32:
986:
2684:
4697:
777:, and was tasked with the creation of audio recordings demonstrating the new national pronunciation, which he did in New York City. However, it had become increasingly clear that the Republican government was not capable of promoting the national pronunciation, and during the 1920s efforts shifted instead towards basing the national language on Mandarin as spoken in Beijing. While Chao had supported the compromise national pronunciation, factors including his correspondence with the prominent linguist
5347:
711:
1814:
693:
became the international standard during the 1980s, and itself follows principles originally introduced by GR. Widespread adoption of the system was also hindered by its narrow calibration to the
Beijing dialect, during a period when China lacked the strong central government needed to impose use of a national spoken language.
2714:
2367:
2264:
827:
of 1932. The designers of Gwoyeu
Romatzyh generally represented what has been termed the "Romanization" movement, one among several interested in large-scale reform of the Chinese writing system; many within the Romanization movement sought to adopt Gwoyeu Romatzyh as a primary, practical script for
696:
From 1942 to 2000, a small number of reference works published in Hong Kong and overseas also used the system, and Chao would use it throughout his later linguistics work, including in his most influential publications. Chao said that tonal spelling could possibly aid students of
Chinese learning to
1854:
School for
Overseas Administration from 1943 to 1944, and subsequently in civilian courses; republished in 1948. It was written "to supply the advanced student of spoken Chinese with reading matter which he can actually use in his speech". The work consists of three volumes of Chinese text with
692:
altogether—GR never achieved widespread use among the
Chinese public, who generally lacked interest in the system or viewed it with hostility due to its complex spelling rules. In places where GR had gained traction, it was eventually replaced—largely by Hanyu Pinyin (or simply "pinyin"), which
856:
systems—often identifying with the
Communists, and likewise opposing the KMT. Conversely, Karlgren criticized GR for its lack of phonetic rigour. Ultimately, like Latinxua Sin Wenz, GR failed to gain widespread support, principally because the "national" language was too narrowly based on the
2699:) was used as the scheme for romanization." Another feature was an "Instant Index System": "an invention by Lin Yutang with the intention of providing a simple and unambiguous rule to call up any given Chinese character ... his index system has not been widely used since its inception."
2723:, pp. 231–232, "The results clearly indicated that GR did not lead to significantly greater accuracy in tonal production. Indeed, the use of GR reflected slightly lower rates of tonal production accuracy for native speakers of both American English and Japanese."
753:
held in 1913 resulted in the adoption of a "national pronunciation" designed as a compromise featuring characteristics of numerous varieties spoken across China; however, this meant a form of speech that was itself artificial and spoken by no one, and the struggling
2273:, p. 11, "Without disclaiming responsibility, as a very active member of the Committee on Unification, for the merits and defects of the system, I must give credit to my colleague Lin Yutang for the idea of varying the spelling to indicate difference in tone."
2376:, "While the official position was that it was to be used whenever Chinese was to be spelled in Latin letters, such as in dealing with foreigners, those who devised the system, of whom I was one, had in our minds the design of a practical system of writing."
2003:
from 1991 to 1993 compared the results of teaching elementary level
Chinese using either pinyin or GR to two matched groups of students; the study ultimately concluded that "GR did not lead to significantly greater accuracy in tonal production".
1785:. The concept of a "word" as understood in Western linguistics has been adapted for Chinese comparatively recently. The basic unit of speech is popularly thought to be the syllable; in Chinese, each syllable almost always represents a
785:(1895–1976); by 1922, Chao had already established the main principles of the system. During 1925 and 1926, its details were developed by a team of five linguists under the auspices of the National Languages Committee: Chao, Lin,
1975:, with which it is possible to associate meaning ... as an instrument of teaching, tonal spelling has proved in practice to be a most powerful aid in enabling the student to grasp the material with precision and clearness.
1901:. Over the remainder of the 1940s he published a series of textbooks and readers, as well as a Chinese-English dictionary using GR. His son Harry Simon later went on to use GR in papers he published on Chinese linguistics.
2415:
733:. During the final decades of the Qing, liberal reformers among the Chinese intelligentsia had begun seeking ways to modernize the country's institutions. Proposed language reforms included the replacement of
2672:
781:(1889–1978) encouraged his work on a new romanization system attuned to the Beijing dialect. Tonal spelling, Gwoyeu Romatzyh's most distinctive feature, was first suggested to Yuen Ren Chao by
669:(1895–1976). Distinct sets of spellings are assigned to syllables in GR according to particular rules. This differs from approaches used by other systems to denote tones, like the
848:
in
England. During this period, GR faced increasing hostility because of the complexity of its tonal spelling. A competing "Latinization" movement coalesced around leaders like
3575:
823:
system, hence its designation as the "Second
Pattern of the National Alphabet". Both systems were used to indicate the revised standard of pronunciation in the new official
4120:
1932:
4082:
1276:. The basic form is then modified to indicate tones 2, 3, and 4. This is accomplished in one of three ways, with the concise first method used whenever possible:
4822:
3604:
1936:(1972) incorporated a number of novelties, which included a simplified romanization scheme derived from GR, though Lin eliminated most of the spelling rules.
916:, as well as by most students learning Standard Chinese. GR saw considerable use in Taiwan during the 20th century, alongside Hanyu Pinyin, the autochthonous
4629:
4619:
2424:, p. 20, " is based on a series of very fatal phonetic lies, and for this reason it will be very difficult to learn, and consequently impractical."
1797:
are two-syllable compounds; Chao reflected this in GR's orthography by grouping syllables in words together without hyphenation, as in Wade–Giles (e.g.
977:
4624:
4383:
3931:
893:
745:
was spoken in an official capacity by the imperial bureaucracy in the north of the country, most of China's population spoke mutually unintelligible
4538:
1855:
facing GR romanization, including audio recordings of dialogue, fragments of an autobiography, two plays, and a translation of Lewis
Carroll's
922:
913:
750:
1793:
generally correspond with these morpheme–syllables. Characters are written without spaces between words. However, most words used in modern
31:
4705:
3943:
3332:
1014:
An important feature of Gwoyeu Romatzyh, inspired by its precursors and later adopted by pinyin, is the use of consonant pairs with a
3907:
3895:
2783:
872:; these names differ only by tone, and their systematic pinyin romanizations would be identical without the use of diacritics. The
3919:
3411:
688:
Despite support from linguists both in China and overseas—including some early proponents who hoped it would eventually replace
5003:
2681:, p. xii, " primary aim is to introduce students to the Classical style through the medium of the modern spoken language."
927:
828:
the language. During the 1930s, two short-lived attempts were made to teach Gwoyeu Romatzyh to railway workers and peasants in
742:
4242:
3283:
3096:
3056:
2934:
2874:
2772:
773:
should be replaced with an alphabet designed to write the sounds of a national form of Chinese. By 1921, Chao had joined the
749:; many also saw adoption of a single spoken dialect nationwide as being necessary for China's modernization. The tumultuous
5053:
1832:
4895:
904:(1906–2017) over the previous two years. Pinyin is now the predominant system and an international standard used by the
3047:; Hu, Jing (2024). "A Century of Chinese Writing Reform". In Jiao, Liwei; Mair, Victor H.; Wang, William S.-Y. (eds.).
819:("G.R. was officially announced on September 26. Hooray!!!") It was intended for GR to be used alongside the existing
3219:
3034:
2967:
2855:
2836:
2817:
2749:
1847:
722:
658:
618:
121:
3177:
Weng, Jeffrey (2018). "What Is Mandarin? The Social Project of Language Standardization in Early Republican China".
5369:
1967:
Chao believed that the benefit of tonal spelling was to make the use of tones in Chinese more salient to learners:
920:, and the bopomofo syllabary. It was also used there as a pronunciation aid until the 1970s, as in the monolingual
4975:
3206:
Wiedenhof, Jeroen (2004). "Purpose and effect in the transcription of Mandarin". In Lee Jer-shiarn (李哲賢) (ed.).
959:
896:
in 1949, GR was practically unused on the mainland. In 1958, the Chinese government officially replaced it with
3682:
3325:
2020:
427:
348:
158:
697:
articulate tones. However, later study of tonal accuracy in students has not substantiated Chao's hypothesis.
5291:
4745:
2028:
441:
310:
172:
5350:
5261:
4785:
3066:
McGinnis, Scott (1997). "Tonal Spelling versus Diacritics for Teaching Pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese".
934:
774:
654:
68:
1112:
1035:
1031:
973:
969:
5266:
5138:
5063:
4720:
3106:
Simmons, Richard VanNess (2015). "Transcription Systems: Gwoyeu Romatzyh 國語羅馬字". In Sybesma, Rint (ed.).
946:
533:
266:
888:. Several prominent Chinese people have used GR to transliterate their names, such as the mathematician
864:
Historical use of Gwoyeu Romatzyh is reflected in the official spelling of the name for the province of
5308:
5281:
5158:
5070:
4817:
4797:
1886:
1794:
738:
4860:
3558:
3318:
1894:
1857:
1109:
845:
662:
985:
5234:
5219:
5209:
4923:
3302:
2515:
765:(1892–1982) was among the first to propose—in an English-language essay co-authored with the poet
5246:
3485:
3131:
Simon, Harry F. (1958). "Some Remarks on the Structure of the Verb Complex in Standard Chinese".
5239:
5088:
1334:—are an exception: the basic form is then used for tone 2, and tone 1 is indicated by adding an
836:. Support for GR was confined to a small number of trained linguists and sinologists, including
5180:
5023:
3621:
1019:
955:
806:
1272:
By default, the basic Gwoyeu Romatzyh spelling described above is used for syllables with the
5175:
5098:
4812:
4790:
3545:
3378:
873:
4943:
4911:
4740:
3865:
3360:
2981:
2000:
861:: "a sufficiently precise and strong language norm had not yet become a reality in China".
746:
8:
5187:
5153:
4988:
4955:
4802:
4730:
4647:
4488:
4483:
4237:
4047:
3553:
1778:
909:
1273:
5303:
5170:
5133:
5018:
4916:
4850:
4845:
4735:
4725:
4351:
4329:
4222:
4030:
4025:
3948:
3936:
3924:
3912:
3900:
3424:
3214:]. Touliu: National Yunlin University of Science and Technology. pp. 387–402.
3156:
3148:
3075:
3008:
3000:
2806:
1951:) also used a simplified version of Gwoyeu Romatzyh. The fourth issue, now rendered as
1925:
1851:
1790:
933:
dictionary. In 1986, the Taiwanese government officially replaced GR with the modified
770:
755:
689:
657:
in refining the system between 1925 and 1926. In September 1928, it was adopted by the
384:
376:
2914:
404:
5214:
5204:
5083:
5048:
4903:
4855:
4807:
4574:
4427:
4361:
4217:
4202:
3873:
3850:
3804:
3729:
3655:
3535:
3503:
3457:
3396:
3386:
3351:
3279:
3254:
3215:
3194:
3160:
3119:
3092:
3052:
3030:
3012:
2963:
2946:
2930:
2870:
2851:
2832:
2813:
2768:
2761:
2745:
1132:
1015:
889:
853:
778:
730:
332:
324:
5320:
4840:
4715:
4579:
4569:
4554:
4500:
4422:
4373:
4334:
4283:
4197:
4149:
4133:
4013:
3973:
3968:
3855:
3809:
3755:
3750:
3740:
3734:
3563:
3508:
3493:
3369:
3341:
3271:
3246:
3238:
3186:
3140:
3111:
1921:
1913:
1182:
734:
638:
566:
472:
203:
138:
2991:
Ching, Eugene (1975). "Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage by Lin Yutang".
1897:
introduced Gwoyeu Romatzyh to English-speaking sinologists in a pamphlet entitled
665:
by varying the spelling of syllables, a method originally proposed by team member
5271:
5148:
5108:
5093:
4832:
4682:
4672:
4652:
4609:
4604:
4470:
4434:
4417:
4407:
4346:
4164:
4100:
4042:
3990:
3985:
3887:
3783:
3778:
3687:
3634:
3629:
3609:
3594:
3589:
3530:
3525:
3515:
3498:
3470:
3442:
3419:
2885:
1837:
1063:
917:
858:
296:
661:
as the national romanization system for Standard Chinese. GR indicates the four
5325:
5315:
5286:
5276:
4993:
4965:
4677:
4662:
4564:
4515:
4510:
4495:
4439:
4378:
4260:
4232:
4212:
4159:
4128:
4105:
4095:
4090:
4052:
4035:
3980:
3845:
3827:
3745:
3719:
3660:
3580:
3568:
3520:
3475:
3465:
3391:
3115:
3044:
2901:
905:
805:
On 26 September 1928, Gwoyeu Romatzyh was officially adopted by the Republic's
674:
642:
280:
4696:
3190:
3144:
5363:
5126:
4938:
4933:
4505:
4449:
4444:
4412:
4399:
4275:
4227:
4154:
4110:
4000:
3837:
3760:
3599:
3447:
3434:
3258:
3198:
3123:
2737:
1917:
901:
837:
790:
762:
646:
88:
73:
2137:
2069:; 'national pronunciation') was often used interchangeably with
4998:
4948:
4324:
4207:
4180:
3724:
3714:
2548:
1782:
897:
881:
841:
726:
682:
479:
394:
210:
1283:
a letter is changed to another letter resembling it in sound, for example
5143:
5117:
5013:
4983:
4960:
4928:
4667:
4657:
4461:
4356:
4341:
4304:
4252:
4073:
4064:
3960:
3799:
3674:
3401:
3268:
Chinese Grammatology: Script Revolution and Literary Modernity, 1916–1958
1098:
885:
877:
670:
4559:
4533:
4299:
4265:
3770:
3697:
3004:
2977:
1046:
in Wade–Giles. Another distinctive feature is Gwoyeu Romatzyh's use of
884:, whose names are homophonous in Mandarin, but were likely distinct in
810:
782:
714:
666:
78:
3275:
3242:
3229:
Xing, Huang; Feng, Xu (2016). "The Romanization of Chinese Language".
3152:
3079:
1959:, used a system that adapted pinyin to use tonal spelling akin to GR.
1173:
being reserved to indicate the second tone. The most important use of
5008:
4759:
4750:
4478:
4368:
4020:
4008:
3819:
3650:
3250:
1136:
1079:
849:
813:(KMT). The corresponding entry in Chao's diary, written in GR, reads
678:
650:
341:
1979:
For example, it may be easier to memorize the difference between GR
741:
that more closely reflected ordinary speech. Meanwhile, even though
5298:
4884:
4525:
3706:
3310:
3212:
Proceedings of the International Conference on Chinese Studies 2004
2487:
2224:
1786:
1216:
965:
880:
is often spelled as such to distinguish it from the more prominent
833:
820:
786:
493:
362:
224:
83:
56:
5330:
1777:
An important principle of Gwoyeu Romatzyh is that text should use
5197:
4877:
4764:
4593:
4189:
2300:
865:
766:
401:
758:
had few means to promote its use among the general population.
5256:
5058:
2276:
2036:
1813:
869:
37:
4769:
2564:
1058:
to represent two different phonetic series. When followed by
829:
725:
was founded in 1912, following the overthrow of the imperial
601:
584:
409:
2340:
710:
2166:
2164:
2162:
1905:
1904:
In 1960, Y. C. Liu, who was a colleague of Walter Simon at
610:
592:
578:
2379:
989:
Gwoyeu Romatzyh on a park sign in Taipei –
2624:
1924:
as well as vernacular translation, in addition to GR and
581:
572:
381:
367:
353:
2463:
2159:
3108:
Encyclopedia of Chinese Language and Linguistics Online
2427:
2391:
1933:
Lin Yutang's Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage
3133:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
3089:
A Billion Voices: China's Search for a Common Language
3049:
The Routledge Handbook of Chinese Language and Culture
2763:
Mandarin Primer: An Intensive Course in Spoken Chinese
2648:
2600:
2252:
2357:
2355:
2240:
2212:
2188:
2176:
2112:
2088:
1986:
1980:
1953:
1941:
1827:
Chao used Gwoyeu Romatzyh in four influential works:
1737:
1730:
1723:
1716:
1635:
1628:
1621:
1614:
1533:
1526:
1519:
1512:
1431:
1424:
1417:
1410:
990:
825:
Vocabulary of National Pronunciation for Everyday Use
814:
619:
607:
575:
569:
538:
498:
484:
329:
315:
301:
285:
271:
229:
215:
2791:. New York: Smithsonian Folkways Recordings. FW08002
2576:
2503:
2439:
2316:
964:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
604:
589:
2986:(Online ed.). Chinese University of Hong Kong.
2451:
2403:
2328:
2288:
892:; however, neither Chao nor Lin did. Following the
868:, which distinguishes it from that of neighbouring
816:
G.R. yii yu jeou yueh 26 ry gong buh le. Hoo-ray!!!
598:
595:
46:('Second Pattern of the National Alphabet'; middle)
2805:
2760:
2475:
2352:
2200:
1971:makes the spelling more complicated, but gives an
2702:
2660:
2636:
2588:
5361:
2693:, "In the original edition, 'Guoryuu Romatzyh' (
2612:
1789:—a language's basic unit of meaning—and written
1318:Syllables beginning with a sonorant—i.e. pinyin
1018:distinction from Latin to instead represent the
978:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
800:
2886:"Romanization and Language Planning in Taiwan"
1342:Examples of tonal spelling in Gwoyeu Romatzyh
914:International Organization for Standardization
894:proclamation of the People's Republic of China
751:Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation
3326:
2999:(2). Association for Asian Studies: 521–524.
2694:
1798:
1702:
1692:
1682:
1672:
1600:
1590:
1580:
1570:
1498:
1488:
1478:
1468:
1396:
1386:
1376:
1366:
1201:
1022:distinction present in Chinese. For example,
446:
432:
177:
163:
94:
41:
40:(bottom) for Gwoyeu Romatzyh's official name
36:Comparison between Gwoyeu Romatzyh (top) and
5125:
900:, which had been developed by a team led by
717:, who first proposed tonal spelling, in 1939
2890:The Linguistic Association of Korea Journal
2867:Aspects of Chinese Sociolinguistics: Essays
2138:"Xin Tang: a journal of romanized Mandarin"
2046:
737:as China's primary written language with a
5346:
5116:
3333:
3319:
2983:Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage
2957:
2912:
2630:
2570:
2558:
2282:
2234:
2170:
1097:Other notable features of Gwoyeu Romatzyh
30:
3205:
2918:
2900:
2469:
2433:
2397:
2385:
2306:
1973:individuality to the physiognomy of words
1877:(1968) – in this context,
1846: – originally used in the
1009:
3228:
3065:
2945:
2927:Nationalism and Language Reform in China
2906:Nationalism and Language Reform in China
2736:
2720:
2582:
2421:
2322:
2051:'National language romanization'
1812:
984:
709:
5041:
3170:A Beginners' Chinese-English Dictionary
3105:
2542:
2457:
1115:, which in pinyin is spelled either as
458:Second pattern of the national alphabet
5362:
3043:
2883:
2481:
2445:
1808:
1131:
383:
331:
3314:
3265:
3167:
3130:
3086:
2990:
2845:
2826:
2803:
2708:
2666:
2654:
2642:
2606:
2554:
2529:
2525:
2509:
2497:
2409:
2373:
2346:
2334:
2258:
2246:
2230:
2218:
2206:
2194:
2182:
1899:The New Official Chinese Latin Script
3340:
3176:
2864:
2781:
2758:
2742:Concise Dictionary of Spoken Chinese
2618:
2594:
2521:
2493:
2361:
2310:
2294:
2270:
1928:transliterations prepared by Simon.
1833:Concise Dictionary of Spoken Chinese
1799:
1772:
1078:; otherwise, they correspond to the
968:. For the distinction between ,
16:1926 romanization system for Chinese
3231:Review of Asian and Pacific Studies
3021:
2976:
2915:One State, One People, One Language
2690:
2678:
2079:; 'national language').
631:
13:
2812:. University of California Press.
1996:
1992:
1948:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1207:
1062:, these letters correspond to the
14:
5381:
3294:
1912:, comprising selections from the
1848:Army Specialized Training Program
1267:
1219:have abbreviated spellings in GR
1215:A number of frequently occurring
5345:
4823:Literary and colloquial readings
4695:
2884:Chiung, Wi-vun Taiffalo (2001).
649:(1892–1982), who led a group of
645:. It was primarily conceived by
565:
3305:. 2004 – via pinyin.info.
3303:"Romanization comparison chart"
2846:——— (1968c).
2831:. Asian Language Publications.
2827:——— (1968b).
2804:——— (1968a).
2729:
2535:
2130:
2106:
2082:
960:International Phonetic Alphabet
410:
382:
368:
354:
2865:——— (1976).
2850:. Cambridge University Press.
2782:——— (1955).
2759:——— (1948).
2123:
2099:
2075:
2065:
2054:
2041:
2032:
2024:
2014:
1817:Yuen Ren Chao as a young man,
1001:
940:
539:
500:
499:
485:
447:
433:
385:[kʷɔ̄ːkjȳːlɔ̀ːmɐ̬tɕìː]
330:
316:
302:
286:
272:
231:
230:
216:
189:National language romanization
178:
164:
1:
3270:. Columbia University Press.
3051:. Routledge. pp. 27–42.
2908:. Princeton University Press.
2869:. Stanford University Press.
2848:Language and Symbolic Systems
2148:
1999:. One study conducted at the
1991:'background' than the pinyin
1836:(1947; in collaboration with
1818:
705:
5351:List of varieties of Chinese
3179:The Journal of Asian Studies
2993:The Journal of Asian Studies
2929:. New York: Octagon. 1972 .
2767:. Harvard University Press.
2744:. Harvard University Press.
2153:
1082:series written in pinyin as
1066:series written in pinyin as
935:Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II
801:Official status and adoption
775:National Languages Committee
655:National Languages Committee
69:National Languages Committee
7:
3068:The Modern Language Journal
2951:The Romanization of Chinese
2829:Readings in Sayable Chinese
2808:A Grammar of Spoken Chinese
2113:
2089:
1987:
1981:
1962:
1954:
1942:
1873:Readings in Sayable Chinese
1865:A Grammar of Spoken Chinese
1738:
1731:
1724:
1717:
1636:
1629:
1622:
1615:
1534:
1527:
1520:
1513:
1432:
1425:
1418:
1411:
991:
947:Spelling in Gwoyeu Romatzyh
815:
10:
5386:
5309:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols
3116:10.1163/2210-7363-ecll-all
2960:The Chinese Language Today
2532:, p. lviii, Table IX.
1887:written vernacular Chinese
1795:written vernacular Chinese
1338:after the initial letter.
944:
793:(1887–1939), and Wang Yi (
700:
637:) is a system for writing
5343:
5227:
5196:
5107:
5032:
4974:
4894:
4869:
4831:
4778:
4704:
4693:
4640:
4592:
4547:
4524:
4469:
4460:
4398:
4317:
4292:
4274:
4251:
4188:
4179:
4142:
4119:
4081:
4072:
4063:
3999:
3959:
3886:
3864:
3836:
3818:
3792:
3769:
3705:
3696:
3673:
3643:
3620:
3544:
3484:
3456:
3433:
3410:
3377:
3368:
3359:
3348:
3191:10.1017/S0021911818000487
3145:10.1017/S0041977X00060171
3074:(2). Blackwell: 228–236.
2958:Kratochvíl, Paul (1968).
2695:
2118:
2114:Gwoin charngyonq tzyhhuey
2094:
2090:Gwoin tzyhmuu dihell shyh
2070:
2060:
1858:Through the Looking-Glass
1745:
1712:
1703:
1693:
1683:
1673:
1668:
1643:
1610:
1601:
1591:
1581:
1571:
1566:
1541:
1508:
1499:
1489:
1479:
1469:
1464:
1439:
1406:
1397:
1387:
1377:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1354:
1351:
1348:
1202:
1110:close front rounded vowel
996:
794:
663:tones of Standard Chinese
554:
550:
540:Gwoin tzyhmuu dihell shyh
532:
492:
478:
471:
466:
462:
454:
440:
426:
421:
400:
393:
375:
361:
347:
340:
323:
309:
295:
279:
265:
223:
209:
202:
197:
193:
185:
171:
157:
152:
148:
144:
134:
113:
105:
95:
64:
51:
42:
29:
23:
3207:
3026:
2953:. London: China Society.
2349:, p. lxxi, Table X.
2140:– via pinyin.info.
2007:
1314:is added after the vowel
809:—led at the time by the
428:Traditional Chinese
159:Traditional Chinese
5370:Romanization of Chinese
2528:, pp. 29–30, 847;
2524:, pp. 28–30, 336;
1920:featuring the original
1889:often read by students.
956:phonetic transcriptions
442:Simplified Chinese
173:Simplified Chinese
3168:Simon, Walter (1947).
2740:; Yang, L. S. (1947).
2124:Guóyīn chángyòng zìhuì
1977:
1939:The first 3 issues of
1824:
1194:⟨i dean⟩
1165:corresponds to pinyin
1010:Basic first tone forms
1006:
953:This section contains
807:nationalist government
761:In 1916, the linguist
718:
369:Gwok3 jyu3 Lo4 ma5 zi6
3266:Zhong, Yurou (2019).
3087:Moser, David (2016).
3024:Fifty Chinese Stories
2100:Guóyīn zìmǔ dì'èr shì
1969:
1947:magazine (1982–1989;
1910:Fifty Chinese Stories
1816:
1190:⟨ideal⟩
1149:correspond to pinyin
988:
874:Warring States period
852:(1899–1935), and the
713:
486:Guóyīn zìmǔ dì'èr shì
2583:Chao & Yang 1947
2557:, pp. 138–143;
2323:Xing & Feng 2016
2001:University of Oregon
1885:, as opposed to the
1236:⟨-zhe⟩
1123:depending on context
747:varieties of Chinese
673:used by the earlier
3022:Liu, Y. C. (1960).
2021:Traditional Chinese
1809:Publication history
1343:
1300:a letter is doubled
1260:⟨-zi⟩
1256:⟨-tz⟩
1252:⟨shi⟩
1244:⟨-me⟩
1228:⟨-ge⟩
1226:compared to pinyin
1175:⟨-el⟩
1151:⟨shi⟩
1143:⟨shy⟩
910:Library of Congress
5304:Cantonese Bopomofo
5171:Chinese characters
5099:Written Sichuanese
3683:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot
3029:. Lund Humphries.
2947:Karlgren, Bernhard
2496:, pp. 19–24;
2446:Mair & Hu 2024
2233:, pp. 27–28;
2029:simplified Chinese
1926:romanized Japanese
1852:Harvard University
1825:
1791:Chinese characters
1341:
1332:⟨r-⟩
1328:⟨n-⟩
1324:⟨m-⟩
1320:⟨l-⟩
1248:⟨sh⟩
1240:⟨-m⟩
1232:⟨-j⟩
1224:⟨-g⟩
1198:⟨-l⟩
1179:⟨-l⟩
1171:⟨-r⟩
1167:⟨er⟩
1163:⟨el⟩
1155:⟨si⟩
1147:⟨sy⟩
1128:⟨-y⟩
1106:⟨iu⟩
1092:⟨sh⟩
1088:⟨ch⟩
1084:⟨zh⟩
1056:⟨sh⟩
1052:⟨ch⟩
1044:⟨p'⟩
1007:
771:Chinese characters
756:Beiyang government
739:written vernacular
719:
690:Chinese characters
681:used by the later
5357:
5356:
5339:
5338:
5166:
5165:
5084:Written Cantonese
5079:
5078:
4861:Classical grammar
4856:Cantonese grammar
4691:
4690:
4588:
4587:
4394:
4393:
4313:
4312:
4175:
4174:
3882:
3881:
3669:
3668:
3559:Chengdu–Chongqing
3352:Sinitic languages
3285:978-0-231-54989-9
3276:10.7312/zhon19262
3243:10.15018/00001134
3172:. Lund Humphries.
3098:978-0-734-39959-5
3058:978-1-315-16780-0
2936:978-0-374-92095-1
2876:978-0-8047-0909-5
2774:978-0-674-73288-9
2657:, pp. i, vi.
2609:, pp. i, iv.
2561:, pp. 89–99.
2500:, pp. 20–25.
2388:, pp. 77–78.
2261:, pp. 39–41.
2249:, pp. 58–61.
2221:, pp. 54–57.
2197:, pp. 24–29.
2185:, pp. 27–28.
2049:
1773:Word segmentation
1770:
1769:
1336:⟨h⟩
1312:⟨h⟩
1308:⟨r⟩
1293:⟨e⟩
1289:⟨y⟩
1285:⟨i⟩
1121:⟨u⟩
1117:⟨ü⟩
1076:⟨x⟩
1072:⟨q⟩
1068:⟨j⟩
1060:⟨i⟩
1048:⟨j⟩
1040:⟨p⟩
1028:⟨p⟩
1024:⟨b⟩
890:Shiing-Shen Chern
854:Latinxua Sin Wenz
779:Bernhard Karlgren
769:(1891–1962)—that
731:Xinhai Revolution
723:Republic of China
659:Republic of China
558:
557:
546:
545:
473:Standard Mandarin
417:
416:
349:Yale Romanization
311:Yale Romanization
303:Guó-yǔ Luó-mǎ-zìh
204:Standard Mandarin
122:Republic of China
5377:
5349:
5348:
5321:Taiwanese Hangul
5210:Mainland Chinese
5123:
5122:
5114:
5113:
5039:
5038:
4716:Standard Chinese
4699:
4467:
4466:
4186:
4185:
4079:
4078:
4070:
4069:
3952:
3940:
3928:
3916:
3904:
3703:
3702:
3375:
3374:
3366:
3365:
3342:Chinese language
3335:
3328:
3321:
3312:
3311:
3306:
3289:
3262:
3225:
3202:
3173:
3164:
3139:(1/3): 553–577.
3127:
3102:
3083:
3062:
3040:
3016:
2987:
2973:
2954:
2940:
2922:
2919:DeFrancis (1950)
2909:
2897:
2880:
2861:
2842:
2823:
2811:
2800:
2798:
2796:
2790:
2778:
2766:
2755:
2724:
2718:
2712:
2706:
2700:
2698:
2697:
2688:
2682:
2676:
2670:
2664:
2658:
2652:
2646:
2640:
2634:
2628:
2622:
2616:
2610:
2604:
2598:
2592:
2586:
2580:
2574:
2568:
2562:
2552:
2546:
2539:
2533:
2519:
2513:
2507:
2501:
2491:
2485:
2479:
2473:
2467:
2461:
2455:
2449:
2443:
2437:
2431:
2425:
2419:
2413:
2407:
2401:
2395:
2389:
2383:
2377:
2371:
2365:
2359:
2350:
2344:
2338:
2332:
2326:
2320:
2314:
2304:
2298:
2292:
2286:
2280:
2274:
2268:
2262:
2256:
2250:
2244:
2238:
2228:
2222:
2216:
2210:
2204:
2198:
2192:
2186:
2180:
2174:
2168:
2142:
2141:
2134:
2128:
2125:
2120:
2116:
2110:
2104:
2101:
2096:
2092:
2086:
2080:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2058:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2043:
2034:
2026:
2018:
1990:
1984:
1957:
1945:
1922:Literary Chinese
1914:Chinese classics
1875:
1874:
1823:
1820:
1804:
1802:
1741:
1734:
1727:
1720:
1708:
1706:
1705:
1698:
1696:
1695:
1688:
1686:
1685:
1678:
1676:
1675:
1639:
1632:
1625:
1618:
1606:
1604:
1603:
1596:
1594:
1593:
1586:
1584:
1583:
1576:
1574:
1573:
1537:
1530:
1523:
1516:
1504:
1502:
1501:
1494:
1492:
1491:
1484:
1482:
1481:
1474:
1472:
1471:
1435:
1428:
1421:
1414:
1402:
1400:
1399:
1392:
1390:
1389:
1382:
1380:
1379:
1372:
1370:
1369:
1344:
1340:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1313:
1309:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1205:
1204:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1135:
1129:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1107:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1003:
998:
994:
975:
971:
931:
818:
796:
735:Literary Chinese
639:Standard Chinese
633:
626:
622:
617:
616:
613:
612:
609:
606:
603:
600:
597:
594:
591:
587:
586:
583:
580:
577:
574:
571:
542:
541:
528:
527:
526:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
488:
487:
464:
463:
450:
449:
436:
435:
413:
412:
389:
388:
387:
371:
370:
357:
356:
355:Gwokyu Lòhmáhjih
336:
335:
334:
319:
318:
305:
304:
291:
290:
289:
288:Kuo-yü Lo-ma-tzu
275:
274:
261:
260:
259:
258:
255:
252:
249:
246:
243:
240:
237:
234:
219:
218:
195:
194:
181:
180:
167:
166:
139:Standard Chinese
127:
124:
98:
97:
45:
44:
34:
21:
20:
5385:
5384:
5380:
5379:
5378:
5376:
5375:
5374:
5360:
5359:
5358:
5353:
5335:
5272:Tongyong Pinyin
5252:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
5240:Dungan Cyrillic
5223:
5192:
5162:
5103:
5094:Written Hokkien
5075:
5034:
5028:
5004:Middle Mandarin
4970:
4890:
4865:
4827:
4774:
4707:
4700:
4687:
4636:
4584:
4543:
4520:
4456:
4390:
4309:
4288:
4270:
4247:
4171:
4138:
4115:
4059:
3995:
3955:
3946:
3934:
3922:
3910:
3898:
3878:
3860:
3832:
3814:
3788:
3765:
3692:
3665:
3639:
3616:
3540:
3480:
3452:
3429:
3406:
3355:
3344:
3339:
3309:
3301:
3297:
3292:
3286:
3222:
3209:
3099:
3059:
3045:Mair, Victor H.
3037:
3028:
2995:(Book review).
2970:
2937:
2925:
2902:DeFrancis, John
2877:
2858:
2839:
2820:
2794:
2792:
2788:
2785:Mandarin Primer
2775:
2752:
2732:
2727:
2719:
2715:
2707:
2703:
2689:
2685:
2677:
2673:
2665:
2661:
2653:
2649:
2641:
2637:
2631:Kratochvíl 1968
2629:
2625:
2617:
2613:
2605:
2601:
2593:
2589:
2581:
2577:
2571:DeFrancis 1950a
2569:
2565:
2559:Kratochvíl 1968
2553:
2549:
2540:
2536:
2520:
2516:
2508:
2504:
2492:
2488:
2480:
2476:
2468:
2464:
2456:
2452:
2444:
2440:
2432:
2428:
2420:
2416:
2408:
2404:
2396:
2392:
2384:
2380:
2372:
2368:
2360:
2353:
2345:
2341:
2333:
2329:
2321:
2317:
2305:
2301:
2293:
2289:
2283:DeFrancis 1950a
2281:
2277:
2269:
2265:
2257:
2253:
2245:
2241:
2235:DeFrancis 1950a
2229:
2225:
2217:
2213:
2205:
2201:
2193:
2189:
2181:
2177:
2171:Kratochvíl 1968
2169:
2160:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2145:
2136:
2135:
2131:
2111:
2107:
2087:
2083:
2059:
2055:
2019:
2015:
2010:
1965:
1872:
1871:
1844:Mandarin Primer
1838:Yang Lien-sheng
1821:
1811:
1800:
1775:
1701:
1691:
1681:
1671:
1599:
1589:
1579:
1569:
1497:
1487:
1477:
1467:
1395:
1385:
1375:
1365:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1311:
1307:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1270:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1130:represents the
1127:
1120:
1116:
1108:represents the
1105:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1064:alveolo-palatal
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1027:
1023:
1012:
983:
982:
981:
949:
943:
925:
918:Tongyong Pinyin
859:Beijing dialect
803:
708:
703:
677:system, or the
624:
620:
588:
568:
564:
561:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
534:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
455:Literal meaning
411:Kok-gí Lô-má-jī
297:Tongyong Pinyin
287:
273:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
267:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
256:
253:
250:
247:
244:
241:
238:
235:
232:
186:Literal meaning
130:
125:
120:
114:Official script
59:
47:
25:
24:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
17:
12:
11:
5:
5383:
5373:
5372:
5355:
5354:
5344:
5341:
5340:
5337:
5336:
5334:
5333:
5328:
5323:
5318:
5316:Taiwanese kana
5313:
5312:
5311:
5306:
5296:
5295:
5294:
5289:
5287:Lessing-Othmer
5284:
5279:
5274:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5254:
5244:
5243:
5242:
5231:
5229:
5225:
5224:
5222:
5217:
5212:
5207:
5202:
5200:
5194:
5193:
5191:
5190:
5185:
5184:
5183:
5178:
5167:
5164:
5163:
5161:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5136:
5131:
5129:
5120:
5111:
5105:
5104:
5102:
5101:
5096:
5091:
5089:Written Dungan
5086:
5080:
5077:
5076:
5074:
5073:
5068:
5067:
5066:
5061:
5056:
5045:
5043:
5036:
5030:
5029:
5027:
5026:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5001:
4996:
4994:Middle Chinese
4991:
4986:
4980:
4978:
4972:
4971:
4969:
4968:
4963:
4961:Wubi (Wang Ma)
4958:
4953:
4952:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4931:
4926:
4921:
4920:
4919:
4909:
4906:
4900:
4898:
4892:
4891:
4889:
4888:
4881:
4873:
4871:
4867:
4866:
4864:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4837:
4835:
4829:
4828:
4826:
4825:
4820:
4815:
4810:
4805:
4800:
4795:
4794:
4793:
4782:
4780:
4776:
4775:
4773:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4756:
4755:
4754:
4753:
4748:
4738:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4712:
4710:
4702:
4701:
4694:
4692:
4689:
4688:
4686:
4685:
4680:
4678:Xiangnan Tuhua
4675:
4670:
4665:
4663:Shaozhou Tuhua
4660:
4655:
4650:
4644:
4642:
4638:
4637:
4635:
4634:
4633:
4632:
4627:
4622:
4614:
4613:
4612:
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3576:Renshou–Fushun
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3486:Central Plains
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3295:External links
3293:
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3220:
3208:漢學研究國際學術研討會論文集
3203:
3185:(3): 611–633.
3174:
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2962:. Hutchinson.
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2913:——— (1950a). "
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2738:Chao, Yuen Ren
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2635:
2633:, p. 187.
2623:
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2563:
2547:
2534:
2514:
2512:, p. xxx.
2502:
2486:
2474:
2472:, p. 391.
2470:Wiedenhof 2004
2462:
2450:
2438:
2434:DeFrancis 1950
2426:
2414:
2402:
2398:DeFrancis 1950
2390:
2386:DeFrancis 1950
2378:
2366:
2351:
2339:
2327:
2315:
2309:, p. 74;
2307:DeFrancis 1950
2299:
2297:, p. 623.
2287:
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2199:
2187:
2175:
2173:, p. 169.
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2012:
2011:
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2006:
1985:'Beijing' and
1974:
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1268:Tonal spelling
1266:
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1264:
1263:
1262:
1213:
1212:
1211:
1210:; 'a little').
1160:
1159:
1158:
1124:
1038:, compared to
1011:
1008:
976:⟩, see
952:
951:
950:
945:Main article:
942:
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906:United Nations
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797:; 1875–1960).
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467:Transcriptions
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317:Gwóyǔ Lwómǎdz̀
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2721:McGinnis 1997
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2567:
2560:
2556:
2551:
2544:
2541:Adapted from
2538:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2518:
2511:
2506:
2499:
2495:
2490:
2483:
2478:
2471:
2466:
2459:
2454:
2448:, p. 39.
2447:
2442:
2436:, p. 76.
2435:
2430:
2423:
2422:Karlgren 1928
2418:
2412:, p. 54.
2411:
2406:
2400:, p. 75.
2399:
2394:
2387:
2382:
2375:
2370:
2364:, p. 11.
2363:
2358:
2356:
2348:
2343:
2337:, p. 41.
2336:
2331:
2324:
2319:
2313:, p. 14.
2312:
2308:
2303:
2296:
2291:
2284:
2279:
2272:
2267:
2260:
2255:
2248:
2243:
2236:
2232:
2227:
2220:
2215:
2209:, p. 36.
2208:
2203:
2196:
2191:
2184:
2179:
2172:
2167:
2165:
2163:
2158:
2139:
2133:
2126:
2115:
2109:
2102:
2091:
2085:
2078:
2068:
2057:
2044:
2042:Guóyǔ Luómǎzì
2038:
2030:
2022:
2017:
2013:
2005:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1983:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1950:
1946:
1944:
1937:
1935:
1934:
1929:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1918:parallel text
1915:
1911:
1907:
1902:
1900:
1896:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1869:
1866:
1863:
1860:
1859:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1842:
1839:
1835:
1834:
1830:
1829:
1828:
1815:
1806:
1803:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1783:word dividers
1780:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1733:
1729:
1726:
1722:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1700:
1690:
1680:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1651:
1649:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1631:
1627:
1624:
1620:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1598:
1588:
1578:
1568:
1565:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1529:
1525:
1522:
1518:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1496:
1486:
1476:
1466:
1463:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1427:
1423:
1420:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1394:
1384:
1374:
1364:
1361:
1346:
1345:
1339:
1305:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1282:
1279:
1278:
1277:
1275:
1221:
1220:
1218:
1214:
1209:
1187:
1186:
1184:
1183:rhotacization
1161:
1157:respectively.
1141:Examples: GR
1140:
1139:
1138:
1134:
1125:
1111:
1104:
1103:
1102:
1100:
1095:
1081:
1065:
1021:
1017:
1004:
993:
987:
979:
967:
963:
961:
957:
948:
938:
936:
932:
929:
924:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
902:Zhou Youguang
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
862:
860:
855:
851:
847:
844:in China and
843:
839:
838:Qian Xuantong
835:
831:
826:
822:
817:
812:
808:
798:
792:
791:Qian Xuantong
789:(1890–1978),
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
763:Yuen Ren Chao
759:
757:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
716:
712:
698:
694:
691:
686:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
647:Yuen Ren Chao
644:
640:
636:
629:
628:
615:
562:
553:
549:
537:
535:
531:
497:
495:
491:
483:
481:
477:
474:
470:
465:
461:
457:
453:
445:
443:
439:
431:
429:
425:
422:Official name
420:
408:
406:
403:
399:
396:
392:
386:
380:
378:
374:
366:
364:
360:
352:
350:
346:
343:
339:
333:
328:
326:
322:
314:
312:
308:
300:
298:
294:
284:
282:
278:
270:
268:
264:
228:
226:
222:
217:Guóyǔ Luómǎzì
214:
212:
208:
205:
201:
196:
192:
188:
184:
176:
174:
170:
162:
160:
156:
151:
147:
143:
140:
137:
133:
123:
119:
118:
116:
112:
108:
104:
92:
90:
89:Qian Xuantong
87:
85:
82:
80:
77:
75:
74:Yuen Ren Chao
72:
71:
70:
67:
63:
58:
54:
50:
39:
33:
28:
22:
19:
5257:Hanyu Pinyin
5251:
5247:Romanization
5154:Semi-cursive
4999:Old Mandarin
4956:Stroke count
4883:
4876:
4798:Old National
4641:Unclassified
3546:Southwestern
3379:Northeastern
3361:Major groups
3350:
3267:
3234:
3230:
3211:
3182:
3178:
3169:
3136:
3132:
3107:
3088:
3071:
3067:
3048:
3023:
2996:
2992:
2982:
2959:
2950:
2926:
2905:
2893:
2889:
2866:
2847:
2828:
2807:
2793:. Retrieved
2784:
2762:
2741:
2730:Bibliography
2716:
2704:
2686:
2674:
2662:
2650:
2638:
2626:
2614:
2602:
2597:, p. v.
2590:
2578:
2566:
2550:
2543:Simmons 2015
2537:
2517:
2505:
2489:
2477:
2465:
2458:Simmons 2015
2453:
2441:
2429:
2417:
2405:
2393:
2381:
2369:
2342:
2330:
2318:
2302:
2290:
2285:, n. 43, 46.
2278:
2266:
2254:
2242:
2226:
2214:
2202:
2190:
2178:
2132:
2122:
2108:
2098:
2084:
2074:
2064:
2056:
2040:
2016:
1978:
1970:
1966:
1952:
1940:
1938:
1931:
1930:
1909:
1908:, published
1903:
1898:
1895:Walter Simon
1892:
1882:
1878:
1870:
1864:
1856:
1843:
1831:
1826:
1776:
1317:
1303:
1297:
1280:
1271:
1096:
1013:
1000:
972:and ⟨
954:
923:Guoyu Cidian
921:
898:Hanyu Pinyin
882:state of Wei
863:
846:Walter Simon
842:Luo Changpei
824:
804:
760:
727:Qing dynasty
720:
695:
687:
683:Hanyu Pinyin
634:
560:
559:
480:Hanyu Pinyin
395:Southern Min
211:Hanyu Pinyin
153:Chinese name
60:romanization
18:
5326:Xiao'erjing
5188:Punctuation
5181:Traditional
5134:Oracle bone
5118:Logographic
5014:Proto-Hakka
4989:Eastern Han
4984:Old Chinese
4846:Classifiers
4813:Northern Wu
4741:Singaporean
3947: [
3935: [
3923: [
3911: [
3899: [
3091:. Penguin.
3027:言文对照中国故事五十篇
2978:Lin, Yutang
2896:(1): 15–43.
2482:Chiung 2001
1916:. It was a
1822: 1916
1605:'celebrate'
1585:'sentiment'
1503:'rightward'
1133:[ɨ]
1099:orthography
941:Description
926: [
886:Old Chinese
126:(1928–1986)
52:Script type
5277:Wade–Giles
5176:Simplified
5071:Vernacular
5064:in Vietnam
4917:Simplified
4904:Biaoxingma
4851:Honorifics
4786:Historical
4731:Philippine
4721:Sichuanese
4648:Badong Yao
4352:Shao–Jiang
4223:Philippine
4031:Xiangxiang
4026:Shuangfeng
3771:Taizhou Wu
3554:Sichuanese
3237:: 99–111.
2709:Ching 1975
2667:Simon 1958
2655:Chao 1968b
2643:Chao 1968b
2607:Chao 1968b
2573:, note 46.
2555:Chao 1968a
2530:Simon 1947
2526:Chao 1968a
2510:Chao 1968a
2498:Chao 1968a
2410:Zhong 2019
2374:Chao 1968c
2347:Simon 1947
2335:Zhong 2019
2259:Zhong 2019
2247:Moser 2016
2231:Zhong 2019
2219:Moser 2016
2207:Zhong 2019
2195:Moser 2016
2183:Zhong 2019
2149:References
1943:Shin Tarng
1883:colloquial
1473:'superior'
1401:'charcoal'
1287:to either
1274:first tone
1222:Examples:
1030:represent
1020:aspiration
912:, and the
811:Kuomintang
783:Lin Yutang
715:Lin Yutang
706:Background
679:diacritics
675:Wade–Giles
667:Lin Yutang
641:using the
281:Wade–Giles
79:Lin Yutang
5215:Taiwanese
5205:Cantonese
5049:Classical
5009:Proto-Min
4944:Microsoft
4803:Cantonese
4779:Phonology
4760:Cantonese
4751:Singdarin
4736:Malaysian
4726:Taiwanese
4630:Rongjiang
4620:Yongjiang
4616:Southern
4601:Northern
4575:Luo–Guang
4484:Hong Kong
4479:Guangzhou
4435:Taiwanese
4428:Changting
4362:Zhanjiang
4276:Zhongshan
4243:Malaysian
4238:Singapore
4203:Zhangzhou
4155:Zhongshan
4048:Yong–Quan
3944:Jing-Zhan
3874:Xuancheng
3851:Jiangshan
3730:Changzhou
3651:Junjiahua
3504:Guanzhong
3387:Changchun
3259:0913-8439
3251:10928/892
3199:0021-9118
3161:145370253
3124:2210-7363
3110:. Brill.
3013:146408374
2789:(Digital)
2619:Chao 1955
2595:Chao 1948
2522:Chao 1948
2494:Chao 1948
2362:Chao 1948
2311:Chao 1976
2295:Weng 2018
2271:Chao 1948
2154:Citations
1955:Xin Talng
1893:In 1942,
1801:Pei-ching
1493:'to have'
1391:'blanket'
1371:'corrupt'
1306:a silent
1217:morphemes
1188:Example:
1137:allophone
1101:include:
1080:retroflex
876:state of
850:Qu Qiubai
651:linguists
623:-yoo roh-
135:Languages
109:1925–1926
93:Wang Yi (
5364:Category
5299:Bopomofo
5228:Phonetic
5220:Two-cell
5149:Clerical
5059:in Japan
5054:Adoption
5042:Official
5033:Literary
4908:Boshiamy
4885:Xiehouyu
4841:Numerals
4818:Mandarin
4746:Standard
4706:Standard
4580:Qin–Lian
4570:Yong–Xun
4555:Gao–Yang
4501:Jiujiang
4489:Malaysia
4423:Tingzhou
4374:Wenchang
4335:Jianyang
4325:Northern
4284:Sanxiang
4198:Quanzhou
4181:Southern
4150:Manjiang
4014:Changsha
3974:Nanchang
3969:Chang–Du
3866:Xuanzhou
3856:Qingtian
3810:Wencheng
3756:Jiangyin
3751:Jinxiang
3741:Shaoxing
3735:Hangzhou
3715:Shanghai
3656:Qinjiang
3564:Minjiang
3536:Xinjiang
3494:Dongping
3458:Jiaoliao
3397:Shenyang
3370:Mandarin
2980:(1972).
2949:(1928).
2904:(1950).
2691:Lin 1972
2679:Liu 1960
1988:beyjiing
1982:Beeijing
1963:Pedagogy
1787:morpheme
1707:'silent'
1595:'invite'
1575:'gentle'
1185:suffix.
1181:is as a
970:/ /
966:Help:IPA
937:system.
834:Shandong
821:bopomofo
787:Li Jinxi
743:Mandarin
685:system.
671:numerals
494:Bopomofo
363:Jyutping
225:Bopomofo
84:Li Jinxi
57:Alphabet
5198:Braille
5159:Cursive
5109:Scripts
4976:History
4966:ZhengMa
4912:Cangjie
4878:Chengyu
4833:Grammar
4808:Hokkien
4765:Hokkien
4673:Waxiang
4653:Danzhou
4625:Guandao
4610:Younian
4605:Tongdao
4594:Pinghua
4534:Taishan
4450:Raoping
4418:Huizhou
4408:Meixian
4384:Banqiao
4357:Leizhou
4347:Pu–Xian
4342:Central
4330:Jian'ou
4305:Longyan
4253:Teochew
4190:Hokkien
4165:Nanlang
4121:Fu–Ning
4101:Changle
4083:Houguan
4074:Eastern
4021:Loushao
4009:Changyi
3991:Da–Tong
3986:Ying–Yi
3932:Yanzhou
3800:Wenzhou
3793:Oujiang
3784:Tiantai
3779:Taizhou
3688:Zhi–Yan
3635:Nantong
3630:Nanjing
3605:Gui–Liu
3595:Nanping
3590:Kunming
3516:Luoyang
3471:Qingdao
3443:Tianjin
3420:Beijing
3412:Beijing
3005:2052772
2095:國音字母第二式
1997:bèijǐng
1993:Běijīng
1949:Xīntáng
1879:sayable
1850:at the
1746:Pinyin
1644:Pinyin
1542:Pinyin
1440:Pinyin
1381:'pluck'
1358:Tone 4
1208:yìdiǎnr
1169:, with
1016:voicing
992:Taytzyy
958:in the
866:Shaanxi
767:Hu Shih
729:in the
701:History
653:on the
448:国音字母第二式
434:國音字母第二式
402:Hokkien
106:Created
65:Creator
43:國音字母第二式
5267:Postal
5262:MPS II
5139:Bronze
5019:Ba–Shu
4939:Google
4934:Pinyin
4870:Idioms
4683:Yeheni
4565:Wu–Hua
4560:Goulou
4539:Xinhui
4516:Dapeng
4511:Weitou
4496:Xiguan
4471:Yuehai
4440:Sixian
4379:Haikou
4369:Hainan
4300:Zhenan
4266:Haklau
4261:Swatow
4233:Penang
4218:Taiwan
4213:Chawan
4160:Longdu
4129:Ningde
4106:Gutian
4096:Fuqing
4091:Fuzhou
4053:Qiyang
4036:Wugang
3981:Yi–Liu
3908:Xiu-Yi
3896:Ji-She
3846:Quzhou
3838:Chu–Qu
3828:Jinhua
3820:Wuzhou
3805:Rui'an
3746:Ningbo
3720:Suzhou
3610:Wuming
3581:Zigong
3569:Leshan
3531:Lanyin
3526:Dungan
3521:Xuzhou
3499:Gangou
3476:Weihai
3466:Dalian
3425:Taiwan
3392:Harbin
3282:
3257:
3218:
3197:
3159:
3153:610617
3151:
3122:
3095:
3080:328789
3078:
3055:
3033:
3011:
3003:
2966:
2933:
2917:". In
2873:
2854:
2835:
2816:
2795:5 July
2771:
2748:
2119:國音常用字彙
2066:guóyīn
2039::
2037:pinyin
2031::
2023::
1881:means
1867:(1968)
1779:spaces
1697:'rice'
1687:'full'
1677:'meow'
1630:chiing
1355:Tone 3
1352:Tone 2
1349:Tone 1
1330:, and
1281:either
1254:, and
1126:Final
1090:, and
1074:, and
1054:, and
974:
908:, the
870:Shanxi
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
254:
248:
242:
236:
38:pinyin
5331:Nüshu
5035:forms
4949:Sogou
4896:Input
4770:Hakka
4708:forms
4548:Other
4506:Shiqi
4445:Hailu
4413:Wuhua
4400:Hakka
4318:Other
4293:Other
4228:Pedan
4143:Other
4134:Fu'an
4111:Matsu
4043:Ji–Xu
4001:Xiang
3951:]
3939:]
3927:]
3920:Qi-De
3915:]
3903:]
3761:Shadi
3707:Taihu
3661:Gyami
3644:Other
3600:Wuhan
3509:Xi'an
3448:Jinan
3210:[
3157:S2CID
3149:JSTOR
3076:JSTOR
3009:S2CID
3001:JSTOR
2696:國語羅馬字
2076:guóyǔ
2033:国语罗马字
2025:國語羅馬字
2008:Notes
1637:chinq
1623:chyng
1616:ching
1483:'oil'
1002:Tàizǐ
962:(IPA)
930:]
830:Henan
632:abbr.
179:国语罗马字
165:國語羅馬字
5292:Yale
5282:EFEO
5144:Seal
4929:Dayi
4526:Siyi
4208:Amoy
3725:Wuxi
3622:Huai
3435:Jilu
3280:ISBN
3255:ISSN
3216:ISBN
3195:ISSN
3120:ISSN
3093:ISBN
3053:ISBN
3031:ISBN
2964:ISBN
2931:ISBN
2871:ISBN
2852:ISBN
2833:ISBN
2814:ISBN
2797:2024
2769:ISBN
2746:ISBN
2048:lit.
1995:and
1906:SOAS
1663:qìng
1658:qǐng
1653:qíng
1648:qīng
1528:yeou
1433:tann
1426:taan
1419:tarn
1258:for
1250:for
1242:for
1234:for
1200:for
1153:and
1145:and
1042:and
1036:/pʰ/
1034:and
1026:and
840:and
832:and
721:The
625:MAHT
621:GWOH
501:ㄍㄨㄛˊ
245:ㄌㄨㄛˊ
233:ㄍㄨㄛˊ
5024:Gan
4924:CKC
4791:Old
4668:She
4658:Mai
4462:Yue
4065:Min
3961:Gan
3888:Hui
3737:(?)
3675:Jin
3402:Taz
3272:doi
3247:hdl
3239:doi
3187:doi
3141:doi
3112:doi
1805:).
1781:as
1739:mih
1732:mii
1718:mhi
1713:GR
1611:GR
1561:yòu
1556:yǒu
1551:yóu
1546:yōu
1535:yow
1521:you
1514:iou
1509:GR
1459:tàn
1454:tǎn
1449:tán
1444:tān
1412:tan
1407:GR
1310:or
1291:or
1203:一點兒
1177:or
1119:or
1113:/y/
1032:/p/
878:Wey
627:-sə
517:ㄉㄧˋ
513:ㄇㄨˇ
509:ㄣㄗˋ
405:POJ
377:IPA
325:IPA
251:ㄇㄚˇ
5366::
3949:zh
3937:zh
3925:zh
3913:zh
3901:zh
3698:Wu
3278:.
3253:.
3245:.
3235:41
3233:.
3193:.
3183:77
3181:.
3155:.
3147:.
3137:21
3135:.
3118:.
3072:81
3070:.
3007:.
2997:34
2892:.
2888:.
2354:^
2161:^
2121:;
2097:;
2071:國語
2061:國音
2045:;
2035:;
2027:;
1819:c.
1765:mì
1760:mǐ
1755:mī
1750:mī
1725:mi
1326:,
1322:,
1304:or
1298:or
1246:,
1238:,
1230:,
1196:+
1192:←
1094:.
1086:,
1070:,
1050:,
999:;
997:太子
928:zh
795:汪怡
635:GR
630:;
602:ɑː
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