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then strike the cathode. Whichever species (ions or atoms) strike the cathode, collisions within the cathode redistribute this energy resulting in electrons ejected from the cathode. This process is known as secondary electron emission. Once free of the cathode, the electric field accelerates electrons into the bulk of the glow discharge. Atoms can then be excited by collisions with ions, electrons, or other atoms that have been previously excited by collisions.
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433:. That is, alternating dark and bright regions may form. Compressing the discharge horizontally will result in fewer regions. The positive column will be compressed while the negative glow will remain the same size, and, with small enough gaps, the positive column will disappear altogether. In an analytical glow discharge, the discharge is primarily a negative glow with dark region above and below it.
138:
311:
cathode. The glow discharge starts as a normal glow. As the current is increased, more of the cathode surface is involved in the glow. When the current is increased above the level where the entire cathode surface is involved, the discharge is known as an abnormal glow. If the current is increased still further, other factors come into play and an
696:
aiding detection. Combining time-resolved detection with pulsed powering results in additional benefits. In atomic emission, analyte atoms emit during different portions of the pulse than background atoms, allowing the two to be discriminated. Analogously, in mass spectrometry, sample and background ions are created at different times.
608:
pulled back into the cathode. Once outside the negative field, the attraction from the positive field begins to accelerate these electrons toward the anode. During this acceleration electrons are deflected and slowed down by positive ions speeding toward the cathode, which, in turn, produces bright blue-white
639:
Collisions between the gas-phase sample atoms and the plasma gas pass energy to the sample atoms. This energy can excite the atoms, after which they can lose their energy through atomic emission. By observing the wavelength of the emitted light, the atom's identity can be determined. By observing the
513:
With fewer ions, the electric field increases, resulting in electrons with energy of about 2 eV, which is enough to excite atoms and produce light. With longer glow discharge tubes, the longer space is occupied by a longer positive column, while the cathode layer remains the same. For example, with
428:
The illustrations to the right shows the main regions that may be present in a glow discharge. Regions described as "glows" emit significant light; regions labeled as "dark spaces" do not. As the discharge becomes more extended (i.e., stretched horizontally in the geometry of the illustrations), the
713:
To make the one-inch London chip, the team etched a plan of the city centre on a glass slide. Fitting a flat lid over the top turned the streets into hollow, connected tubes. They filled these with helium gas, and inserted electrodes at key tourist hubs. When a voltage is applied between two points,
687:
The potential, pressure, and current are interrelated. Only two can be directly controlled at once, while the third must be allowed to vary. The pressure is most typically held constant, but other schemes may be used. The pressure and current may be held constant, while potential is allowed to vary.
656:
Depth analysis requires greater control over operational parameters. For example, conditions (current, potential, pressure) need to be adjusted so that the crater produced by sputtering is flat bottom (that is, so that the depth analyzed over the crater area is uniform). In bulk measurement, a rough
310:
there is little to no glow and the electric field is uniform. When the electric field increases enough to cause ionization, the
Townsend discharge starts. When a glow discharge develops, the electric field is considerably modified by the presence of positive ions; the field is concentrated near the
620:
Glow discharges can be used to analyze the elemental, and sometimes molecular, composition of solids, liquids, and gases, but elemental analysis of solids is the most common. In this arrangement, the sample is used as the cathode. As mentioned earlier, gas ions and atoms striking the sample surface
607:
Electrons near the cathode are less energetic than the rest of the tube. Surrounding the cathode is a negative field, which slows electrons as they are ejected from the surface. Only those electrons with the highest velocity are able to escape this field, and those without enough kinetic energy are
603:
Because of sputtering occurring at the cathode, the colors emitted from regions near the cathode are quite different from the anode. Particles sputtered from the cathode are excited and emit radiation from the metals and oxides that make up the cathode. The radiation from these particles combines
367:
Some of the ions' kinetic energy is transferred to the cathode. This happens partially through the ions striking the cathode directly. The primary mechanism, however, is less direct. Ions strike the more numerous neutral gas atoms, transferring a portion of their energy to them. These neutral atoms
691:
Glow discharges may also be operated in radio-frequency. The use of this frequency will establish a negative DC-bias voltage on the sample surface. The DC-bias is the result of an alternating current waveform that is centered about negative potential; as such it more or less represent the average
695:
Both radio-frequency and direct-current glow discharges can be operated in pulsed mode, where the potential is turned on and off. This allows higher instantaneous powers to be applied without excessively heating the cathode. These higher instantaneous powers produce higher instantaneous signals,
652:
Both bulk and depth analysis of solids may be performed with glow discharge. Bulk analysis assumes that the sample is fairly homogeneous and averages the emission or mass spectrometric signal over time. Depth analysis relies on tracking the signal in time, therefore, is the same as tracking the
282:
In a glow discharge, the carrier generation process reaches a point where the average electron leaving the cathode allows another electron to leave the cathode. For example, the average electron may cause dozens of ionizing collisions via the
Townsend avalanche; the resulting positive ions head
467:
As electrons from the cathode gain more energy, they tend to ionize, rather than excite atoms. Excited atoms quickly fall back to ground level emitting light, however, when atoms are ionized, the opposite charges are separated, and do not immediately recombine. This results in more ions and
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Energy gained through collisions can also ionize the sample atoms. The ions can then be detected by mass spectrometry. In this case, it is the mass of the ions that identify the element and the number of ions that reflect the concentration. This method is referred to as glow discharge mass
458:
Electrons from the cathode eventually attain enough energy to excite atoms. These excited atoms quickly fall back to the ground state, emitting light at a wavelength corresponding to the difference between the energy bands of the atoms. This glow is seen very near the cathode.
684:, glow discharges are usually operated in direct-current mode. For direct-current, the cathode (which is the sample in solids analysis) must be conductive. In contrast, analysis of a non conductive cathode requires the use of a high frequency alternating current.
137:
708:
According to a Nature news article describing the work, researchers at
Imperial College London demonstrated how they built a mini-map that glows along the shortest route between two points. The Nature news article describes the system as follows:
266:
Conduction in a gas requires charge carriers, which can be either electrons or ions. Charge carriers come from ionizing some of the gas molecules. In terms of current flow, glow discharge falls between dark discharge and arc discharge.
542:. There is no universal mechanism explaining the striations for all conditions of gas and pressure producing them, but recent theoretical and modelling studies, supported with experimental results, mention the importance of the
441:
The cathode layer begins with the Aston dark space, and ends with the negative glow region. The cathode layer shortens with increased gas pressure. The cathode layer has a positive space charge and a strong electric field.
484:
The ionization in the cathode dark space results in a high electron density, but slower electrons, making it easier for the electrons to recombine with positive ions, leading to intense light, through a process called
335:; for a fixed electric field, a longer mean free path allows a charged particle to gain more energy before colliding with another particle. The cell is typically filled with neon, but other gases can also be used. An
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or rounded crater bottom would not adversely impact analysis. Under the best conditions, depth resolution in the single nanometer range has been achieved (in fact, within-molecule resolution has been demonstrated).
376:
Once excited, atoms will lose their energy fairly quickly. Of the various ways that this energy can be lost, the most important is radiatively, meaning that a photon is released to carry the energy away. In optical
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with radiation from excited carrier gas, giving the cathode region a white or blue color, while in the rest of the tube, radiation is only from the carrier gas and tends to be more monochromatic.
560:
In addition to causing secondary emission, positive ions can strike the cathode with sufficient force to eject particles of the material from which the cathode is made. This process is called
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it is) and the number of photons is directly proportional to the concentration of that element in the sample. Some collisions (those of high enough energy) will cause ionization. In atomic
688:
The pressure and voltage may be held constant while the current is allowed to vary. The power (product of voltage and current) may be held constant while the pressure is allowed to vary.
275:. At higher voltages across the anode and cathode, the freed carriers can gain enough energy so that additional carriers are freed during collisions; the process is a
1394:
965:
Tahiyat, Malik M.; Stephens, Jacob C.; Kolobov, Vladimir I.; Farouk, Tanvir I. (2022). "Striations in moderate pressure dc driven nitrogen glow discharge".
450:
Electrons leave the cathode with an energy of about 1 eV, which is not enough to ionize or excite atoms, leaving a thin dark layer next to the cathode.
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The anode layer begins with the positive column, and ends at the anode. The anode layer has a negative space charge and a moderate electric field.
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approach for solving a wide class of maze searching problems based on the properties of lighting up of a glow discharge in a microfluidic chip.
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of several hundred volts is applied between the two electrodes. A small fraction of the population of atoms within the cell is initially
389:, these ions are detected. Their mass identifies the type of atoms and their quantity reveals the amount of that element in the sample.
1404:
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potential residing on the sample surface. Radio-frequency has ability to appear to flow through insulators (non-conductive materials).
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However, sputtering is not desirable when glow discharge is used for lighting, because it shortens the life of the lamp. For example,
1132:
Reyes, D. R.; Ghanem, M. M.; Whitesides, G. M.; Manz, A. (2002). "Glow discharge in microfluidic chips for visible analog computing".
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electricity naturally runs through the streets along the shortest route from A to B - and the gas glows like a tiny neon strip light.
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spectrometry (GDMS) and it has detection limits down to the sub-ppb range for most elements that are nearly matrix-independent.
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In the context of sputtering, the gas in the tube is called "carrier gas," because it carries the particles from the cathode.
216:
Voltage-current characteristics of electrical discharge in neon at 1 torr, with two planar electrodes separated by 50 cm.
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In a dark discharge, the gas is ionized (the carriers are generated) by a radiation source such as ultraviolet light or
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toward the cathode, and a fraction of those that cause collisions with the cathode will dislodge an electron by
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An interesting application for using glow discharge was described in a 2002 scientific paper by Ryes, Ghanem
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glow discharge. In its simplest form, it consists of two electrodes in a cell held at low pressure (0.1–10
57:
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designed to minimize sputtering, and contain charcoal to continuously remove undesired ions and atoms.
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or ionizing them. As long as the potential is maintained, a population of ions and electrons remains.
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becomes self-sustaining, and the tube glows with a colored light. The color depends on the gas used.
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A glow discharge illustrating the different regions comprising it and a diagram giving their names.
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Handbuch der Physik/Encyclopedia of
Physics band/volume XXI - Electron-emission • Gas discharges I
381:, the wavelength of this photon can be used to determine the identity of the atom (that is, which
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can reveal information about the atomic interactions in the gas, so glow discharges are used in
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by the same potential. The initial population of ions and electrons collides with other atoms,
212:
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331:; about 1/10000th to 1/100th of atmospheric pressure). A low pressure is used to increase the
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As the electrons keep losing energy, less light is emitted, resulting in another dark space.
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in a glass tube containing a low-pressure gas. When the voltage exceeds a value called the
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intensity of the emission, the concentration of atoms of that type can be determined.
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921:"Emission Spectroscopy of the Cathode Fall Region of an Analytical Glow Discharge"
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a neon sign, the positive column occupies almost the entire length of the tube.
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DC powered neon lamp, showing glow discharge surrounding only the cathode
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through random processes, such as thermal collisions between atoms or by
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Bands of alternating light and dark in the positive column are called
476:, because the largest voltage drop in the tube occurs in this region.
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through a gas. It is often created by applying a voltage between two
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by the electric potential, and the electrons are driven towards the
24:
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and is part of the analytical study that includes glow discharge.
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Glow discharges are used as a source of light in devices such as
145:
Glow discharge in a low-pressure tube caused by electric current.
200:. They are also used in the surface treatment technique called
1168:
http://www.nature.com/news/2002/020527/full/news020520-12.html
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The sputtered atoms, now in the gas phase, can be detected by
352:
1204:. Kluwer Academic Publishers (Modern Analytical Chemistry).
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electrons, but no light. This region is sometimes called
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to analyze the composition of the cathode, as is done in
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Journal of
Research of the National Bureau of Standards
919:
Konjevic, N.; Videnovic, I. R.; Kuraica, M. M. (1997).
660:
The chemistry of ions and neutrals in vacuum is called
628:, but this is a comparatively rare strategy. Instead,
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knock atoms off of it, a process known as sputtering.
522:
An electric field increase results in the anode glow.
1023:"Hollow Cathode Discharges - Analytical Applications"
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In the mid-20th century, prior to the development of
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49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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252:; ionisation occurs, current below 10 microamps.
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530:Fewer electrons results in another dark space.
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16:Plasma formed by passage of current through gas
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568:the cathode. Sputtering is useful when using
1234:
718:The approach itself provides a novel visible
472:dark space, and sometimes referred to as the
1020:
574:Glow-discharge optical emission spectroscopy
1109:Power vacuum tubes handbook, Second Edition
347:. The positive ions are driven towards the
1241:
1227:
1166:Mini-map gives tourists neon route signs:
734:A 5651 voltage-regulator tube in operation
302:, and the gas is ionized by thermal means.
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323:The simplest type of glow discharge is a
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
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854:Principles of Electronics By V.K. Mehta
750:in circuits was often accomplished with
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612:radiation in the negative glow region.
240:I: unstable region: glow-arc transition
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262:; large amounts of radiation produced.
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1111:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 94.
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967:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
492:
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227:D: self-sustained Townsend discharge
188:. Analyzing the light produced with
47:adding citations to reliable sources
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1080:Claude, Georges (November 1913).
726:Application to voltage regulation
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294:, electrons leave the cathode by
257:; the plasma emits a faint glow.
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653:elemental composition in depth.
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1200:R. Kenneth Marcus, ed. (1993).
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1082:"The Development of Neon Tubes"
700:Application to analog computing
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225:C: avalanche Townsend discharge
125:NE-2 type neon lamp powered by
34:needs additional citations for
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828:Plasma physics and engineering
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182:cold cathode fluorescent lamps
1:
1701:Electrical discharge in gases
1202:Glow Discharge Spectroscopies
1192:First chapter of the article
813:
754:, which used glow discharge.
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234:F: sub-normal glow discharge
208:Electrical conduction in gas
7:
1512:Microchannel plate detector
890:Fridman, Alexander (2012).
826:Fridman, Alexander (2011).
757:
616:Use in analytical chemistry
429:positive column may become
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896:Cambridge University Press
553:
392:
255:F-H region: glow discharge
250:A-D region: dark discharge
238:H: abnormal glow discharge
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1021:Mavrodineanu, R. (1984).
925:Le Journal de Physique IV
260:I-K region: arc discharge
186:plasma-screen televisions
157:formed by the passage of
1527:Langmuir–Taylor detector
1107:Whitaker, Jerry (1999).
1086:The Engineering Magazine
987:10.1088/1361-6463/ac33da
487:bremsstrahlung radiation
236:G: normal glow discharge
1182:S. FlĂĽgge, ed. (1956).
780:Electrostatic discharge
752:voltage-regulator tubes
662:gas phase ion chemistry
1471:Quadrupole mass filter
735:
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263:
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129:
931:(C4): C4–247–C4–258.
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223:B: saturation current
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1721:Analytical chemistry
1040:10.6028/jres.089.009
775:Electrical breakdown
682:analytical chemistry
229:E: unstable region:
218:A: random pulses by
198:analytical chemistry
43:improve this article
1706:Gas discharge lamps
1507:Electron multiplier
1476:Quadrupole ion trap
979:2022JPhD...55h5201T
937:10.1051/jp4:1997420
742:components such as
379:atomic spectroscopy
296:thermionic emission
127:alternating current
830:. Boca Raton, FL:
748:voltage regulation
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636:are usually used.
493:Faraday dark space
463:Cathode dark space
363:Secondary emission
337:electric potential
285:secondary emission
279:or multiplication.
277:Townsend avalanche
264:
147:
130:
1688:
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1250:Mass spectrometry
1211:978-0-306-44396-1
1194:Secondary effects
1140:(2). ACS: 113–6.
634:mass spectrometry
626:atomic absorption
564:and it gradually
387:mass spectrometry
308:breakdown voltage
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892:Plasma chemistry
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785:Fluorescent lamp
720:analog computing
599:Color difference
526:Anode dark space
446:Aston dark space
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383:chemical element
372:Light production
231:corona discharge
220:cosmic radiation
167:striking voltage
159:electric current
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58:"Glow discharge"
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898:. p. 177.
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668:Powering modes
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648:Depth analysis
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554:Main article:
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325:direct-current
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300:field emission
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194:plasma physics
151:glow discharge
117:
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31:
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15:
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1588:Fragmentation
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1517:Daly detector
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1449:Mass analyzer
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1277:Mass spectrum
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1134:Lab on a Chip
1128:
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973:(8): 085201.
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961:
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894:. Cambridge:
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860:81-219-2450-2
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563:
557:
547:
545:
544:Dufour effect
541:
531:
523:
515:
506:
498:
490:
488:
480:Negative glow
477:
475:
471:
460:
451:
443:
437:Cathode layer
434:
432:
415:
404:
390:
388:
384:
380:
369:
360:
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313:arc discharge
309:
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292:arc discharge
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99:December 2014
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60: –
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
1677:
1665:
1653:
1481:Penning trap
1369:
1270:
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1201:
1193:
1183:
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1137:
1133:
1127:
1108:
1102:
1085:
1075:
1030:
1026:
970:
966:
960:
948:. Retrieved
928:
924:
914:
891:
850:
827:
821:
764:Electric arc
744:Zener diodes
737:
717:
705:
703:
694:
690:
686:
679:
659:
655:
651:
642:
638:
623:
619:
606:
602:
594:
578:
570:spectroscopy
559:
537:
529:
521:
512:
504:
496:
483:
474:cathode fall
473:
466:
457:
454:Cathode glow
449:
440:
427:
375:
366:
322:
305:
265:
259:
254:
249:
244:electric arc
190:spectroscopy
175:
150:
148:
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
1679:WikiProject
1522:Faraday cup
1461:Wien filter
1282:MS software
1088:: 271–274.
793:plasma lamp
740:solid state
591:Carrier gas
501:Anode layer
273:Cosmic rays
178:neon lights
1716:Ion source
1695:Categories
1297:Ion source
1094:sn83009124
1033:(2): 147.
814:References
808:X-ray tube
803:Vacuum arc
798:Nixie tube
581:neon signs
562:sputtering
556:Sputtering
550:Sputtering
540:striations
534:Striations
518:Anode glow
345:gamma rays
306:Below the
202:sputtering
171:ionization
169:, the gas
163:electrodes
69:newspapers
1558:Hybrid MS
1049:0160-1741
1003:240123280
945:1155-4339
832:CRC Press
789:neon lamp
766:discharge
319:Mechanism
1711:Lighting
1655:Category
1500:Detector
1491:Orbitrap
1287:Acronyms
1154:15100843
1067:34566122
950:June 19,
758:See also
431:striated
357:exciting
315:begins.
1667:Commons
1395:MALDESI
1058:6768240
995:1979264
975:Bibcode
566:ablates
470:Crookes
393:Regions
349:cathode
341:ionized
83:scholar
1573:IMS/MS
1486:FT-ICR
1456:Sector
1208:
1152:
1115:
1092:
1065:
1055:
1047:
1001:
993:
943:
902:
858:
838:
791:, and
706:et al.
290:In an
155:plasma
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
1626:IRMPD
1578:CE-MS
1568:LC/MS
1563:GC/MS
1543:MS/MS
1430:SELDI
1390:MALDI
1385:LAESI
1325:DAPPI
999:S2CID
583:have
353:anode
153:is a
90:JSTOR
76:books
1631:NETD
1596:BIRD
1415:SIMS
1410:SESI
1345:EESI
1340:DIOS
1335:DESI
1330:DART
1315:APPI
1310:APLI
1305:APCI
1261:Mass
1206:ISBN
1150:PMID
1113:ISBN
1090:LCCN
1063:PMID
1045:ISSN
991:OSTI
952:2017
941:ISSN
900:ISBN
856:ISBN
836:ISBN
632:and
329:torr
298:and
196:and
184:and
62:news
1636:SID
1621:HCD
1616:ETD
1611:EDD
1606:ECD
1601:CID
1553:AMS
1548:QqQ
1425:SSI
1405:PTR
1400:MIP
1380:ICP
1360:FAB
1355:ESI
1142:doi
1053:PMC
1035:doi
983:doi
933:doi
680:In
242:J:
45:by
1697::
1440:TS
1435:TI
1420:SS
1375:IA
1370:GD
1365:FD
1350:EI
1320:CI
1186:.
1148:.
1136:.
1084:.
1061:.
1051:.
1043:.
1031:89
1029:.
1025:.
1011:^
997:.
989:.
981:.
971:55
969:.
939:.
929:07
927:.
923:.
866:^
834:.
787:,
746:,
576:.
546:.
489:.
204:.
180:,
149:A
1271:z
1269:/
1267:m
1242:e
1235:t
1228:v
1214:.
1190:.
1156:.
1144::
1138:2
1121:.
1096:.
1069:.
1037::
1005:.
985::
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954:.
935::
908:.
844:.
287:.
112:)
106:(
101:)
97:(
87:·
80:·
73:·
66:·
39:.
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