2838:
2244:
148:
2549:
2023:, Newton considered the possibility of measuring gravity's strength by measuring the deflection of a pendulum in the vicinity of a large hill, but thought that the effect would be too small to be measurable. Nevertheless, he had the opportunity to estimate the order of magnitude of the constant when he surmised that "the mean density of the earth might be five or six times as great as the density of water", which is equivalent to a gravitational constant of the order:
2538:(NIST) was cited with a relative standard uncertainty of 0.046% (460 ppm), lowered to 0.012% (120 ppm) by 1986. But the continued publication of conflicting measurements led NIST to considerably increase the standard uncertainty in the 1998 recommended value, by a factor of 12, to a standard uncertainty of 0.15%, larger than the one given by Heyl (1930).
3550:"Sir Isaac Newton thought it probable, that the mean density of the earth might be five or six times as great as the density of water; and we have now found, by experiment, that it is very little less than what he had thought it to be: so much justness was even in the surmises of this wonderful man!" Hutton (1778), p. 783
2526:
derived from high-precision measurements since the 1950s have remained compatible with Heyl (1930), but within the relative uncertainty of about 0.1% (or 1000 ppm) have varied rather broadly, and it is not entirely clear if the uncertainty has been reduced at all since the 1942 measurement. Some
2518:
However, Heyl used the statistical spread as his standard deviation, and he admitted himself that measurements using the same material yielded very similar results while measurements using different materials yielded vastly different results. He spent the next 12 years after his 1930 paper to do more
2281:
with lead balls whose inertia (in relation to the torsion constant) he could tell by timing the beam's oscillation. Their faint attraction to other balls placed alongside the beam was detectable by the deflection it caused. In spite of the experimental design being due to
Michell, the experiment is
4761:
However, re-evaluating or repeating experiments that have already been performed may provide insights into hidden biases or dark uncertainty. NIST has the unique opportunity to repeat the experiment of Quinn et al. with an almost identical setup. By mid-2018, NIST researchers will publish their
2541:
The uncertainty was again lowered in 2002 and 2006, but once again raised, by a more conservative 20%, in 2010, matching the relative standard uncertainty of 120 ppm published in 1986. For the 2014 update, CODATA reduced the uncertainty to 46 ppm, less than half the 2010 value, and one
1720:
1540:
1357:
2957:(2013), p. 3. The name "Cavendish gravitational constant", sometimes "NewtonâCavendish gravitational constant", appears to have been common in the 1970s to 1980s, especially in (translations from) Soviet-era Russian literature, e.g. Sagitov (1970 ),
2389:
Cavendish's experiment proved to result in more reliable measurements than pendulum experiments of the "Schiehallion" (deflection) type or "Peruvian" (period as a function of altitude) type. Pendulum experiments still continued to be performed, by
2224:
789:
1054:
1161:
2961:
30 (1987), Issues 1â6, p. 342 . "Cavendish constant" and "Cavendish gravitational constant" is also used in
Charles W. Misner, Kip S. Thorne, John Archibald Wheeler, "Gravitation", (1973), 1126f. Colloquial use of "Big G", as opposed to
1597:
628:
5878:
887:, the value of the gravitational constant will generally have a numeric value of 1 or a value close to it when expressed in terms of those units. Due to the significant uncertainty in the measured value of
1385:
546:
1245:
3923:
2941:(1930), in what is apparently the first use of that term. Use of "Newton's constant" (without specifying "gravitation" or "gravity") is more recent, as "Newton's constant" was also used for the
2340:
is quite difficult to measure because gravity is much weaker than other fundamental forces, and an experimental apparatus cannot be separated from the gravitational influence of other bodies.
2128:
406:
5836:
2417:, differing from the modern value by 0.2%, but compatible with the modern value within the cited relative standard uncertainty of 0.55%. In addition to Poynting, measurements were made by
696:
2074:, proposed in 1772 and completed in 1776, was the first successful measurement of the mean density of the Earth, and thus indirectly of the gravitational constant. The result reported by
798:
The gravitational constant is a physical constant that is difficult to measure with high accuracy. This is because the gravitational force is an extremely weak force as compared to other
1225:
5871:
948:
2775:
As of 2018, efforts to re-evaluate the conflicting results of measurements are underway, coordinated by NIST, notably a repetition of the experiments reported by Quinn et al. (2013).
1063:
2449:
system. Richarz and Krigar-Menzel (1898) attempted a repetition of the
Cavendish experiment using 100,000 kg of lead for the attracting mass. The precision of their result of
2996:
Scientific, medical, and technical books published in the United States of
America: a selected list of titles in print with annotations: supplement of books published 1945â1948
6070:
5864:
5887:
5251:
2802:
based on two different methods. These are claimed as the most accurate measurements ever made, with standard uncertainties cited as low as 12 ppm. The difference of 2.7
6066:
484:
453:
3848:
Sagitov, M. U., "Current Status of
Determinations of the Gravitational Constant and the Mass of the Earth", Soviet Astronomy, Vol. 13 (1970), 712â718, translated from
2422:
2556:
since 1900: values recommended based on a literature review are shown in red, individual torsion balance experiments in blue, other types of experiments in green.
2117:
for inclusion in his planetary tables. As discussed above, establishing the average density of Earth is equivalent to measuring the gravitational constant, given
891:
in terms of other known fundamental constants, a similar level of uncertainty will show up in the value of many quantities when expressed in such a unit system.
2259:
The first direct measurement of gravitational attraction between two bodies in the laboratory was performed in 1798, seventy-one years after Newton's death, by
834:
418:, in this non-relativistic formulation is the gravitational constant. Colloquially, the gravitational constant is also called "Big G", distinct from "small g" (
5186:
1591:
in
Newtonian mechanics, the measured quantities contain corrections from the perturbations from other bodies in the solar system and from general relativity.
561:
4526:
Fixler, J. B.; Foster, G. T.; McGuirk, J. M.; Kasevich, M. A. (5 January 2007). "Atom
Interferometer Measurement of the Newtonian Constant of Gravity".
3974:
5816:
2519:
precise measurements, hoping that the composition-dependent effect would go away, but it did not, as he noted in his final paper from the year 1942.
4504:
4082:, Using Macroscopic Quantum Phase Coherence in Superconductors: Implications for Quantum Electrodynamics and the Fundamental Physical Constants".
2059:". Bouguer downplayed the significance of their results in 1740, suggesting that the experiment had at least proved that the Earth could not be a
1715:{\displaystyle 1\ \mathrm {AU} =\left({\frac {GM}{4\pi ^{2}}}\mathrm {yr} ^{2}\right)^{\frac {1}{3}}\approx 1.495979\times 10^{11}\ \mathrm {m} .}
3611:
4839:
493:
5078:
4635:
3166:
2535:
5154:
2011:
4770:
3198:
Since
Cavendish first measured Newton's Gravitational constant 200 years ago, 'Big G' remains one of the most elusive constants in physics
3094:. The electromagnetic force in this example is in the order of 10 times greater than the force of gravityâroughly the same ratio as the
2468:
5243:
3450:
Ries JC, Eanes RJ, Shum CK, Watkins MM (20 March 1992). "Progress in the determination of the gravitational coefficient of the Earth".
1535:{\displaystyle G=4\pi ^{2}\mathrm {\ AU^{3}{\cdot }yr^{-2}} \ M^{-1}\approx 39.478\mathrm {\ AU^{3}{\cdot }yr^{-2}} \ M_{\odot }^{-1},}
2744:, 0.28% (2800 ppm) higher than the 2006 CODATA value. An improved cold atom measurement by Rosi et al. was published in 2014 of
1372:
346:
4433:
Mohr, Peter J.; Newell, David B.; Taylor, Barry N. (2016). "CODATA Recommended Values of the
Fundamental Physical Constants: 2014".
4380:
Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N.; Newell, David B. (2012). "CODATA Recommended Values of the
Fundamental Physical Constants: 2010".
4327:
Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N.; Newell, David B. (2012). "CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2006".
2101:
times the density of water), about 20% below the modern value. This immediately led to estimates on the densities and masses of the
5366:
2255:
in 1798, to measure G, with the help of a pulley, large balls hung from a frame were rotated into position next to the small balls.
1996:
286:
185:
158:
2320:. It is surprisingly accurate, about 1% above the modern value (comparable to the claimed relative standard uncertainty of 0.6%).
5791:
5768:
5524:
5472:
2826:
shows that the gravitational constant has varied by less than one part in ten billion per year over the last nine billion years.
2817:
1176:
3268:
3028:
Depending on the choice of definition of the Einstein tensor and of the stressâenergy tensor it can alternatively be defined as
5376:
5114:
2897:
1352:{\displaystyle P^{2}={\frac {3\pi }{G}}{\frac {V}{M}}\approx 10.896\,\mathrm {h^{2}{\cdot }g{\cdot }cm^{-3}\,} {\frac {V}{M}}.}
3682:
1745:âthe product of the gravitational constant and the mass of a given astronomical body such as the Sun or Earthâis known as the
1368:
shows the relationship between the average density of a planet and the period of a satellite orbiting just above its surface.
4987:
4900:
3673:
3336:
3248:
3221:
4694:
5403:
2382:, which is actually worse than Cavendish's result, differing from the modern value by 1.5%. Cornu and Baille (1873), found
1766:
4991:
5502:
5213:
1761:
appears as above in Newton's law of universal gravitation, as well as in formulas for the deflection of light caused by
5415:
2768:
measurement was erroneous), this result was 325 ppm below the recommended 2014 CODATA value, with non-overlapping
665:
237:, it quantifies the relation between the geometry of spacetime and the energyâmomentum tensor (also referred to as the
5393:
5909:
5205:
3864:
The laws of gravitation; memoirs by Newton, Bouguer and Cavendish, together with abstracts of other important memoirs
3615:(1798); reprint: Cavendish, Henry (1798). "Experiments to Determine the Density of the Earth". In MacKenzie, A. S.,
5801:
5626:
4178:
Cohen, E. Richard; Taylor, Barry N. (1 October 1987). "The 1986 adjustment of the fundamental physical constants".
1746:
1594:
From 1964 until 2012, however, it was used as the definition of the astronomical unit and thus held by definition:
900:
4274:
Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N. (2012). "CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2002".
4221:
Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N. (2012). "CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 1998".
3990:
Section Q (pp. 42â47) describes the mutually inconsistent measurement experiments from which the CODATA value for
2837:
2527:
measurements published in the 1980s to 2000s were, in fact, mutually exclusive. Establishing a standard value for
5821:
5723:
5621:
5442:
4979:
Standish., E. Myles (1995). "Report of the IAU WGAS Sub-group on Numerical Standards". In Appenzeller, I. (ed.).
2862:
1927:
912:
686:
6095:
2902:
2892:
2445:
was introduced by Boys in 1894 and becomes standard by the end of the 1890s, with values usually cited in the
2289:
Cavendish's stated aim was the "weighing of Earth", that is, determining the average density of Earth and the
5968:
5954:
5706:
2467:(1899) reviews the work done in the 19th century. Poynting is the author of the article "Gravitation" in the
2052:
806:
409:
3355:
Gillies, George T. (1997). "The Newtonian gravitational constant: recent measurements and related studies".
2937:
by Boys (2000). Use of the term by T.E. Stern (1928) was misquoted as "Newton's constant of gravitation" in
5616:
4922:
Mould, J.; Uddin, S. A. (10 April 2014). "Constraining a Possible Variation of G with Type Ia Supernovae".
4125:
Cohen, E. Richard; Taylor, B. N. (1973). "The 1973 Least-Squares Adjustment of the Fundamental Constants".
4856:
Li, Qing; et al. (2018). "Measurements of the gravitational constant using two independent methods".
3750:
5811:
5670:
5467:
5856:
5561:
3863:
2219:{\displaystyle G=g{\frac {R_{\oplus }^{2}}{M_{\oplus }}}={\frac {3g}{4\pi R_{\oplus }\rho _{\oplus }}}.}
5611:
5606:
5529:
5432:
5398:
5361:
5220:
5107:
2946:
4830:
2998:, Committee on American Scientific and Technical Bibliography National Research Council, 1950, p. 26).
784:{\displaystyle \kappa ={\frac {8\pi G}{c^{4}}}\approx 2.076647(46)\times 10^{-43}\mathrm {\,N^{-1}} .}
290:
5576:
5492:
5146:
4578:
3407:
2942:
4043:
3961:
2006:
5447:
5388:
5371:
5356:
5301:
2460:
2399:
1587:
The above equation is exact only within the approximation of the Earth's orbit around the Sun as a
676:
551:
238:
234:
3785:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
1049:{\displaystyle G\approx 4.3009\times 10^{-3}\ {\mathrm {pc{\cdot }(km/s)^{2}} \,M_{\odot }}^{-1}.}
5425:
5178:
3707:
3507:
3211:
2877:
2531:
with a relative standard uncertainty better than 0.1% has therefore remained rather speculative.
2071:
2056:
1981:
1776:
This quantity gives a convenient simplification of various gravity-related formulas. The product
876:
852:
462:
431:
5086:
1156:{\displaystyle G\approx 1.90809\times 10^{5}\mathrm {\ (km/s)^{2}} \,R_{\odot }M_{\odot }^{-1}.}
5935:
5796:
5786:
5551:
5514:
5487:
4809:
4038:
3956:
3665:
3328:
2778:
In August 2018, a Chinese research group announced new measurements based on torsion balances,
2270:
244:
The measured value of the constant is known with some certainty to four significant digits. In
3722:
On the Repetition of the Cavendish Experiments for Determining the mean density of the Earth"
3499:
3238:
6053:
5843:
5750:
5636:
5631:
5420:
5333:
5308:
5100:
5005:"Measurement of Newton's Constant Using a Torsion Balance with Angular Acceleration Feedback"
3561:
3087:
2907:
1762:
654:
16:
Physical constant relating the gravitational force between objects to their mass and distance
3657:
3511:
3320:
5757:
5477:
5234:
5026:
4941:
4865:
4785:
4724:
4668:
4603:
4535:
4490:
4452:
4399:
4346:
4293:
4240:
4187:
4134:
4091:
4030:
4005:
3948:
3792:
3533:
3459:
3364:
3282:
2769:
2283:
2248:
1985:
274:
3189:
2724:, Fixler et al. described a measurement of the gravitational constant by a new technique,
8:
5945:
5566:
5546:
5462:
5452:
5313:
3763:
2725:
2410:
2391:
2364:
2114:
1911:
908:
218:
5030:
4945:
4869:
4789:
4728:
4672:
4607:
4539:
4456:
4403:
4350:
4297:
4244:
4191:
4138:
4095:
4034:
3952:
3796:
3701:
3537:
3463:
3368:
3286:
6049:
6043:
5964:
5939:
5781:
5497:
5410:
5138:
5050:
5016:
5004:
4957:
4931:
4889:
4747:
4712:
4627:
4593:
4577:
Rosi, G.; Sorrentino, F.; Cacciapuoti, L.; Prevedelli, M.; Tino, G. M. (26 June 2014).
4559:
4442:
4389:
4336:
4283:
4230:
4056:
4020:
3938:
3831:, 64 (1897). Braun (1897) quoted an optimistic relative standard uncertainty of 0.03%,
3579:"An Account of the Calculations Made from the Survey and Measures Taken at Schehallien"
3475:
3380:
3273:
2882:
2823:
2803:
2118:
2016:
819:
799:
555:
330:
226:
193:
3429:
3298:
5919:
5895:
5740:
5712:
5594:
5571:
5519:
5437:
5323:
5042:
4961:
4881:
4801:
4752:
4686:
4619:
4551:
4468:
4415:
4362:
4309:
4256:
4203:
4160:
4107:
4060:
3810:
3669:
3658:
3479:
3384:
3376:
3332:
3321:
3244:
3217:
2867:
2720:
2344:
1961:
1960:
of the SunâEarth system. The use of this constant, and the implied definition of the
1923:
1550:
1164:
904:
456:
173:
5054:
4893:
4506:
Codata Internationally Recommended 2022 Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants
3852:
Vol. 46, No. 4 (JulyâAugust 1969), 907â915 (table of historical experiments p. 715).
2970:, 1967, p. 436; note use of "Big G's" vs. "little g's" as early as the 1940s of the
2548:
2243:
6090:
5978:
5974:
5960:
5929:
5700:
5676:
5652:
5482:
5228:
5034:
4949:
4873:
4797:
4793:
4742:
4732:
4676:
4631:
4611:
4563:
4543:
4460:
4407:
4354:
4301:
4248:
4195:
4150:
4142:
4099:
4048:
3966:
3893:
3800:
3590:
3467:
3372:
3290:
2857:
2852:
1957:
1588:
1376:
425:
269:. The first implicit measurement with an accuracy within about 1% is attributed to
181:
147:
24:
4713:"Invited Review Article: Measurements of the Newtonian constant of gravitation, G"
4653:
2808:
between the two results suggests there could be sources of error unaccounted for.
6039:
6034:
6023:
5993:
5925:
5915:
5688:
5457:
5351:
4155:
4074:
Taylor, B. N.; Parker, W. H.; Langenberg, D. N. (1 July 1969). "Determination of
3012:
2971:
2872:
2375:
2290:
2260:
2252:
1770:
1546:
690:
642:
270:
189:
5038:
4579:"Precision measurement of the Newtonian gravitational constant using cold atoms"
3158:
5731:
5556:
5539:
5509:
5296:
5069:
4199:
4052:
3436:. IAU Division I Working Group on Numerical Standards for Fundamental Astronomy
2887:
2843:
2457:
was, however, of the same order of magnitude as the other results at the time.
2075:
2048:
1919:
340:
4901:"Physicists just made the most precise measurement ever of Gravity's strength"
4877:
4252:
4103:
3240:
Einstein's General Theory of Relativity: With Modern Applications in Cosmology
6084:
5984:
5776:
5658:
5600:
4472:
4419:
4366:
4313:
4260:
4207:
4164:
4111:
3814:
3294:
3082:
2983:
2352:
2064:
872:
177:
62:
4547:
4485:
Eite Tiesinga, Peter J. Mohr, David B. Newell, and Barry N. Taylor (2019), "
4305:
3970:
3243:(illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 180.
2545:
The following table shows the NIST recommended values published since 1969:
6029:
6019:
5999:
5950:
5905:
5664:
5534:
5343:
5318:
5281:
5123:
5046:
4885:
4805:
4756:
4690:
4623:
4555:
3877:
3805:
3780:
3595:
3578:
2496:
2278:
2274:
2060:
1057:
926:
884:
880:
487:
4832:
Newton's Gravitational Constant 'Big' G â A proposed Free-fall Measurement
3839:
but his result was significantly worse than the 0.2% feasible at the time.
6013:
6004:
5886:
5682:
5291:
5170:
4493:. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899.
3898:
3881:
2764:. Although much closer to the accepted value (suggesting that the Fixler
1056:
For situations where tides are important, the relevant length scales are
4953:
4681:
4615:
4502:
4487:
The 2018 CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants
623:{\displaystyle G_{\mu \nu }+\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }=\kappa T_{\mu \nu }\,,}
6009:
5989:
5806:
5694:
4006:"CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2010"
4004:
Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N.; Newell, David B. (13 November 2012).
3924:"CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2002"
3095:
2966:" for gravitational acceleration dates to the 1960s (R.W. Fairbridge,
2418:
1977:
1915:
1736:
exactly, and the equation can no longer be taken as holding precisely.
1554:
934:
920:
916:
266:
125:
94:
5021:
4737:
4464:
4411:
4358:
4146:
3829:
Denkschriften der k. Akad. d. Wiss. (Wien), math. u. naturwiss. Classe
3471:
4995:
4762:
results and assign a number as well as an uncertainty to their value.
3912:
P. R. Heyl and P. Chrzanowski (1942), cited after Sagitov (1969:715).
3524:
Davies, R.D. (1985). "A Commemoration of Maskelyne at Schiehallion".
3399:
3389:. A lengthy, detailed review. See Figure 1 and Table 2 in particular.
2334:
has increased only modestly since the original Cavendish experiment.
170:
134:
4838:. CODATA Fundamental Constants Meeting, Eltville â 5 February 2015.
4486:
3660:
Physics, the human adventure: from Copernicus to Einstein and beyond
1060:
rather than parsecs. In these units, the gravitational constant is:
5328:
5269:
5092:
4576:
4489:" (Web Version 8.0). Database developed by J. Baker, M. Douma, and
3072:
2963:
2122:
693:
that is directly related to the Newtonian constant of gravitation:
245:
230:
217:
In Newton's law, it is the proportionality constant connecting the
70:
4936:
4598:
4447:
4394:
4341:
4288:
4235:
4025:
3943:
3502:, p.330 In this lecture before the Royal Society, Boys introduces
3210:
Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl (September 2007).
5286:
5274:
5162:
4768:
2110:
304:
5840:
3633:
3132:
can be used for accuracies of five or fewer significant digits.
3076:
2939:
Pure Science Reviewed for Profound and Unsophisticated Students
2933:"Newtonian constant of gravitation" is the name introduced for
1948:
1173:
of an object in circular orbit around a spherical object obeys
933:(pc), velocities in kilometres per second (km/s) and masses in
930:
810:
138:
121:
5081:
307:
distribution is directly proportional to the product of their
4710:
4503:
Mohr, P.; Tiesinga, E.; Newell, D.; Taylor, B. (8 May 2024),
3216:(8th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Limited. p. 336.
3188:
Gundlach, Jens H.; Merkowitz, Stephen M. (23 December 2002).
1864:
294:
66:
4525:
3403:
2106:
308:
222:
98:
90:
541:{\displaystyle g=G{\frac {M_{\oplus }}{r_{\oplus }^{2}}}.}
3683:"Big G Redux: Solving the Mystery of a Perplexing Result"
3319:
Adler, Ronald; Bazin, Maurice; Schiffer, Menahem (1975).
3303:
2968:
The encyclopedia of atmospheric sciences and astrogeology
2949:, but has by now become quite common, e.g. Calmet et al,
2446:
2102:
1965:
1952:
1816:
871:
Due to its use as a defining constant in some systems of
3664:. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp.
3163:
The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
303:) between two bodies each with a spherically symmetric
4073:
3392:
3159:"2022 CODATA Value: Newtonian constant of gravitation"
2515:(relative uncertainty 0.045% = 450 ppm) in 1942.
1239:
is the total mass of the two objects. It follows that
5888:
Scientists whose names are used in physical constants
4924:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia
3209:
2226:
Based on this, Hutton's 1778 result is equivalent to
2131:
1926:
rather than standard SI units. For this purpose, the
1782:
is known much more accurately than either factor is.
1600:
1557:, and mass in the total mass of the orbiting system (
1388:
1248:
1179:
1066:
951:
822:
813:-recommended value of the gravitational constant is:
699:
564:
496:
465:
434:
349:
5087:
The Controversy over Newton's Gravitational Constant
4654:"Fundamental constants: A cool way to measure big G"
3449:
3269:"The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity"
2833:
2552:
Timeline of measurements and recommended values for
1999:
as published in the 1680s (although its notation as
428:(also referred to as free-fall acceleration). Where
331:
inversely proportional to the square of the distance
6067:
List of scientists whose names are used as SI units
3526:
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society
645:(not the gravitational constant despite the use of
3882:"A redetermination of the constant of gravitation"
3422:
3318:
2542:order of magnitude below the 1969 recommendation.
2218:
1714:
1534:
1351:
1233:is the volume inside the radius of the orbit, and
1219:
1155:
1048:
828:
783:
622:
540:
478:
447:
400:
5817:Statal Institute of Higher Education Isaac Newton
5003:Gundlach, Jens H.; Merkowitz, Stephen M. (2000).
5002:
4186:(4). American Physical Society (APS): 1121â1148.
3187:
2286:for its first successful execution by Cavendish.
945:. In these units, the gravitational constant is:
6082:
4769:T. Quinn; H. Parks; C. Speake; R. Davis (2013).
4432:
4379:
4326:
4003:
3656:Brush, Stephen G.; Holton, Gerald James (2001).
3090:between the same two particles is approximately
3071:For example, the gravitational force between an
5089:â additional commentary on measurement problems
5082:References on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
4771:"Improved determination of G using two methods"
4435:Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data
4382:Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data
4329:Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data
4127:Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data
4090:(3). American Physical Society (APS): 375â496.
3612:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
3583:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
3553:
3327:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p.
401:{\displaystyle F=G{\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{r^{2}}}.}
5079:National Institute of Standards and Technology
2955:Beyond Standard Model Phenomenology at the LHC
2536:National Institute of Standards and Technology
2409:Cavendish's result was first improved upon by
259:The modern notation of Newton's law involving
5872:
5108:
3434:Numerical Standards for Fundamental Astronomy
3153:
3151:
3149:
2439:. The modern notation involving the constant
2374:Cavendish's experiment was first repeated by
221:between two bodies with the product of their
4651:
3190:"University of Washington Big G Measurement"
1995:The existence of the constant is implied in
1964:discussed above, has been deprecated by the
4177:
4124:
3768:. Gerstein - University of Toronto. London.
3655:
3563:The Earth: its shape, size, weight and spin
2425:(1897), with compatible results suggesting
2012:PhilosophiĂŠ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
1914:can also be carried out using the units of
1545:where distance is measured in terms of the
1220:{\displaystyle GM={\frac {3\pi V}{P^{2}}},}
929:, it is convenient to measure distances in
339:, directed along the line connecting their
5879:
5865:
5115:
5101:
4921:
4828:
4273:
4220:
3921:
3915:
3781:"On the Newtonian Constant of Gravitation"
3350:
3348:
3236:
3146:
550:The gravitational constant appears in the
5020:
4994:. Tables from the report also available:
4978:
4935:
4746:
4736:
4680:
4597:
4446:
4393:
4340:
4287:
4234:
4154:
4042:
4024:
3960:
3942:
3922:Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N. (2012).
3897:
3804:
3681:Lee, Jennifer Lauren (16 November 2016).
3594:
3011:indirectly, by reporting a value for the
2507:(relative uncertainty 0.1%), improved to
2378:(1838, 1842, 1853), who found a value of
2343:Measurements with pendulums were made by
2063:, as some thinkers of the day, including
1971:
1334:
1293:
1121:
1022:
763:
616:
4983:. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
4711:C. Rothleitner; S. Schlamminger (2017).
3761:
3699:
3559:
3495:
3493:
3491:
3266:
2547:
2242:
1755:). The standard gravitational parameter
793:
146:
3886:Bureau of Standards Journal of Research
3842:
3623:. American Book Co. (1900), pp. 59â105.
3354:
3345:
3237:GrĂžn, Ăyvind; Hervik, Sigbjorn (2007).
2818:Time-variation of fundamental constants
2247:Diagram of torsion balance used in the
2047:A measurement was attempted in 1738 by
1375:, expressed in units characteristic of
6083:
4652:Schlamminger, Stephan (18 June 2014).
3576:
3570:
3523:
3517:
3015:, or the average density of Earth, as
2898:Accelerating expansion of the universe
2534:By 1969, the value recommended by the
2328:The accuracy of the measured value of
689:, a constant originally introduced by
5860:
5367:Newton's law of universal gravitation
5096:
4996:Astrodynamic Constants and Parameters
4827:The 2018 experiment was described by
3488:
3262:
3260:
2488:with a relative uncertainty of 0.2%.
1997:Newton's law of universal gravitation
490:, the two quantities are related by:
287:Newton's law of universal gravitation
159:Newton's law of universal gravitation
5525:Newton's theorem of revolving orbits
5122:
4845:from the original on 9 October 2022.
4700:from the original on 9 October 2022.
4641:from the original on 9 October 2022.
3876:
3778:
3706:. London: Charles Griffin. pp.
3506:and argues for its acceptance. See:
1930:was historically in widespread use,
894:
5473:LeibnizâNewton calculus controversy
5214:standing on the shoulders of giants
4986:(Complete report available online:
3680:
3430:"Geocentric gravitational constant"
13:
5070:Newtonian constant of gravitation
4855:
3323:Introduction to General Relativity
3257:
3007:Cavendish determined the value of
2474:(1911). Here, he cites a value of
1705:
1656:
1653:
1611:
1608:
1495:
1491:
1477:
1473:
1434:
1430:
1416:
1412:
1322:
1318:
1310:
1296:
1107:
1099:
1096:
1008:
1000:
997:
986:
983:
765:
581:
426:local gravitational field of Earth
14:
6107:
5910:Newtonian constant of gravitation
5063:
2413:(1891), who published a value of
1767:Kepler's laws of planetary motion
1722:Since 2012, the AU is defined as
202:Newtonian constant of gravitation
5802:Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes
4717:Review of Scientific Instruments
3867:, American Book Company (1900 ).
3079:1 m apart is approximately
2836:
2822:Analysis of observations of 580
2005:dates to the 1890s), but is not
1990:
1747:standard gravitational parameter
1371:For elliptical orbits, applying
901:Standard gravitational parameter
866:
208:, denoted by the capital letter
206:Cavendish gravitational constant
198:universal gravitational constant
5822:Newton International Fellowship
5503:generalized GaussâNewton method
5416:Newton's method in optimization
4915:
4849:
4704:
4645:
4570:
4519:
4496:
4479:
4426:
4373:
4320:
4267:
4214:
4171:
4118:
4067:
3997:
3906:
3870:
3855:
3821:
3772:
3755:
3739:
3730:
3714:
3693:
3649:
3626:
3603:
3544:
3196:. Goddard Space Flight Center.
3101:
3065:
2863:Gaussian gravitational constant
2491:
2394:(1883, results between 5.0 and
2359:), Carlo Ignazio Giulio (1841,
2323:
2273:invented by the geologist Rev.
2125:at Earth's surface, by setting
2123:mean gravitational acceleration
1928:Gaussian gravitational constant
913:Gaussian gravitational constant
687:Einstein gravitational constant
265:was introduced in the 1890s by
176:involved in the calculation of
4798:10.1103/PhysRevLett.111.101102
4133:(4). AIP Publishing: 663â734.
3779:Boys, C. V. (1 January 1895).
3357:Reports on Progress in Physics
3312:
3230:
3203:
3181:
3022:
3001:
2953:(2013), p. 93; P. de Aquino,
2927:
2903:Lunar Laser Ranging experiment
2893:Dirac large numbers hypothesis
2579:Relative standard uncertainty
2499:(1930) published the value of
2078:(1778) suggested a density of
1111:
1093:
1012:
994:
743:
737:
1:
3765:The mean density of the earth
3762:Poynting, John Henry (1894).
3703:The Mean Density of the Earth
3700:Poynting, John Henry (1894).
3444:– via iau-a3.gitlab.io.
3194:Astrophysics Science Division
2914:
2718:In the January 2007 issue of
2277:(1753). He used a horizontal
2053:Charles Marie de La Condamine
280:
248:, its value is approximately
5443:Newton's theorem about ovals
3566:. Cambridge. pp. 50â56.
3452:Geophysical Research Letters
2811:
2263:. He determined a value for
194:theory of general relativity
186:law of universal gravitation
7:
5812:Sir Isaac Newton Sixth Form
5468:Corpuscular theory of light
5394:SchrödingerâNewton equation
5039:10.1103/PhysRevLett.85.2869
3791:. The Royal Society: 1â72.
2829:
2380:5.5832(149) g⋅cm
479:{\displaystyle r_{\oplus }}
448:{\displaystyle M_{\oplus }}
410:constant of proportionality
151:The gravitational constant
10:
6112:
5221:Notes on the Jewish Temple
4971:
4200:10.1103/revmodphys.59.1121
4053:10.1103/RevModPhys.84.1527
3377:10.1088/0034-4885/60/2/001
2815:
2306:, corresponds to value of
1975:
898:
196:. It is also known as the
18:
6063:
5969:StefanâBoltzmann constant
5955:StefanâBoltzmann constant
5894:
5830:
5767:
5722:
5645:
5587:
5342:
5262:
5197:
5130:
4878:10.1038/s41586-018-0431-5
4276:Reviews of Modern Physics
4253:10.1103/revmodphys.72.351
4223:Reviews of Modern Physics
4180:Reviews of Modern Physics
4104:10.1103/revmodphys.41.375
4084:Reviews of Modern Physics
4013:Reviews of Modern Physics
3931:Reviews of Modern Physics
3736:Mackenzie (1899), p. 125.
3267:Einstein, Albert (1916).
2943:heat transfer coefficient
2703:
2690:
2677:
2664:
2651:
2638:
2625:
2612:
2599:
2586:
2581:
2578:
2571:
2568:
2303:5.448(33) g⋅cm
1863:
1815:
1810:
1807:
1796:
1793:
1769:, and in the formula for
802:at the laboratory scale.
40:
34:
5372:post-Newtonian expansion
5252:Corruptions of Scripture
5244:Ancient Kingdoms Amended
4808:. 101102. Archived from
3850:Astronomicheskii Zhurnal
3400:"Astrodynamic Constants"
3295:10.1002/andp.19163540702
2461:Arthur Stanley Mackenzie
2400:Thomas Corwin Mendenhall
2015:where it postulates the
877:geometrized unit systems
552:Einstein field equations
235:Einstein field equations
19:Not to be confused with
5562:Absolute space and time
5426:truncated Newton method
5399:Newton's laws of motion
5362:Newton's law of cooling
5009:Physical Review Letters
4981:Highlights of Astronomy
4548:10.1126/science.1135459
4306:10.1103/revmodphys.77.1
3971:10.1103/RevModPhys.77.1
3861:Mackenzie, A. Stanley,
3747:The Laws of Gravitation
3621:The Laws of Gravitation
3560:Poynting, J.H. (1913).
3213:Fundamentals of Physics
2959:Soviet Physics: Uspekhi
2947:Newton's law of cooling
2878:Gravitational potential
2728:, reporting a value of
2561:Recommended values for
2470:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
2465:The Laws of Gravitation
2415:5.49(3) g⋅cm
2072:Schiehallion experiment
2019:of gravitation. In the
1982:Schiehallion experiment
1362:This way of expressing
5936:Johann Josef Loschmidt
5797:Isaac Newton Telescope
5787:Isaac Newton Institute
5557:NewtonâPuiseux theorem
5552:Parallelogram of force
5540:kissing number problem
5530:NewtonâEuler equations
5433:GaussâNewton algorithm
5382:gravitational constant
3806:10.1098/rsta.1895.0001
3724:Philosophical Magazine
3596:10.1098/rstl.1778.0034
2557:
2256:
2220:
1972:History of measurement
1956:, expressing the mean
1716:
1549:of Earth's orbit (the
1536:
1353:
1221:
1157:
1050:
851:The relative standard
830:
785:
624:
542:
480:
449:
402:
167:gravitational constant
162:
6096:Fundamental constants
6054:von Klitzing constant
5751:Isaac Newton Gargoyle
5661: (nephew-in-law)
5637:Copernican Revolution
5632:Scientific Revolution
5493:NewtonâCotes formulas
5357:Newton's inequalities
5334:Structural coloration
4156:2027/pst.000029951949
3088:electromagnetic force
3017:5.448 g⋅cm
2908:Cosmological constant
2816:Further information:
2551:
2246:
2221:
1976:Further information:
1811:Relative uncertainty
1763:gravitational lensing
1717:
1537:
1354:
1222:
1158:
1051:
899:Further information:
831:
794:Value and uncertainty
786:
655:cosmological constant
625:
543:
481:
450:
403:
157:is a key quantity in
150:
5758:Astronomers Monument
5448:NewtonâPepys problem
5421:Apollonius's problem
5389:NewtonâCartan theory
5302:NewtonâOkounkov body
5235:hypotheses non fingo
5224: (c. 1680)
3899:10.6028/jres.005.074
2770:standard uncertainty
2522:Published values of
2384:5.56 g⋅cm
2284:Cavendish experiment
2269:implicitly, using a
2249:Cavendish experiment
2129:
2113:, sent by Hutton to
1986:Cavendish experiment
1598:
1386:
1246:
1177:
1064:
949:
820:
697:
677:stressâenergy tensor
562:
494:
463:
432:
347:
239:stressâenergy tensor
5946:Johann Jakob Balmer
5567:Luminiferous aether
5515:Newton's identities
5488:Newton's cannonball
5463:Classical mechanics
5453:Newtonian potential
5314:Newtonian telescope
5031:2000PhRvL..85.2869G
4954:10.1017/pasa.2014.9
4946:2014PASA...31...15M
4870:2018Natur.560..582L
4790:2013PhRvL.111j1102Q
4729:2017RScI...88k1101R
4682:10.1038/nature13507
4673:2014Natur.510..478S
4616:10.1038/nature13433
4608:2014Natur.510..518R
4540:2007Sci...315...74F
4457:2016JPCRD..45d3102M
4404:2012JPCRD..41d3109M
4351:2008JPCRD..37.1187M
4298:2005RvMP...77....1M
4245:2000RvMP...72..351M
4192:1987RvMP...59.1121C
4139:1973JPCRD...2..663C
4096:1969RvMP...41..375T
4035:2012RvMP...84.1527M
3953:2005RvMP...77....1M
3797:1895RSPTA.186....1B
3577:Hutton, C. (1778).
3538:1985QJRAS..26..289D
3464:1992GeoRL..19..529R
3369:1997RPPh...60..151G
3308:on 6 February 2012.
3287:1916AnP...354..769E
2951:Quantum Black Holes
2726:atom interferometry
2565:
2411:John Henry Poynting
2392:Robert von Sterneck
2365:George Biddell Airy
2157:
2119:Earth's mean radius
2057:Peruvian expedition
1912:celestial mechanics
1790:
1528:
1149:
909:celestial mechanics
532:
488:radius of the Earth
219:gravitational force
6050:Klaus von Klitzing
6044:Josephson constant
5965:Boltzmann constant
5940:Loschmidt constant
5792:Isaac Newton Medal
5597: (birthplace)
5411:Newtonian dynamics
5309:Newton's reflector
4815:on 4 December 2020
3617:Scientific Memoirs
3410:. 27 February 2009
3274:Annalen der Physik
2883:Gravitational wave
2824:type Ia supernovae
2560:
2558:
2257:
2216:
2143:
2017:inverse-square law
1924:astronomical units
1785:
1712:
1532:
1511:
1349:
1217:
1153:
1132:
1046:
826:
800:fundamental forces
781:
620:
556:general relativity
538:
518:
476:
445:
398:
293:of the attractive
163:
6078:
6077:
5920:Avogadro constant
5854:
5853:
5746: (sculpture)
5713:Abraham de Moivre
5667: (professor)
5595:Woolsthorpe Manor
5547:Newton's quotient
5520:Newton polynomial
5478:Newton's notation
5209: (1661â1665)
5015:(14): 2869â2872.
4864:(7720): 582â588.
4738:10.1063/1.4994619
4667:(7506): 478â480.
4592:(7506): 518â521.
4465:10.1063/1.4954402
4412:10.1063/1.4724320
4359:10.1063/1.2844785
4147:10.1063/1.3253130
3675:978-0-8135-2908-0
3472:10.1029/92GL00259
3338:978-0-07-000423-8
3250:978-0-387-69200-5
3223:978-0-470-04618-0
3110:â 1.000003040433
2868:Orbital mechanics
2716:
2715:
2576:(10 mâ
kgâ
s)
2345:Francesco Carlini
2282:now known as the
2211:
2168:
2067:, had suggested.
1962:astronomical unit
1908:
1907:
1703:
1679:
1649:
1606:
1551:astronomical unit
1510:
1472:
1449:
1411:
1344:
1285:
1275:
1212:
1165:orbital mechanics
1092:
979:
905:orbital mechanics
895:Orbital mechanics
829:{\displaystyle G}
729:
533:
457:mass of the Earth
393:
174:physical constant
145:
144:
6103:
5979:Rydberg constant
5975:Johannes Rydberg
5961:Ludwig Boltzmann
5930:Faraday constant
5881:
5874:
5867:
5858:
5857:
5842:
5737: (monotype)
5701:William Stukeley
5697: (disciple)
5677:Benjamin Pulleyn
5653:Catherine Barton
5572:Newtonian series
5483:Rotating spheres
5229:General Scholium
5124:Sir Isaac Newton
5117:
5110:
5103:
5094:
5093:
5075:
5058:
5024:
4984:
4966:
4965:
4939:
4919:
4913:
4912:
4910:
4908:
4903:. 31 August 2018
4897:
4853:
4847:
4846:
4844:
4837:
4829:C. Rothleitner.
4824:
4822:
4820:
4814:
4775:
4764:
4750:
4740:
4708:
4702:
4701:
4699:
4684:
4658:
4649:
4643:
4642:
4640:
4601:
4583:
4574:
4568:
4567:
4523:
4517:
4516:
4515:
4513:
4500:
4494:
4483:
4477:
4476:
4450:
4441:(4): 1527â1605.
4430:
4424:
4423:
4397:
4388:(4): 1527â1605.
4377:
4371:
4370:
4344:
4335:(3): 1187â1284.
4324:
4318:
4317:
4291:
4271:
4265:
4264:
4238:
4218:
4212:
4211:
4175:
4169:
4168:
4158:
4122:
4116:
4115:
4071:
4065:
4064:
4046:
4028:
4019:(4): 1527â1605.
4010:
4001:
3995:
3993:
3989:
3987:
3985:
3979:
3973:. Archived from
3964:
3946:
3928:
3919:
3913:
3910:
3904:
3903:
3901:
3892:(6): 1243â1290.
3874:
3868:
3859:
3853:
3846:
3840:
3838:
3836:
3825:
3819:
3818:
3808:
3776:
3770:
3769:
3759:
3753:
3745:A.S. Mackenzie,
3743:
3737:
3734:
3728:
3718:
3712:
3711:
3697:
3691:
3690:
3679:
3663:
3653:
3647:
3645:
3644:
3642:
3630:
3624:
3607:
3601:
3600:
3598:
3574:
3568:
3567:
3557:
3551:
3548:
3542:
3541:
3521:
3515:
3497:
3486:
3483:
3445:
3443:
3441:
3426:
3420:
3419:
3417:
3415:
3396:
3390:
3388:
3352:
3343:
3342:
3326:
3316:
3310:
3309:
3307:
3297:. Archived from
3264:
3255:
3254:
3234:
3228:
3227:
3207:
3201:
3200:
3185:
3179:
3178:
3176:
3174:
3155:
3133:
3131:
3122:
3118:
3109:
3105:
3099:
3093:
3085:
3069:
3063:
3062:
3061:
3059:
3053:
3051:
3050:
3045:
3042:
3026:
3020:
3018:
3005:
2999:
2931:
2858:Standard gravity
2853:Gravity of Earth
2846:
2841:
2840:
2801:
2799:
2795:
2789:
2787:
2783:
2763:
2762:
2760:
2756:
2750:
2743:
2742:
2740:
2734:
2566:
2559:
2530:
2525:
2514:
2512:
2506:
2504:
2487:
2485:
2479:
2472:Eleventh Edition
2456:
2454:
2444:
2438:
2436:
2430:
2416:
2405:
2397:
2385:
2381:
2370:
2362:
2358:
2350:
2339:
2333:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2305:
2304:
2268:
2239:
2238:
2236:
2225:
2223:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2210:
2209:
2208:
2199:
2198:
2182:
2174:
2169:
2167:
2166:
2156:
2151:
2142:
2100:
2098:
2097:
2094:
2091:
2087:
2081:
2043:
2041:
2037:
2031:
2004:
1958:angular velocity
1955:
1947:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1910:Calculations in
1904:
1902:
1895:
1893:
1889:
1886:
1879:
1859:
1857:
1850:
1848:
1844:
1841:
1838:
1831:
1805:
1791:
1784:
1781:
1760:
1754:
1744:
1735:
1733:
1730:
1727:
1721:
1719:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1701:
1700:
1699:
1681:
1680:
1672:
1670:
1666:
1665:
1664:
1659:
1650:
1648:
1647:
1646:
1633:
1625:
1614:
1604:
1589:two-body problem
1583:
1541:
1539:
1538:
1533:
1527:
1519:
1508:
1507:
1506:
1505:
1490:
1485:
1484:
1470:
1462:
1461:
1447:
1446:
1445:
1444:
1429:
1424:
1423:
1409:
1407:
1406:
1373:Kepler's 3rd law
1367:
1358:
1356:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1332:
1317:
1309:
1304:
1303:
1286:
1278:
1276:
1271:
1263:
1258:
1257:
1238:
1232:
1226:
1224:
1223:
1218:
1213:
1211:
1210:
1201:
1190:
1172:
1162:
1160:
1159:
1154:
1148:
1140:
1131:
1130:
1120:
1119:
1118:
1106:
1090:
1088:
1087:
1055:
1053:
1052:
1047:
1042:
1041:
1033:
1032:
1031:
1021:
1020:
1019:
1007:
993:
977:
976:
975:
944:
862:
860:
847:
845:
841:
835:
833:
832:
827:
790:
788:
787:
782:
777:
776:
775:
761:
760:
730:
728:
727:
718:
707:
684:
674:
663:
652:
648:
640:
629:
627:
626:
621:
615:
614:
596:
595:
577:
576:
547:
545:
544:
539:
534:
531:
526:
517:
516:
507:
485:
483:
482:
477:
475:
474:
454:
452:
451:
446:
444:
443:
424:), which is the
423:
417:
407:
405:
404:
399:
394:
392:
391:
382:
381:
380:
371:
370:
360:
338:
328:
319:
302:
264:
255:
253:
213:
182:Sir Isaac Newton
156:
118:
116:
112:
109:
87:
85:
81:
59:
56:
54:
50:
38:
32:
31:
25:gravity of Earth
22:
6111:
6110:
6106:
6105:
6104:
6102:
6101:
6100:
6081:
6080:
6079:
6074:
6059:
6040:Brian Josephson
6035:Douglas Hartree
6024:Hubble constant
5994:Planck constant
5926:Michael Faraday
5916:Amedeo Avogadro
5897:
5890:
5885:
5855:
5850:
5849:
5848:
5847:
5846:
5839:
5826:
5782:Newton's cradle
5763:
5718:
5691: (student)
5689:William Whiston
5685: (student)
5641:
5622:Religious views
5583:
5498:Newton's method
5458:Newtonian fluid
5352:Bucket argument
5338:
5258:
5193:
5126:
5121:
5071:
5066:
5061:
4974:
4969:
4920:
4916:
4906:
4904:
4899:
4854:
4850:
4842:
4835:
4818:
4816:
4812:
4778:Phys. Rev. Lett
4773:
4709:
4705:
4697:
4656:
4650:
4646:
4638:
4581:
4575:
4571:
4534:(5808): 74â77.
4524:
4520:
4511:
4509:
4501:
4497:
4484:
4480:
4431:
4427:
4378:
4374:
4325:
4321:
4272:
4268:
4219:
4215:
4176:
4172:
4123:
4119:
4072:
4068:
4044:10.1.1.150.3858
4008:
4002:
3998:
3991:
3983:
3981:
3980:on 6 March 2007
3977:
3962:10.1.1.245.4554
3926:
3920:
3916:
3911:
3907:
3875:
3871:
3860:
3856:
3847:
3843:
3834:
3832:
3826:
3822:
3777:
3773:
3760:
3756:
3744:
3740:
3735:
3731:
3719:
3715:
3698:
3694:
3676:
3654:
3650:
3640:
3638:
3637:
3631:
3627:
3608:
3604:
3575:
3571:
3558:
3554:
3549:
3545:
3522:
3518:
3498:
3489:
3439:
3437:
3428:
3427:
3423:
3413:
3411:
3398:
3397:
3393:
3353:
3346:
3339:
3317:
3313:
3301:
3265:
3258:
3251:
3235:
3231:
3224:
3208:
3204:
3186:
3182:
3172:
3170:
3157:
3156:
3147:
3136:
3130:
3127:
3124:
3120:
3117:
3114:
3111:
3107:
3106:
3102:
3098:to a microgram.
3096:mass of the Sun
3091:
3080:
3070:
3066:
3057:
3055:
3046:
3043:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3029:
3027:
3023:
3016:
3006:
3002:
2993:
2981:
2972:Einstein tensor
2932:
2928:
2917:
2912:
2873:Escape velocity
2842:
2835:
2832:
2820:
2814:
2797:
2793:
2791:
2785:
2781:
2779:
2758:
2754:
2752:
2746:
2745:
2738:
2736:
2730:
2729:
2575:
2528:
2523:
2510:
2508:
2502:
2500:
2494:
2483:
2481:
2475:
2452:
2450:
2440:
2434:
2432:
2426:
2414:
2403:
2395:
2383:
2379:
2376:Ferdinand Reich
2368:
2360:
2356:
2348:
2335:
2329:
2326:
2314:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2300:
2294:
2271:torsion balance
2264:
2261:Henry Cavendish
2253:Henry Cavendish
2234:
2232:
2227:
2204:
2200:
2194:
2190:
2183:
2175:
2173:
2162:
2158:
2152:
2147:
2141:
2130:
2127:
2126:
2095:
2092:
2089:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2079:
2039:
2035:
2033:
2027:
2000:
1993:
1988:
1974:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1931:
1920:mean solar days
1900:
1898:
1891:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1878:
1875:
1869:
1855:
1853:
1846:
1842:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1830:
1827:
1821:
1797:
1777:
1771:escape velocity
1756:
1750:
1740:
1731:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1704:
1695:
1691:
1671:
1660:
1652:
1651:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1626:
1624:
1623:
1619:
1618:
1607:
1599:
1596:
1595:
1582:
1579:
1575:
1572:
1568:
1565:
1558:
1553:, AU), time in
1547:semi-major axis
1520:
1515:
1498:
1494:
1486:
1480:
1476:
1469:
1454:
1450:
1437:
1433:
1425:
1419:
1415:
1408:
1402:
1398:
1387:
1384:
1383:
1363:
1336:
1325:
1321:
1313:
1305:
1299:
1295:
1294:
1277:
1264:
1262:
1253:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1243:
1234:
1228:
1206:
1202:
1191:
1189:
1178:
1175:
1174:
1168:
1141:
1136:
1126:
1122:
1114:
1110:
1102:
1089:
1083:
1079:
1065:
1062:
1061:
1034:
1027:
1023:
1015:
1011:
1003:
989:
982:
981:
980:
968:
964:
950:
947:
946:
943:
937:
923:
897:
875:, particularly
869:
858:
856:
843:
839:
837:
821:
818:
817:
796:
768:
764:
762:
753:
749:
723:
719:
708:
706:
698:
695:
694:
680:
673:
669:
662:
658:
650:
646:
643:Einstein tensor
639:
631:
607:
603:
588:
584:
569:
565:
563:
560:
559:
527:
522:
512:
508:
506:
495:
492:
491:
470:
466:
464:
461:
460:
439:
435:
433:
430:
429:
419:
413:
387:
383:
376:
372:
366:
362:
361:
359:
348:
345:
344:
341:centres of mass
334:
327:
321:
318:
312:
298:
283:
275:1798 experiment
271:Henry Cavendish
260:
251:
249:
209:
190:Albert Einstein
152:
131:
114:
110:
107:
105:
83:
79:
77:
57:
52:
48:
46:
36:
28:
20:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6109:
6099:
6098:
6093:
6076:
6075:
6064:
6061:
6060:
6058:
6057:
6047:
6037:
6032:
6027:
6017:
6007:
6002:
5997:
5987:
5982:
5972:
5958:
5948:
5943:
5933:
5923:
5913:
5902:
5900:
5892:
5891:
5884:
5883:
5876:
5869:
5861:
5852:
5851:
5838:
5837:
5835:
5834:
5832:
5828:
5827:
5825:
5824:
5819:
5814:
5809:
5804:
5799:
5794:
5789:
5784:
5779:
5773:
5771:
5765:
5764:
5762:
5761:
5754:
5747:
5738:
5728:
5726:
5720:
5719:
5717:
5716:
5715: (friend)
5710:
5709: (friend)
5704:
5703: (friend)
5698:
5692:
5686:
5680:
5674:
5673: (mentor)
5671:William Clarke
5668:
5662:
5656:
5649:
5647:
5643:
5642:
5640:
5639:
5634:
5629:
5627:Occult studies
5624:
5619:
5614:
5609:
5604:
5598:
5591:
5589:
5585:
5584:
5582:
5581:
5580:
5579:
5569:
5564:
5559:
5554:
5549:
5544:
5543:
5542:
5532:
5527:
5522:
5517:
5512:
5510:Newton fractal
5507:
5506:
5505:
5495:
5490:
5485:
5480:
5475:
5470:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5438:Newton's rings
5435:
5430:
5429:
5428:
5423:
5413:
5408:
5407:
5406:
5396:
5391:
5386:
5385:
5384:
5379:
5374:
5364:
5359:
5354:
5348:
5346:
5340:
5339:
5337:
5336:
5331:
5326:
5324:Newton's metal
5321:
5316:
5311:
5306:
5305:
5304:
5297:Newton polygon
5294:
5289:
5284:
5279:
5278:
5277:
5266:
5264:
5260:
5259:
5257:
5256:
5248:
5240:
5231:" (1713;
5225:
5217:
5210:
5201:
5199:
5198:Other writings
5195:
5194:
5192:
5191:
5183:
5175:
5167:
5159:
5151:
5143:
5134:
5132:
5128:
5127:
5120:
5119:
5112:
5105:
5097:
5091:
5090:
5084:
5065:
5064:External links
5062:
5060:
5059:
5000:
4975:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4967:
4914:
4848:
4826:
4825:
4784:(10): 101102.
4723:(11): 111101.
4703:
4644:
4569:
4518:
4495:
4491:S. Kotochigova
4478:
4425:
4372:
4319:
4266:
4229:(2): 351â495.
4213:
4170:
4117:
4066:
3996:
3914:
3905:
3869:
3854:
3841:
3837:10 mâ
kgâ
s
3820:
3771:
3754:
3738:
3729:
3713:
3692:
3674:
3648:
3643:10 mâ
kgâ
s
3625:
3602:
3569:
3552:
3543:
3532:(3): 289â294.
3516:
3512:MacKenzie 1900
3487:
3485:
3484:
3458:(6): 529â531.
3421:
3391:
3363:(2): 151â225.
3344:
3337:
3311:
3281:(7): 769â822.
3256:
3249:
3229:
3222:
3202:
3180:
3144:
3143:
3142:
3140:
3135:
3134:
3128:
3125:
3115:
3112:
3100:
3086:, whereas the
3064:
3021:
3000:
2989:
2977:
2925:
2924:
2923:
2921:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2888:Strong gravity
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2849:
2848:
2847:
2844:Physics portal
2831:
2828:
2813:
2810:
2800:10 mâ
kgâ
s
2788:10 mâ
kgâ
s
2761:10 mâ
kgâ
s
2741:10 mâ
kgâ
s
2714:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2705:
2701:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2692:
2688:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2679:
2675:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2666:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2653:
2649:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2640:
2636:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2627:
2623:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2614:
2610:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2601:
2597:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2588:
2584:
2583:
2580:
2577:
2570:
2513:10 mâ
kgâ
s
2505:10 mâ
kgâ
s
2493:
2490:
2486:10 mâ
kgâ
s
2455:10 mâ
kgâ
s
2437:10 mâ
kgâ
s
2404:5.77 g/cm
2361:4.95 g/cm
2357:4.77 g/cm
2349:4.39 g/cm
2325:
2322:
2317:10 mâ
kgâ
s
2298:
2293:. His result,
2237:10 mâ
kgâ
s
2215:
2207:
2203:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2186:
2181:
2178:
2172:
2165:
2161:
2155:
2150:
2146:
2140:
2137:
2134:
2115:JĂ©rĂŽme Lalande
2076:Charles Hutton
2049:Pierre Bouguer
2045:
2044:
2042:10 mâ
kgâ
s
1992:
1989:
1973:
1970:
1906:
1905:
1896:
1880:
1876:
1873:
1867:
1861:
1860:
1851:
1832:
1828:
1825:
1819:
1813:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1795:
1749:(also denoted
1711:
1707:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1687:
1684:
1678:
1675:
1669:
1663:
1658:
1655:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1632:
1629:
1622:
1617:
1613:
1610:
1603:
1580:
1577:
1573:
1570:
1566:
1563:
1543:
1542:
1531:
1526:
1523:
1518:
1514:
1504:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1468:
1465:
1460:
1457:
1453:
1443:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1394:
1391:
1360:
1359:
1348:
1343:
1340:
1331:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1302:
1298:
1292:
1289:
1284:
1281:
1274:
1270:
1267:
1261:
1256:
1252:
1216:
1209:
1205:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1152:
1147:
1144:
1139:
1135:
1129:
1125:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1098:
1095:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1045:
1040:
1037:
1030:
1026:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
999:
996:
992:
988:
985:
974:
971:
967:
963:
960:
957:
954:
941:
896:
893:
868:
865:
849:
848:
846:10 mâ
kgâ
s
825:
795:
792:
780:
774:
771:
767:
759:
756:
752:
748:
745:
742:
739:
736:
733:
726:
722:
717:
714:
711:
705:
702:
671:
660:
635:
619:
613:
610:
606:
602:
599:
594:
591:
587:
583:
580:
575:
572:
568:
537:
530:
525:
521:
515:
511:
505:
502:
499:
473:
469:
442:
438:
397:
390:
386:
379:
375:
369:
365:
358:
355:
352:
325:
316:
282:
279:
256: Nâ
m/kg.
227:inverse square
143:
142:
129:
119:
102:
101:
88:
74:
73:
60:
43:
42:
39:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6108:
6097:
6094:
6092:
6089:
6088:
6086:
6073:
6072:
6068:
6062:
6055:
6051:
6048:
6045:
6041:
6038:
6036:
6033:
6031:
6028:
6025:
6021:
6018:
6015:
6011:
6008:
6006:
6003:
6001:
5998:
5995:
5991:
5988:
5986:
5985:J. J. Thomson
5983:
5980:
5976:
5973:
5970:
5966:
5962:
5959:
5956:
5952:
5949:
5947:
5944:
5941:
5937:
5934:
5931:
5927:
5924:
5921:
5917:
5914:
5911:
5907:
5904:
5903:
5901:
5899:
5893:
5889:
5882:
5877:
5875:
5870:
5868:
5863:
5862:
5859:
5845:
5841:
5833:
5829:
5823:
5820:
5818:
5815:
5813:
5810:
5808:
5805:
5803:
5800:
5798:
5795:
5793:
5790:
5788:
5785:
5783:
5780:
5778:
5777:Newton (unit)
5775:
5774:
5772:
5770:
5766:
5760:
5759:
5755:
5753:
5752:
5748:
5745:
5743:
5739:
5736:
5734:
5730:
5729:
5727:
5725:
5721:
5714:
5711:
5708:
5707:William Jones
5705:
5702:
5699:
5696:
5693:
5690:
5687:
5684:
5681:
5679: (tutor)
5678:
5675:
5672:
5669:
5666:
5663:
5660:
5659:John Conduitt
5657:
5655: (niece)
5654:
5651:
5650:
5648:
5644:
5638:
5635:
5633:
5630:
5628:
5625:
5623:
5620:
5618:
5615:
5613:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5602:
5601:Cranbury Park
5599:
5596:
5593:
5592:
5590:
5588:Personal life
5586:
5578:
5575:
5574:
5573:
5570:
5568:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5555:
5553:
5550:
5548:
5545:
5541:
5538:
5537:
5536:
5535:Newton number
5533:
5531:
5528:
5526:
5523:
5521:
5518:
5516:
5513:
5511:
5508:
5504:
5501:
5500:
5499:
5496:
5494:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5484:
5481:
5479:
5476:
5474:
5471:
5469:
5466:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5434:
5431:
5427:
5424:
5422:
5419:
5418:
5417:
5414:
5412:
5409:
5405:
5404:Kepler's laws
5402:
5401:
5400:
5397:
5395:
5392:
5390:
5387:
5383:
5380:
5378:
5377:parameterized
5375:
5373:
5370:
5369:
5368:
5365:
5363:
5360:
5358:
5355:
5353:
5350:
5349:
5347:
5345:
5341:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5325:
5322:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5303:
5300:
5299:
5298:
5295:
5293:
5290:
5288:
5285:
5283:
5280:
5276:
5273:
5272:
5271:
5268:
5267:
5265:
5263:Contributions
5261:
5254:
5253:
5249:
5246:
5245:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5230:
5226:
5223:
5222:
5218:
5216:" (1675)
5215:
5211:
5208:
5207:
5203:
5202:
5200:
5196:
5189:
5188:
5184:
5181:
5180:
5176:
5173:
5172:
5168:
5165:
5164:
5160:
5157:
5156:
5152:
5149:
5148:
5144:
5141:
5140:
5136:
5135:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5118:
5113:
5111:
5106:
5104:
5099:
5098:
5095:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5076:
5074:
5068:
5067:
5056:
5052:
5048:
5044:
5040:
5036:
5032:
5028:
5023:
5022:gr-qc/0006043
5018:
5014:
5010:
5006:
5001:
4999:
4997:
4993:
4989:
4982:
4977:
4976:
4963:
4959:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4938:
4933:
4929:
4925:
4918:
4902:
4895:
4891:
4887:
4883:
4879:
4875:
4871:
4867:
4863:
4859:
4852:
4841:
4834:
4833:
4811:
4807:
4803:
4799:
4795:
4791:
4787:
4783:
4779:
4772:
4767:
4766:
4765:Referencing:
4763:
4758:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4730:
4726:
4722:
4718:
4714:
4707:
4696:
4692:
4688:
4683:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4655:
4648:
4637:
4633:
4629:
4625:
4621:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4600:
4595:
4591:
4587:
4580:
4573:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4522:
4508:
4507:
4499:
4492:
4488:
4482:
4474:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4449:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4429:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4387:
4383:
4376:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4343:
4338:
4334:
4330:
4323:
4315:
4311:
4307:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4281:
4277:
4270:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4237:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4217:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4174:
4166:
4162:
4157:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4121:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4070:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4007:
4000:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3963:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3945:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3925:
3918:
3909:
3900:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3873:
3866:
3865:
3858:
3851:
3845:
3830:
3824:
3816:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3775:
3767:
3766:
3758:
3752:
3748:
3742:
3733:
3727:
3723:
3717:
3709:
3705:
3704:
3696:
3688:
3684:
3677:
3671:
3667:
3662:
3661:
3652:
3635:
3629:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3613:
3609:Published in
3606:
3597:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3573:
3565:
3564:
3556:
3547:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3520:
3513:
3510:, p. 4,
3509:
3508:Poynting 1894
3505:
3501:
3496:
3494:
3492:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3448:
3447:
3435:
3431:
3425:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3395:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3351:
3349:
3340:
3334:
3330:
3325:
3324:
3315:
3305:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3275:
3270:
3263:
3261:
3252:
3246:
3242:
3241:
3233:
3225:
3219:
3215:
3214:
3206:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3184:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3154:
3152:
3150:
3145:
3141:
3138:
3137:
3104:
3097:
3089:
3084:
3078:
3074:
3068:
3049:
3041:
3032:
3025:
3014:
3010:
3004:
2997:
2992:
2988:
2985:
2984:metric tensor
2980:
2976:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2919:
2918:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2850:
2845:
2839:
2834:
2827:
2825:
2819:
2809:
2807:
2806:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2767:
2749:
2733:
2727:
2723:
2722:
2712:
2709:
2706:
2702:
2699:
2696:
2693:
2689:
2686:
2683:
2680:
2676:
2673:
2670:
2667:
2663:
2660:
2657:
2654:
2650:
2647:
2644:
2641:
2637:
2634:
2631:
2628:
2624:
2621:
2618:
2615:
2611:
2608:
2605:
2602:
2598:
2595:
2592:
2589:
2585:
2574:
2567:
2564:
2555:
2550:
2546:
2543:
2539:
2537:
2532:
2520:
2516:
2498:
2489:
2478:
2473:
2471:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2448:
2443:
2429:
2424:
2420:
2412:
2407:
2401:
2396:6.3 g/cm
2393:
2387:
2377:
2372:
2369:6.6 g/cm
2366:
2354:
2353:Edward Sabine
2346:
2341:
2338:
2332:
2321:
2310:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2285:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2254:
2251:performed by
2250:
2245:
2241:
2230:
2213:
2205:
2201:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2184:
2179:
2176:
2170:
2163:
2159:
2153:
2148:
2144:
2138:
2135:
2132:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2080:4.5 g/cm
2077:
2073:
2068:
2066:
2065:Edmond Halley
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2030:
2026:
2025:
2024:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1991:Early history
1987:
1983:
1979:
1969:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1954:
1950:
1934:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1897:
1881:
1872:
1868:
1866:
1862:
1852:
1833:
1824:
1820:
1818:
1814:
1804:
1800:
1792:
1789:
1783:
1780:
1774:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1759:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1739:The quantity
1737:
1709:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1685:
1682:
1676:
1673:
1667:
1661:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1630:
1627:
1620:
1615:
1601:
1592:
1590:
1585:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1529:
1524:
1521:
1516:
1512:
1502:
1499:
1487:
1481:
1466:
1463:
1458:
1455:
1451:
1441:
1438:
1426:
1420:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1392:
1389:
1382:
1381:
1380:
1378:
1377:Earth's orbit
1374:
1369:
1366:
1346:
1341:
1338:
1329:
1326:
1314:
1306:
1300:
1290:
1287:
1282:
1279:
1272:
1268:
1265:
1259:
1254:
1250:
1242:
1241:
1240:
1237:
1231:
1214:
1207:
1203:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1171:
1167:, the period
1166:
1150:
1145:
1142:
1137:
1133:
1127:
1123:
1115:
1103:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1059:
1043:
1038:
1035:
1028:
1024:
1016:
1004:
990:
972:
969:
965:
961:
958:
955:
952:
940:
936:
932:
928:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
892:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
873:natural units
867:Natural units
864:
854:
823:
816:
815:
814:
812:
808:
803:
801:
791:
778:
772:
769:
757:
754:
750:
746:
740:
734:
731:
724:
720:
715:
712:
709:
703:
700:
692:
688:
683:
678:
667:
666:metric tensor
656:
644:
638:
634:
617:
611:
608:
604:
600:
597:
592:
589:
585:
578:
573:
570:
566:
557:
553:
548:
535:
528:
523:
519:
513:
509:
503:
500:
497:
489:
471:
467:
458:
440:
436:
427:
422:
416:
411:
395:
388:
384:
377:
373:
367:
363:
356:
353:
350:
342:
337:
332:
324:
315:
310:
306:
301:
296:
292:
288:
285:According to
278:
276:
272:
268:
263:
257:
247:
242:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
215:
212:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
178:gravitational
175:
172:
168:
160:
155:
149:
140:
136:
132:
128:
123:
120:
104:
103:
100:
96:
92:
89:
76:
75:
72:
68:
64:
61:
45:
44:
33:
30:
26:
6071:non SI units
6065:
6030:Hugo Tetrode
6020:Edwin Hubble
6000:Wilhelm Wien
5951:Josef Stefan
5906:Isaac Newton
5844:Isaac Newton
5756:
5749:
5741:
5732:
5665:Isaac Barrow
5603: (home)
5381:
5344:Newtonianism
5319:Newton scale
5282:Impact depth
5255: (1754)
5250:
5247: (1728)
5242:
5232:
5219:
5204:
5190: (1711)
5185:
5182: (1707)
5177:
5174: (1704)
5169:
5166: (1704)
5161:
5158: (1687)
5153:
5150: (1684)
5145:
5142: (1671)
5137:
5131:Publications
5072:
5012:
5008:
4985:
4980:
4927:
4923:
4917:
4905:. Retrieved
4898:. See also:
4861:
4857:
4851:
4831:
4817:. Retrieved
4810:the original
4781:
4777:
4760:
4720:
4716:
4706:
4664:
4660:
4647:
4589:
4585:
4572:
4531:
4527:
4521:
4510:, retrieved
4505:
4498:
4481:
4438:
4434:
4428:
4385:
4381:
4375:
4332:
4328:
4322:
4282:(1): 1â107.
4279:
4275:
4269:
4226:
4222:
4216:
4183:
4179:
4173:
4130:
4126:
4120:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4069:
4016:
4012:
3999:
3994:was derived.
3982:. Retrieved
3975:the original
3937:(1): 1â107.
3934:
3930:
3917:
3908:
3889:
3885:
3872:
3862:
3857:
3849:
3844:
3828:
3827:Carl Braun,
3823:
3788:
3784:
3774:
3764:
3757:
3746:
3741:
3732:
3726:12: 283â284.
3725:
3721:
3716:
3702:
3695:
3686:
3659:
3651:
3628:
3620:
3616:
3610:
3605:
3586:
3582:
3572:
3562:
3555:
3546:
3529:
3525:
3519:
3503:
3455:
3451:
3438:. Retrieved
3433:
3424:
3412:. Retrieved
3394:
3360:
3356:
3322:
3314:
3299:the original
3278:
3272:
3239:
3232:
3212:
3205:
3197:
3193:
3183:
3171:. Retrieved
3162:
3103:
3067:
3060:10 mâ
kg
3047:
3039:
3030:
3024:
3013:Earth's mass
3008:
3003:
2995:
2990:
2986:
2978:
2974:
2967:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2938:
2934:
2929:
2821:
2804:
2777:
2774:
2765:
2747:
2731:
2719:
2717:
2572:
2562:
2553:
2544:
2540:
2533:
2521:
2517:
2497:Paul R. Heyl
2495:
2492:Modern value
2476:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2441:
2427:
2408:
2388:
2373:
2342:
2336:
2330:
2327:
2324:19th century
2308:
2295:
2291:Earth's mass
2288:
2279:torsion beam
2275:John Michell
2265:
2258:
2228:
2069:
2061:hollow shell
2046:
2028:
2020:
2010:
2001:
1994:
1968:since 2012.
1932:
1916:solar masses
1909:
1870:
1822:
1802:
1798:
1787:
1778:
1775:
1757:
1751:
1741:
1738:
1593:
1586:
1559:
1544:
1370:
1364:
1361:
1235:
1229:
1169:
938:
927:astrophysics
924:
888:
885:Stoney units
881:Planck units
870:
850:
804:
797:
681:
636:
632:
549:
420:
414:
335:
322:
313:
299:
284:
261:
258:
243:
216:
210:
205:
201:
197:
166:
164:
153:
126:
29:
6014:Bohr radius
6005:Otto Sackur
5744:by Paolozzi
5683:Roger Cotes
5292:Newton disc
5206:Quaestiones
5179:Arithmetica
3878:Heyl, P. R.
3720:F. Reich,
3589:: 689â788.
2772:intervals.
2707:6.67430(15)
2694:6.67430(15)
2681:6.67408(31)
2668:6.67384(80)
2655:6.67428(67)
2616:6.67449(81)
2421:(1895) and
1894:10 mâ
s
1849:10 mâ
s
1786:Values for
1058:solar radii
935:solar units
853:uncertainty
809:units, the
180:effects in
6085:Categories
6010:Niels Bohr
5990:Max Planck
5831:Categories
5807:XMM-Newton
5724:Depictions
5695:John Keill
5617:Apple tree
5612:Later life
5607:Early life
5187:De Analysi
4988:PostScript
4907:13 October
4759:. 111101.
3169:. May 2024
3119:, so that
2915:References
2642:6.6742(10)
2603:6.6720(49)
2590:6.6732(31)
2423:Carl Braun
2419:C. V. Boys
2055:in their "
2007:calculated
1978:Earth mass
921:Solar mass
917:Earth mass
281:Definition
267:C. V. Boys
5898:constants
5896:Physical
5646:Relations
5155:Principia
4962:119292899
4937:1402.1534
4599:1412.7954
4473:0047-2689
4448:1203.5425
4420:0047-2689
4395:1203.5425
4367:0047-2689
4342:1203.5425
4314:0034-6861
4289:1203.5425
4261:0034-6861
4236:1203.5425
4208:0034-6861
4165:0047-2689
4112:0034-6861
4061:103378639
4039:CiteSeerX
4026:1203.5425
3957:CiteSeerX
3944:1203.5425
3815:1364-503X
3500:Boys 1894
3480:123322272
3385:250810284
3139:Citations
3092:10 N
2920:Footnotes
2812:Constancy
2737:6.693(34)
2629:6.673(10)
2451:6.683(11)
2206:⊕
2202:ρ
2196:⊕
2188:π
2164:⊕
2149:⊕
2021:Principia
1734:10 m
1689:×
1683:≈
1640:π
1522:−
1517:⊙
1500:−
1488:⋅
1464:≈
1456:−
1439:−
1427:⋅
1400:π
1327:−
1315:⋅
1307:⋅
1288:≈
1269:π
1196:π
1143:−
1138:⊙
1128:⊙
1077:×
1071:≈
1036:−
1029:⊙
991:⋅
970:−
962:×
956:≈
770:−
755:−
747:×
732:≈
713:π
701:κ
612:ν
609:μ
601:κ
593:ν
590:μ
582:Λ
574:ν
571:μ
524:⊕
514:⊕
472:⊕
441:⊕
291:magnitude
233:. In the
229:of their
204:, or the
171:empirical
35:Value of
5769:Namesake
5735:by Blake
5329:Spectrum
5270:Calculus
5239: )
5139:Fluxions
5055:15206636
5047:11005956
4930:: e015.
4894:52121922
4886:30158607
4840:Archived
4819:4 August
4806:25166649
4757:29195410
4695:Archived
4691:24965646
4636:Archived
4624:24965653
4556:17204644
3880:(1930).
3833:6.649(2)
3749:(1899),
3619:Vol. 9:
3129:☉
3116:☉
3081:10
3073:electron
2982:vs. the
2964:little g
2830:See also
2632:1500 ppm
2509:6.673(3)
2501:6.670(5)
2121:and the
2084:4
1829:☉
1686:1.495979
1567:☉
879:such as
735:2.076647
691:Einstein
246:SI units
231:distance
225:and the
6091:Gravity
5287:Inertia
5275:fluxion
5171:Queries
5163:Opticks
5147:De Motu
5077:at the
5027:Bibcode
4972:Sources
4942:Bibcode
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4786:Bibcode
4748:8195032
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4669:Bibcode
4632:4469248
4604:Bibcode
4564:6271411
4536:Bibcode
4528:Science
4453:Bibcode
4400:Bibcode
4347:Bibcode
4294:Bibcode
4241:Bibcode
4188:Bibcode
4135:Bibcode
4092:Bibcode
4031:Bibcode
3949:Bibcode
3793:Bibcode
3534:Bibcode
3460:Bibcode
3446:Citing
3440:24 June
3414:27 July
3365:Bibcode
3283:Bibcode
3052:
3035:
2721:Science
2671:120 ppm
2658:100 ppm
2645:150 ppm
2619:120 ppm
2606:730 ppm
2593:460 ppm
2433:6.66(1)
2402:(1880,
2367:(1854,
2355:(1827,
2347:(1821,
2313:6.74(4)
2111:planets
2099:
2009:in his
1949:radians
1581:☾
1074:1.90809
931:parsecs
685:is the
679:, and
675:is the
664:is the
653:is the
641:is the
486:is the
455:is the
305:density
188:and in
58:
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2710:22 ppm
2697:22 ppm
2684:46 ppm
2398:) and
2363:) and
1984:, and
1808:Value
1702:
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1467:39.478
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630:where
329:, and
309:masses
289:, the
250:6.6743
223:masses
200:, the
169:is an
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4958:S2CID
4932:arXiv
4890:S2CID
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4836:(PDF)
4813:(PDF)
4774:(PDF)
4698:(PDF)
4657:(PDF)
4639:(PDF)
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4594:arXiv
4582:(PDF)
4560:S2CID
4443:arXiv
4390:arXiv
4337:arXiv
4284:arXiv
4231:arXiv
4057:S2CID
4021:arXiv
4009:(PDF)
3978:(PDF)
3939:arXiv
3927:(PDF)
3751:127f.
3639:6.674
3632:2014
3476:S2CID
3381:S2CID
3056:1.866
2792:6.674
2780:6.674
2753:6.671
2704:2022
2691:2018
2678:2014
2665:2010
2652:2006
2639:2002
2626:1998
2613:1986
2600:1973
2587:1969
2582:Ref.
2569:Year
1937:0.017
1883:3.986
1865:Earth
1835:1.327
1794:Body
1765:, in
1724:1.495
1555:years
838:6.674
295:force
273:in a
106:4.300
78:6.674
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41:Unit
6069:and
5043:PMID
4909:2018
4882:PMID
4821:2019
4802:PMID
4753:PMID
4687:PMID
4620:PMID
4552:PMID
4514:2024
4469:ISSN
4416:ISSN
4363:ISSN
4310:ISSN
4257:ISSN
4204:ISSN
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3811:ISSN
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3687:NIST
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3416:2009
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