and to prevent cracking. The preheat and inter-pass temperatures will depend on the thickness of the material.
1071:
Generally, HY-80 is welded with an AWS ER100S-1 welding wire. The ER100S-1 has a lower Carbon and Nickel content to assist in the dilutive effect during welding discussed previously. An important function of the filler metal is to nucleate
244:
s construction suffered setbacks in 1991 and an estimated 15% or two years' work on hull construction had to be abandoned. Although later solved, these extra costs (and the post-Soviet peace dividend) were a factor in reducing the planned 29
258:
mechanical properties, weldability and service life/performance of the material/weldment. Alloying elements, weld procedures and weldment design all need to be coordinated and considered when looking to use HY-80 steel.
327:
The precise range of permitted alloy content varies slightly according to the thickness of the sheet. The figures here are for thicker sheets, 3 inches (76 mm) and over, which are the more restrictive compositions.
503:
A further steel, HY-130, also includes vanadium as an alloying element. Welding of HY-130 is considered to be more restricted, as it is difficult to obtain filler materials that can provide comparable performance.
159:, became known as "Low-carbon STS"; this steel showed the best combination of all the desirable properties. Low-carbon STS became the forerunner of HY-80, and was first used in 1953 for the construction of
1911:
1088:
totality of the weldment when selecting a process because thick plate generally requires multi-pass welds and additional passes can alter previously deposited weld metal. Different methods (
1115:
higher the heat input the higher levels of distortion. HY-80 has been found to have less in-plane weld shrinkage and less out-of-plane distortion than the common ABS Grade DH-36.
1142:
The ultimate tensile strength of these steels is considered secondary to their yield strength. Where this is required to meet a particular value, it is specified for each order.
764:
700:
934:
67:(strength in resisting permanent plastic deformation). HY-80 is accompanied by HY-100 and HY-130 with each of the 80, 100 and 130 referring to their yield strength in
1028:
974:
1999:
881:
801:
640:
135:, although of the new Albacore 'teardrop' hull form, also used these earlier steels. Such boats had normal operating depths of some 700 feet (210 m), and a
839:
604:
1079:
Acicular ferrite is formed with the presence of oxides and the composition of the filler metal can increase the formation of these critical nucleation sites.
1127:
to explosion bulge can be performed. Destructive testing is not practical for inspecting completed weldments prior to being placed in service; therefore,
2390:
1431:
1108:
Given the compositional differences between the base material and the composite zone of the weld it is reasonable to expect that there will be potential
1918:
1797:
1650:"Strength and Fracture Characteristics of HY-80, HY-100, and HY-130 Steels Subjected to Various Strains, Strain Rates, Temperatures, and Pressures"
1123:
The testing of HY-80 steel can be divided into the categories of destructive and non-destructive evaluation. A variety of destructive tests from
2260:
1288:
Heller, Captain S. R. Jr.; Fioriti, Ivo; Vasta, John (February 1965). "An
Evaluation of HY-80 Steel as a Structural Material for Submarines".
1992:
1131:
is preferred for this case. Non-destructive evaluation includes many techniques or methods: visual inspection, X-ray, ultrasonic inspection,
2385:
320:
and suppress local melting temperatures. This is an increasing problem with the increased used of scrap in the making of steel in the
103:
is also important. To provide sufficient resistance to fatigue, the hull must be designed so that the steel always operates below its
1536:
143:
conducted a research program for developing higher strength steel for ship and submarine construction. During testing, a variant of
1985:
1656:
308:
Chromium ā Is a ferrite stabilizer and can combine with carbon to form chromium carbides for increased strength of the material.
1491:
316:
Antimony, tin and arsenic are potentially dangerous elements to have in the compositional makeup due to their ability to form
184:. These reportedly had a normal operating depth of 1,300 feet, roughly two-thirds the crush depth limit imposed by the steel.
1842:
1826:
1681:
1632:
1599:
1562:
1475:
1445:
1315:
226:
is officially claimed to have a normal operating depth of "greater than 800 feet". Based on the reported operating depth of
1519:
107:; that is, the stress due to pressure at depth remains less than the fatigue strength for an indefinite number of cycles.
2300:
2056:
2024:
52:. It was developed for use in naval applications, specifically the development of pressure hulls for the US nuclear
2252:
2120:
1435:
1867:"Tensile Properties of HY80 Steel Welds Containing Defects Correlated With Ultrasonic And Radiographic Evaluation"
1465:
79:
The need to develop improved steels was driven by a desire for deeper-diving submarines. To avoid detection by
2416:
2048:
1367:
1232:
Yayla, P (Summer 2007). "Effects of
Welding Processes on the Mechanical Properties of HY80 Steel Weldments".
87:. World War II submarines operated at a total depth of rarely more than 100 metres. With the development of
1619:
1132:
170:
tested its eponymous teardrop hull shape, which would form a pattern for the following US nuclear classes.
155:
in 1910 and commonly used for deck protection, with modifications in carbon and nickel and the addition of
2195:
2032:
2015:
1766:
1149:, a steel's ability to resist further tearing from a pre-existing notch. It is usually evaluated as the
292:
114:. Their steel was also improved and was the equivalent of "HY-42". Boats of this construction included
36:
1748:
2040:
1413:
1399:. National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Accelerated Utilization of New Materials. pp. 77ā78.
110:
US submarines post-WWII, both conventional and nuclear, had improved designs compared to the earlier
717:
2308:
2238:
2211:
2173:
2150:
2086:
2072:
948:
656:
129:
57:
1942:
901:
2356:
2342:
2203:
2188:
195:
160:
144:
1960:
1520:"Military Specification: Steel Plate, Alloy, Structural, High Yield Strength (HY-80 and HY-100)"
305:
Silicon ā Oxide former that serves to clean and provide nucleation points for acicular ferrite.
2349:
2283:
2219:
2165:
2158:
2128:
2095:
1184:
1165:
1161:
1128:
1046:
185:
178:
115:
23:
19:
997:
2411:
2316:
2181:
2142:
2135:
1816:
1234:
1097:
1093:
959:
122:
29:
128:, which were the first nuclear submarines, with the then-conventional hull shape. The later
2268:
2102:
2064:
1136:
859:
818:
786:
321:
298:
Nickel ā Adds to toughness and ductility to the HY-80 and is also an austenite stabilizer.
220:
213:
206:
625:
8:
2334:
2276:
1749:"A Review of Welding Processes, Mechanical Properties, and Weldability of HY-80 Castings"
895:
1883:
1866:
1795:
Yang, YP (November 2014). "Material
Strength Effect on Weld Shrinkage and Distortion".
1649:
1383:
1301:
1124:
824:
619:
589:
288:
100:
56:
program and is still currently used in many naval applications. It is valued for its
1822:
1677:
1628:
1595:
1558:
1502:
1471:
1441:
561:
88:
84:
1676:. Vol. 6. United States of America: ASM International. 1993. pp. 184ā188.
2116:
1717:
1379:
1297:
1243:
1150:
1074:
1977:
1849:
1323:
291:
material that allows carbon to more readily diffuse than in FCC materials such as
95:. All these factors drove a need for improved steels for stronger pressure hulls.
1498:
1247:
1146:
1055:
583:
140:
111:
92:
1368:"An Evaluation of HY-80 Steel. As a Structural Material for Submarines. Part II"
1270:
1089:
532:
152:
64:
1344:
2405:
1461:
1157:
991:
853:
650:
104:
2296:
711:
148:
261:
HY-80 and HY-100 are covered in the following US military specifications:
136:
1818:
Fracture
Resistance of Aluminum Alloys: Notch Toughness, Tear Resistance
1110:
952:
607:
422:
372:
156:
68:
1897:
1191:
362:
53:
1754:. Graduate Program Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. pp. 13ā14.
557:
472:
447:
437:
412:
317:
780:
482:
392:
1594:. United States of America: Wiley-Interscience. pp. 74ā84.
457:
402:
382:
349:
1537:"Military Specification: Steel (HY-80 and HY-100) Bars, Alloy"
80:
49:
46:
177:
The first production submarines to use HY-80 steel were the
83:, submarines ideally operate at least 100 metres below the
1690:
492:
513:
Physical
Properties of HY-80, HY-100, and HY-130 Steel
230:, it may be assumed that the normal operating depth of
1571:
1281:
1156:
Wrought HY-80 steels are produced by, amongst others,
281:
1627:. American Society for testing and Materials (ASTM).
1557:. United States of America: Wiley. pp. 288ā300.
1277:. Federation of American Scientists. 8 December 1998.
1000:
962:
904:
862:
827:
789:
720:
659:
628:
592:
2232:
Conventional-powered cruise missile submarines - SSG
1776:
237:
HY-100 too was dogged by problems of weld cracking.
2391:
List of submarine classes of the United States Navy
2007:
1843:"Properties of HY-100 Steel for Naval Construction"
1492:"HY-80 Steel Fabrication in Submarine Construction"
1365:
1287:
1153:, the ratio of tear resistance to yield strength.
1022:
968:
928:
875:
833:
795:
758:
694:
634:
598:
194:HY-100 steel was introduced for the deeper diving
1366:Heller, S. R.; Fioriti, Ivo; Vasta, John (1965).
1205:
1203:
1197:, a diesel training submarine, made 11,884 dives.
2403:
1617:
1613:
1611:
1454:
2251:Conventional-powered attack submarines - SS or
1711:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1618:Flax, R.W.; Keith, R.E.; Randall, M.D. (1971).
1424:
1407:
1405:
63:The "HY" steels are designed to possess a high
1200:
1160:in the USA, forgings and castings in HY-80 by
1993:
1904:
1608:
1546:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1221:
2386:List of submarines of the United States Navy
1764:
1702:
1402:
45:is a high-tensile, high yield strength, low
1808:
1641:
1529:
1512:
1190:, 730 dives during her time in commission.
2000:
1986:
1218:
219:(1988), had trialled HY-100 construction.
1718:"Hybrid Laser Arc Welding of HY-80 Steel"
1637:. ASTM Special Technical Publication 494.
1411:
1397:Accelerating Utilization of New Materials
1430:
1103:
18:
1890:
1814:
1746:
1696:
1647:
1577:
1552:
1066:
234:is roughly double the official figure.
2404:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1715:
1460:
249:submarines to just three constructed.
201:, although two of the preceding HY-80
1981:
1943:"Sheffield Forgemasters Steel Grades"
1265:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1231:
166:, a small diesel research submarine.
1912:"Armor: Steels for National Defense"
1794:
1082:
1917:. ArcelorMittal USA. Archived from
1788:
1782:
1735:
1589:
282:Importance of key alloying elements
13:
2328:Auxiliary submarines - AGSS or SSA
1876:
1859:
1835:
1747:Patella, Gregory (December 2014).
1662:from the original on May 21, 2015.
1555:Welding Metallurgy and Weldability
1501:. 21ā22 March 1960. Archived from
1484:
1384:10.1111/j.1559-3584.1965.tb05346.x
1302:10.1111/j.1559-3584.1965.tb05644.x
1254:
507:
14:
2428:
1821:. ASM International. p. 38.
1648:Holmquist, T.J (September 1987).
1414:"Subs' Hull Problems Resurfacing"
311:
1145:Notch toughness is a measure of
272:
2008:US submarine classes after 1945
1953:
1935:
1758:
1666:
1583:
1209:Elements not added deliberately
1961:"GSC Defence supply materials"
1815:Kaufman, John Gilbert (2001).
1470:. Globe Pequot. pp. 1ā2.
1412:Lyn Bixby (8 September 1991).
1390:
1359:
1337:
1308:
1178:
1040:
759:{\displaystyle K=E/3(1-2\nu )}
753:
738:
689:
677:
1:
1467:The Death of the USS Thresher
1171:
695:{\displaystyle G=E/2(1+\nu )}
252:
74:
2016:ballistic missile submarines
1525:. 19 June 1987. MIL-S-16216.
1248:10.1016/j.matdes.2006.03.028
1133:magnetic particle inspection
929:{\displaystyle k/\rho c_{p}}
139:of 1,100 feet (340 m).
7:
1898:"HY 80 / 100 (MIL-S-16216)"
1542:. 5 June 2003. MIL S-21952.
10:
2433:
1968:Goodwin Steel Castings Ltd
1440:. iUniverse. p. 316.
1118:
293:austenitic stainless steel
2381:
2367:
2327:
2295:
2250:
2231:
2114:
2087:cruise missile submarines
2084:
2013:
1716:Roepke, C (August 2009).
1275:Military Analysis Network
1033:
939:
886:
844:
774:
769:
705:
644:
613:
577:
496:
486:
476:
466:
461:
451:
441:
431:
426:
416:
406:
396:
386:
376:
366:
343:
1164:and castings in HY80 by
1023:{\displaystyle T_{melt}}
949:Coefficient of expansion
58:strength to weight ratio
35:on the building ways at
1900:. American Alloy Steel.
1767:"Technical Data Sheets"
1372:Naval Engineers Journal
1290:Naval Engineers Journal
969:{\displaystyle \alpha }
145:special treatment steel
1947:Sheffield Forgemasters
1553:Lippold, John (2015).
1271:"Run Silent, Run Deep"
1235:Materials & Design
1166:Goodwin Steel Castings
1162:Sheffield Forgemasters
1054:It is not possible to
1024:
970:
930:
877:
835:
797:
760:
696:
636:
600:
39:
1725:Supplement to Weld. J
1621:Welding the HY Steels
1104:Distortion and stress
1025:
971:
931:
878:
876:{\displaystyle c_{p}}
836:
798:
796:{\displaystyle \rho }
761:
697:
637:
601:
147:(STS), a homogeneous
22:
2417:Submarine components
2374:Single ship of class
2299:submarines - SSR or
1067:Welding filler metal
998:
960:
902:
860:
825:
787:
718:
657:
635:{\displaystyle \nu }
626:
590:
322:electric arc furnace
2190:Glenard P. Lipscomb
1884:"Alloy Steels HY80"
1699:, pp. 213ā262.
1674:ASM Metals Handbook
1590:Kou, Sindo (2003).
1437:The Rickover Effect
775:Thermal Properties
578:Elastic Properties
514:
151:steel developed by
1765:Washington Alloy.
1592:Welding Metallurgy
1432:Rockwell, Theodore
1020:
966:
926:
873:
831:
793:
756:
692:
632:
596:
512:
432:Residual elements
344:Alloying elements
89:nuclear submarines
40:
2399:
2398:
2117:attack submarines
2058:Benjamin Franklin
2026:George Washington
1828:978-0-87170-732-1
1785:, pp. 66ā97.
1683:978-0-87170-377-4
1634:978-0-8031-0073-2
1601:978-0-471-43491-7
1564:978-1-118-23070-1
1477:978-0-7627-9613-7
1447:978-0-595-25270-1
1083:Welding processes
1038:
1037:
834:{\displaystyle k}
599:{\displaystyle E}
501:
500:
85:sonic layer depth
2424:
2115:Nuclear-powered
2085:Nuclear-powered
2014:Nuclear-powered
2002:
1995:
1988:
1979:
1978:
1972:
1971:
1965:
1957:
1951:
1950:
1939:
1933:
1932:
1930:
1929:
1923:
1916:
1908:
1902:
1901:
1894:
1888:
1887:
1880:
1874:
1873:
1871:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1855:on May 21, 2015.
1854:
1848:. Archived from
1847:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1812:
1806:
1805:
1792:
1786:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1771:
1762:
1756:
1755:
1753:
1744:
1733:
1732:
1722:
1713:
1700:
1694:
1688:
1687:
1670:
1664:
1663:
1661:
1654:
1645:
1639:
1638:
1626:
1615:
1606:
1605:
1587:
1581:
1575:
1569:
1568:
1550:
1544:
1543:
1541:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1524:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1508:on May 21, 2015.
1507:
1496:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1458:
1452:
1451:
1428:
1422:
1421:
1418:Hartford Courant
1409:
1400:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1363:
1357:
1356:
1345:"History of USS
1341:
1335:
1334:
1332:
1331:
1322:. Archived from
1312:
1306:
1305:
1285:
1279:
1278:
1267:
1252:
1251:
1242:(6): 1898ā1906.
1229:
1210:
1207:
1198:
1182:
1151:tear-yield ratio
1075:acicular ferrite
1029:
1027:
1026:
1021:
1019:
1018:
975:
973:
972:
967:
935:
933:
932:
927:
925:
924:
912:
882:
880:
879:
874:
872:
871:
840:
838:
837:
832:
802:
800:
799:
794:
765:
763:
762:
757:
734:
701:
699:
698:
693:
673:
641:
639:
638:
633:
605:
603:
602:
597:
515:
511:
331:
330:
243:
149:Krupp-type armor
112:fleet submarines
101:fatigue strength
2432:
2431:
2427:
2426:
2425:
2423:
2422:
2421:
2402:
2401:
2400:
2395:
2377:
2363:
2323:
2291:
2246:
2227:
2110:
2080:
2009:
2006:
1976:
1975:
1963:
1959:
1958:
1954:
1941:
1940:
1936:
1927:
1925:
1921:
1914:
1910:
1909:
1905:
1896:
1895:
1891:
1882:
1881:
1877:
1869:
1865:
1864:
1860:
1852:
1845:
1841:
1840:
1836:
1829:
1813:
1809:
1793:
1789:
1781:
1777:
1769:
1763:
1759:
1751:
1745:
1736:
1720:
1714:
1703:
1695:
1691:
1684:
1672:
1671:
1667:
1659:
1655:. AD-A233 061.
1652:
1646:
1642:
1635:
1624:
1616:
1609:
1602:
1588:
1584:
1576:
1572:
1565:
1551:
1547:
1539:
1535:
1534:
1530:
1522:
1518:
1517:
1513:
1505:
1494:
1490:
1489:
1485:
1478:
1459:
1455:
1448:
1429:
1425:
1410:
1403:
1395:
1391:
1364:
1360:
1343:
1342:
1338:
1329:
1327:
1314:
1313:
1309:
1286:
1282:
1269:
1268:
1255:
1230:
1219:
1214:
1213:
1208:
1201:
1183:
1179:
1174:
1147:tear resistance
1121:
1106:
1085:
1069:
1056:autogenous weld
1043:
1005:
1001:
999:
996:
995:
961:
958:
957:
920:
916:
908:
903:
900:
899:
867:
863:
861:
858:
857:
826:
823:
822:
788:
785:
784:
730:
719:
716:
715:
669:
658:
655:
654:
627:
624:
623:
620:Poisson's Ratio
591:
588:
587:
584:Elastic modulus
551:(900 MPa)
545:(690 MPa)
539:(550 MPa)
510:
508:Characteristics
467:Trace elements
324:(EAF) process.
314:
284:
275:
255:
241:
141:Bureau of Ships
105:endurance limit
93:periscope depth
77:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2430:
2420:
2419:
2414:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2393:
2388:
2382:
2379:
2378:
2376:
2375:
2372:
2368:
2365:
2364:
2362:
2361:
2354:
2347:
2340:
2331:
2329:
2325:
2324:
2322:
2321:
2314:
2305:
2303:
2293:
2292:
2290:
2289:
2281:
2274:
2266:
2257:
2255:
2248:
2247:
2245:
2244:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2228:
2226:
2225:
2217:
2209:
2201:
2193:
2186:
2179:
2171:
2163:
2156:
2148:
2140:
2133:
2125:
2123:
2112:
2111:
2109:
2108:
2100:
2092:
2090:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2078:
2070:
2062:
2054:
2046:
2038:
2030:
2021:
2019:
2011:
2010:
2005:
2004:
1997:
1990:
1982:
1974:
1973:
1952:
1934:
1903:
1889:
1875:
1858:
1834:
1827:
1807:
1787:
1775:
1757:
1734:
1701:
1697:Lippold (2015)
1689:
1682:
1665:
1640:
1633:
1607:
1600:
1582:
1580:, p. 226.
1578:Lippold (2015)
1570:
1563:
1545:
1528:
1511:
1483:
1476:
1462:Polmar, Norman
1453:
1446:
1423:
1401:
1389:
1378:(2): 193ā200.
1358:
1336:
1307:
1280:
1253:
1216:
1215:
1212:
1211:
1199:
1176:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1125:Charpy V-notch
1120:
1117:
1105:
1102:
1084:
1081:
1068:
1065:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1035:
1032:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1008:
1004:
988:
987:
984:
981:
978:
965:
945:
944:
941:
938:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
892:
891:
888:
885:
870:
866:
850:
849:
846:
843:
830:
815:
814:
811:
808:
805:
792:
777:
776:
772:
771:
768:
755:
752:
749:
746:
743:
740:
737:
733:
729:
726:
723:
708:
707:
704:
691:
688:
685:
682:
679:
676:
672:
668:
665:
662:
647:
646:
643:
631:
616:
615:
612:
595:
580:
579:
575:
574:
571:
568:
565:
554:
553:
547:
541:
535:
533:yield strength
528:
527:
524:
521:
518:
509:
506:
499:
498:
495:
489:
488:
485:
479:
478:
475:
469:
468:
464:
463:
460:
454:
453:
450:
444:
443:
440:
434:
433:
429:
428:
425:
419:
418:
415:
409:
408:
405:
399:
398:
395:
389:
388:
385:
379:
378:
375:
369:
368:
365:
359:
358:
355:
352:
346:
345:
341:
340:
337:
334:
313:
312:Trace elements
310:
283:
280:
274:
271:
270:
269:
266:
254:
251:
153:Carnegie Steel
76:
73:
65:yield strength
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2429:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2409:
2407:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2383:
2380:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2355:
2353:
2352:
2348:
2346:
2345:
2341:
2339:
2337:
2333:
2332:
2330:
2326:
2320:
2319:
2315:
2313:
2311:
2307:
2306:
2304:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2288:
2286:
2282:
2280:
2279:
2275:
2273:
2271:
2267:
2265:
2263:
2259:
2258:
2256:
2254:
2249:
2243:
2241:
2237:
2236:
2234:
2230:
2224:
2222:
2218:
2216:
2214:
2210:
2208:
2206:
2202:
2200:
2198:
2194:
2192:
2191:
2187:
2185:
2184:
2180:
2178:
2176:
2172:
2170:
2168:
2164:
2162:
2161:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2149:
2147:
2145:
2141:
2139:
2138:
2134:
2132:
2131:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2118:
2113:
2107:
2105:
2101:
2099:
2098:
2094:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2083:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2069:
2067:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2055:
2053:
2051:
2050:James Madison
2047:
2045:
2043:
2039:
2037:
2035:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2012:
2003:
1998:
1996:
1991:
1989:
1984:
1983:
1980:
1969:
1962:
1956:
1948:
1944:
1938:
1924:on 2015-05-20
1920:
1913:
1907:
1899:
1893:
1885:
1879:
1872:. April 1972.
1868:
1862:
1851:
1844:
1838:
1830:
1824:
1820:
1819:
1811:
1803:
1800:
1799:
1791:
1784:
1779:
1768:
1761:
1750:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1730:
1726:
1719:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1698:
1693:
1685:
1679:
1675:
1669:
1658:
1651:
1644:
1636:
1630:
1623:
1622:
1614:
1612:
1603:
1597:
1593:
1586:
1579:
1574:
1566:
1560:
1556:
1549:
1538:
1532:
1521:
1515:
1504:
1500:
1493:
1487:
1479:
1473:
1469:
1468:
1463:
1457:
1449:
1443:
1439:
1438:
1433:
1427:
1419:
1415:
1408:
1406:
1398:
1393:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1362:
1354:
1350:
1348:
1340:
1326:on 2014-05-17
1325:
1321:
1319:
1311:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1284:
1276:
1272:
1266:
1264:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1236:
1228:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1217:
1206:
1204:
1196:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1181:
1177:
1169:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1158:ArcelorMittal
1154:
1152:
1148:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1116:
1113:
1112:
1101:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1080:
1078:
1076:
1064:
1060:
1057:
1052:
1050:
1049:
1031:
1015:
1012:
1009:
1006:
1002:
993:
992:Melting point
990:
989:
985:
982:
979:
977:
963:
954:
950:
947:
946:
942:
937:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
897:
894:
893:
889:
884:
868:
864:
855:
854:Specific heat
852:
851:
847:
842:
828:
820:
817:
816:
812:
809:
806:
804:
790:
782:
779:
778:
773:
767:
750:
747:
744:
741:
735:
731:
727:
724:
721:
713:
710:
709:
703:
686:
683:
680:
674:
670:
666:
663:
660:
652:
651:Shear modulus
649:
648:
642:
629:
621:
618:
617:
611:
609:
593:
585:
582:
581:
576:
572:
569:
566:
563:
559:
556:
555:
552:
548:
546:
542:
540:
536:
534:
530:
529:
526:HY-130 steel
525:
523:HY-100 steel
522:
519:
517:
516:
505:
494:
491:
490:
484:
481:
480:
474:
471:
470:
465:
459:
456:
455:
449:
446:
445:
439:
436:
435:
430:
424:
421:
420:
414:
411:
410:
404:
401:
400:
394:
391:
390:
384:
381:
380:
374:
371:
370:
364:
361:
360:
356:
353:
351:
348:
347:
342:
338:
335:
333:
332:
329:
325:
323:
319:
309:
306:
303:
299:
296:
294:
290:
279:
273:Alloy content
267:
264:
263:
262:
259:
250:
248:
240:
235:
233:
229:
225:
224:
218:
217:
211:
210:
204:
200:
198:
192:
190:
189:
183:
181:
175:
171:
169:
165:
164:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
132:
127:
125:
120:
119:
113:
108:
106:
102:
96:
94:
90:
86:
82:
72:
70:
66:
61:
59:
55:
51:
48:
44:
38:
34:
33:
28:
26:
21:
2412:Steel alloys
2357:
2350:
2343:
2335:
2317:
2309:
2297:Radar picket
2284:
2277:
2269:
2261:
2239:
2220:
2212:
2204:
2196:
2189:
2182:
2174:
2166:
2159:
2151:
2143:
2136:
2129:
2103:
2096:
2073:
2065:
2057:
2049:
2041:
2033:
2025:
1967:
1955:
1946:
1937:
1926:. Retrieved
1919:the original
1906:
1892:
1878:
1861:
1850:the original
1837:
1817:
1810:
1804:: 421sā430s.
1801:
1796:
1790:
1778:
1760:
1728:
1724:
1692:
1673:
1668:
1643:
1620:
1591:
1585:
1573:
1554:
1548:
1531:
1514:
1503:the original
1486:
1466:
1456:
1436:
1426:
1417:
1396:
1392:
1375:
1371:
1361:
1353:usstorsk.org
1352:
1346:
1339:
1328:. Retrieved
1324:the original
1317:
1310:
1296:(1): 29ā44.
1293:
1289:
1283:
1274:
1239:
1233:
1193:
1186:
1180:
1155:
1144:
1141:
1139:inspection.
1137:eddy-current
1122:
1109:
1107:
1086:
1073:
1070:
1061:
1053:
1047:
1044:
994:
956:
898:
856:
821:
819:Conductivity
783:
714:
712:Bulk modulus
653:
622:
586:
550:
544:
538:
520:HY-80 steel
502:
326:
315:
307:
304:
300:
297:
285:
276:
260:
256:
246:
238:
236:
231:
227:
222:
215:
208:
202:
196:
193:
187:
179:
176:
172:
167:
162:
130:
123:
117:
109:
97:
78:
62:
42:
41:
31:
24:
2197:Los Angeles
2034:Ethan Allen
1168:in the UK.
1041:Weldability
896:Diffusivity
497:0.030% max
487:0.025% max
477:0.025% max
427:0.50ā0.65%
417:1.50ā1.90%
407:3.00ā3.50%
397:0.15ā0.38%
387:0.008% max
377:0.015% max
367:0.10ā0.40%
357:0.14ā0.20%
268:MIL S-21952
265:MIL S-16216
212:(1987) and
203:Los Angeles
137:crush depth
37:Mare Island
16:Alloy steel
2406:Categories
1928:2015-05-20
1783:Kou (2003)
1731:: 159ā167.
1330:2015-05-20
1320:ā History"
1172:References
1111:Distortion
462:0.25% max
452:0.02% max
442:0.03% max
423:Molybdenum
373:Phosphorus
354:0.13ā0.18%
253:Metallurgy
157:molybdenum
121:, and the
75:Submarines
2262:Barracuda
2042:Lafayette
1499:Bu. Ships
1349:(SS-423)"
1192:USS
1185:USS
964:α
914:ρ
791:ρ
751:ν
745:−
687:ν
630:ν
363:Manganese
318:eutectics
221:USS
214:USS
207:USS
186:USS
161:USS
116:USS
54:submarine
30:USS
2344:Albacore
2310:Sailfish
2240:Grayback
2213:Virginia
2175:Sturgeon
2160:Tullibee
2152:Skipjack
2130:Nautilus
2074:Columbia
1798:Weld. J.
1657:Archived
1464:(2004).
1434:(2002).
1318:Tullibee
1187:Tullibee
986:.000013
983:.000014
980:.000011
943:.000007
940:.000009
883:(J/kgK)
562:Rockwell
558:Hardness
549:130 ksi
543:100 ksi
531:Tensile
473:Antimony
448:Titanium
438:Vanadium
413:Chromium
228:Thresher
188:Thresher
168:Albacore
163:Albacore
131:Skipjack
118:Nautilus
2351:Dolphin
2205:Seawolf
2183:Narwhal
2137:Seawolf
2097:Halibut
1119:Testing
1045:HIC or
841:(W/mK)
803:(kg/m)
781:Density
537:80 ksi
483:Arsenic
393:Silicon
339:HY-100
247:Seawolf
239:Seawolf
232:Seawolf
223:Seawolf
205:class,
197:Seawolf
32:Plunger
2318:Triton
2285:Barbel
2278:Darter
2221:SSN(X)
2167:Permit
2089:- SSGN
2018:- SSBN
1825:
1680:
1631:
1598:
1561:
1474:
1444:
936:(m/s)
766:(GPa)
702:(GPa)
458:Copper
403:Nickel
383:Sulfur
350:Carbon
336:HY-80
216:Topeka
209:Albany
180:Permit
126:-class
25:Permit
2338:class
2312:class
2287:class
2272:class
2264:class
2242:class
2223:class
2215:class
2207:class
2199:class
2177:class
2169:class
2154:class
2146:class
2144:Skate
2106:class
2076:class
2068:class
2060:class
2052:class
2044:class
2036:class
2028:class
1964:(PDF)
1922:(PDF)
1915:(PDF)
1870:(PDF)
1853:(PDF)
1846:(PDF)
1770:(PDF)
1752:(PDF)
1721:(PDF)
1660:(PDF)
1653:(PDF)
1625:(PDF)
1540:(PDF)
1523:(PDF)
1506:(PDF)
1495:(PDF)
1347:Torsk
1316:"USS
1194:Torsk
1034:1793
813:7885
810:7748
807:7746
573:C-30
570:C-25
567:C-21
242:'
199:class
182:class
133:class
124:Skate
81:sonar
50:steel
47:alloy
43:HY-80
27:class
2358:NR-1
2301:SSRN
2270:Tang
2104:Ohio
2066:Ohio
1823:ISBN
1678:ISBN
1629:ISBN
1596:ISBN
1559:ISBN
1472:ISBN
1442:ISBN
1135:and
1094:GMAW
1090:SMAW
1030:(K)
976:(K)
953:vol.
890:489
887:502
770:172
645:.30
614:207
2336:T-1
2253:SSK
2121:SSN
1380:doi
1298:doi
1244:doi
1129:NDE
1098:SAW
1048:HAC
848:27
845:34
706:79
608:GPa
493:Tin
289:FCC
69:ksi
2408::
2119:-
1966:.
1945:.
1802:93
1737:^
1729:88
1727:.
1723:.
1704:^
1610:^
1497:.
1416:.
1404:^
1376:77
1374:.
1370:.
1351:.
1294:77
1292:.
1273:.
1256:^
1240:28
1238:.
1220:^
1202:^
1096:,
1092:,
955:)
610:)
564:)
295:.
60:.
2371:S
2001:e
1994:t
1987:v
1970:.
1949:.
1931:.
1886:.
1831:.
1772:.
1686:.
1604:.
1567:.
1480:.
1450:.
1420:.
1386:.
1382::
1355:.
1333:.
1304:.
1300::
1250:.
1246::
1077:.
1016:t
1013:l
1010:e
1007:m
1003:T
951:(
922:p
918:c
910:/
906:k
869:p
865:c
829:k
754:)
748:2
742:1
739:(
736:3
732:/
728:E
725:=
722:K
690:)
684:+
681:1
678:(
675:2
671:/
667:E
664:=
661:G
606:(
594:E
560:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
_on_the_ways_at_Mare_Island.jpg)