872:
important quality of life domains. Generic measures of disease impact such as SF36 may not always capture the disease specific aspects of GCA impact such as visual loss or systemic complications. The
Outcome Measures in Rheumatology (OMERACT) Large Vessel Vasculitis Working Group have identified the need for a disease-specific patient-reported outcome measure (PROM) for GCA. Recently, a new disease specific measure of health-related quality of life in GCA has been developed. The GCA-PRO has been shown to have robust validity and reliability in a cross-sectional study and can discriminate between different sub-groups of patients. This is likely going to help to capture the impact of disease and treatment in clinical trials and clinical practice.
594:
661:
42:
484:. Up to 67% of people with GCA having evidence of an inflamed aorta, which can increase the risk of aortic aneurysm and dissection. There are arguments for the routine screening of each person with GCA for this possible life-threatening complication by imaging the aorta. Screening should be done on a case-by-case basis based on the signs and symptoms of people with GCA.
805:
tapered over 12–18 months. Oral steroids are at least as effective as intravenous steroids, except in the treatment of acute visual loss where intravenous steroids appear to offer significant benefit over oral steroids. Short-term side effects of prednisone are uncommon but can include mood changes,
804:
occlusion. Steroids do not prevent the diagnosis from later being confirmed by biopsy, although certain changes in the histology may be observed towards the end of the first week of treatment and are more difficult to identify after a couple of months. The dose of corticosteroids is generally slowly
692:
are involved in a patchy pattern, there may be unaffected areas on the vessel and the biopsy might have been taken from these parts. Unilateral biopsy of a 1.5–3 cm length is 85-90% sensitive (1 cm is the minimum). Characterised as intimal hyperplasia and medial granulomatous inflammation
858:
Giant cell arteritis typically only occurs in those over the age of 50; particularly those in their 70s. It affects about 1 in 15,000 people over the age of 50 per year. It is more common in women than in men, by a ratio of 2:1, and more common in those of
Northern European descent, as well as in
717:
are generally negative in this disorder. Recent studies have shown that 3T MRI using super high resolution imaging and contrast injection can non-invasively diagnose this disorder with high specificity and sensitivity. Temporal artery thickening on imaging has been demonstrated to have highest
871:
Giant cell arteritis and its treatment impact on people's lives because of symptoms, adverse effects of GCs and disruption to normal life. People with GCA have previously ranked ‘losing sight in both eyes permanently’, ‘having intense or severe pain’ and ‘feeling weak, tired or exhausted’ as
841:
involved in the progression of GCA. Tocilizumab has been found to be effective at minimizing both recurrence, and flares of GCA when used both on its own and with corticosteroids. Long term use of tocilizumab requires further investigation. Tocilizumab may increase the risk of
433:
rate of giant cell arteritis, relapse of this condition can occur. It most often happens at low doses of prednisone (<20 mg/day), during the first year of treatment, and the most common signs of relapse are headache and
310:
It affects about 1 in 15,000 people over the age of 50 per year. The condition mostly occurs in those over the age of 50, being most common among those in their 70s. Females are more often affected than males. Those of
1164:
2907:
2888:
2873:
299:. Once symptoms have resolved, the dose is decreased by about 15% per month. Once a low dose is reached, the taper is slowed further over the subsequent year. Other medications that may be recommended include
271:
that supply the walls of larger arteries. This mainly affects arteries around the head and neck, though some in the chest may also be affected. Diagnosis is suspected based on symptoms, blood tests, and
2789:
1414:
2486:
Hellmann DB, Uhlfelder ML, Stone JH, Jenckes MW, Cid MC, Guillevin L, et al. (December 2003). "Domains of health-related quality of life important to patients with giant cell arteritis".
693:
with elastic lamina fragmentation with a CD 4+ predominant T cell infiltrate, currently biopsy is only considered confirmatory for the clinical diagnosis, or one of the diagnostic criteria.
469:) of the body and is seen in the elderly. GCA and PMR are so closely linked that they are often considered to be different manifestations of the same disease process. PMR usually lacks the
422:
Giant cell arteritis may present with atypical or overlapping features. Early and accurate diagnosis is important to prevent ischemic vision loss. Therefore, this condition is considered a
2521:
Jobard S, Magnant J, Blasco H, Ferreira-Maldent N, Griffoul I, Diot E, et al. (September 2017). "Quality of life of patients treated for giant cell arteritis: a case-control study".
800:(1 mg/kg/day), should be started as soon as the diagnosis is suspected (even before the diagnosis is confirmed by biopsy) to prevent irreversible blindness secondary to
1851:
Ypsilantis E, Courtney ED, Chopra N, Karthikesalingam A, Eltayab M, Katsoulas N, et al. (November 2011). "Importance of specimen length during temporal artery biopsy".
3276:
1148:
2615:"Patient perceptions of health-related quality of life in giant cell arteritis: international development of a disease-specific patient-reported outcome measure"
1235:
997:
730:
Women and men approximately 45 years old and who suffer from several complaints (at least 5 of the 16 symptoms) listed below could have giant cell arteritis.
3895:
1406:
3755:
1631:
Chen JJ, Warrington KJ, Garrity JA, Prasad S (September 2017). "Is
Routine Imaging of the Aorta Warranted in Patients With Giant Cell Arteritis?".
964:
3269:
3900:
3157:
3051:
454:
was found in 74% of temporal artery biopsies that were GCA-positive, suggesting that the VZV infection may trigger the inflammatory cascade.
416:
880:
The terms "giant cell arteritis" and "temporal arteritis" are sometimes used interchangeably, because of the frequent involvement of the
1133:
933:
3262:
1947:"Diagnostic Accuracy of Symptoms, Physical Signs, and Laboratory Tests for Giant Cell Arteritis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis"
1521:
492:
The pathological mechanism is the result of an inflammatory cascade that is triggered by an as of yet undetermined cause resulting in
3838:
3833:
3434:
1257:
Moutray TN, Williams MA, Best JL (August 2008). "Suspected giant cell arteritis: a study of referrals for temporal artery biopsy".
1437:
3789:
1150:
Ferri's
Differential Diagnosis E-Book: A Practical Guide to the Differential Diagnosis of Symptoms, Signs, and Clinical Disorders
719:
3611:
2766:
1158:
927:
532:
activation leads to further activation of Th17 through IL-6 in a continuous, cyclic fashion. This pathway is suppressed with
2794:
919:
The Heart in
Rheumatic, Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases: Pathophysiology, Clinical Aspects and Therapeutic Approaches
2922:
2071:
605:
biopsy. The arterial lumen is seen on the left. A giant cell is seen on the right at the interface between the thickened
3203:
1816:
Cahais J, Houdart R, Lupinacci RM, Valverde A (June 2017). "Operative technique: Superficial temporal artery biopsy".
3828:
3606:
3218:
3182:
3044:
1227:
1127:
989:
3465:
3143:
2226:
Oray M, Abu Samra K, Ebrahimiadib N, Meese H, Foster CS (2016-04-02). "Long-term side effects of glucocorticoids".
809:, and an increased risk of infection. Some of the side effects associated with long-term use include weight gain,
3885:
3647:
3509:
3213:
3601:
3187:
626:
3504:
3727:
888:
can be involved. Giant-cell arteritis is also known as "cranial arteritis" and "Horton's disease". The name (
825:, cardiovascular disease, and an increased risk of infection. It is unclear whether adding a small amount of
2020:"Histological parameters helpful in recognising steroid-treated temporal arteritis: an analysis of 35 cases"
3880:
3784:
3037:
2318:
843:
473:
symptoms, including headache, pain in the jaw while chewing, and vision symptoms, that are present in GCA.
3006:
2811:
Mackie SL, Dejaco C, Appenzeller S, Camellino D, Duftner C, Gonzalez-Chiappe S, et al. (March 2020).
1765:
Mackie SL, Dejaco C, Appenzeller S, Camellino D, Duftner C, Gonzalez-Chiappe S, et al. (March 2020).
3686:
3489:
3208:
881:
602:
555:
281:
3017:
3717:
3395:
3109:
956:
710:
500:
to form granulomatous infiltrates. These infiltrates erode the middle and inner layers of the arterial
3747:
3570:
3174:
3661:
3430:
3416:
3162:
2933:
3534:
3297:
3076:
95:
3091:
35:
Temporal arteritis, cranial arteritis, Horton disease, senile arteritis, granulomatous arteritis
3665:
3119:
3068:
2813:"British Society for Rheumatology guideline on diagnosis and treatment of giant cell arteritis"
2564:
Aydin SZ, Direskeneli H, Sreih A, Alibaz-Oner F, Gul A, Kamali S, et al. (December 2015).
1767:"British Society for Rheumatology guideline on diagnosis and treatment of giant cell arteritis"
1547:"Prevalence and distribution of VZV in temporal arteries of patients with giant cell arteritis"
458:
447:
435:
396:
261:
153:
112:
2984:
2882:
1594:
1117:
917:
3890:
3875:
3243:
2437:
Liddle J, Bartlam R, Mallen CD, Mackie SL, Prior JA, Helliwell T, et al. (August 2017).
676:, which involves removing a small part of the vessel under local anesthesia and examining it
304:
184:
2665:
Ndosi M, Almeida C, Dawson J, Dures E, Greenwood R, Bromhead A, et al. (January 2024).
3823:
3818:
3802:
3642:
3499:
3411:
3254:
3238:
3099:
2566:"Update on Outcome Measure Development for Large Vessel Vasculitis: Report from OMERACT 12"
1373:"Giant cell arteritis presenting as limb claudication. Report and review of the literature"
669:
643:
639:
3530:
2319:"Press Announcements - FDA approves first drug to specifically treat giant cell arteritis"
1732:
1180:"2012 revised International Chapel Hill Consensus Conference Nomenclature of Vasculitides"
8:
3060:
2911:
2613:
Robson JC, Almeida C, Dawson J, Bromhead A, Dures E, Guly C, et al. (October 2021).
1292:
Sainuddin S, Saeed NR (December 2008). "Acute bilateral tongue necrosis--a case report".
166:
3845:
2693:
2666:
2295:
2270:
1178:
Jennette JC, Falk RJ, Bacon PA, Basu N, Cid MC, Ferrario F, et al. (January 2013).
3850:
3732:
3722:
3616:
3542:
3514:
3494:
3331:
3289:
2639:
2614:
2590:
2565:
2546:
2463:
2439:"What is the impact of giant cell arteritis on patients' lives? A UK qualitative study"
2438:
2375:
2251:
2203:
2178:
2159:
2111:
2086:
2044:
2019:
1971:
1946:
1922:
1895:
1876:
1700:
1675:
1656:
1571:
1546:
1495:
1468:
1441:
1209:
1088:
1063:
806:
632:
593:
225:
158:
74:
63:
2916:
1545:
Gilden D, White T, Khmeleva N, Heintzman A, Choe A, Boyer PJ, et al. (May 2015).
3552:
3547:
3347:
3336:
2944:
2844:
2772:
2762:
2739:
2698:
2644:
2595:
2538:
2503:
2468:
2419:
2367:
2300:
2243:
2208:
2151:
2116:
2049:
1976:
1927:
1868:
1833:
1798:
1705:
1648:
1576:
1500:
1384:
1353:
1309:
1274:
1201:
1154:
1123:
1093:
923:
810:
801:
789:
582:
481:
423:
412:
312:
253:
245:
237:
139:
104:
83:
54:
2995:
2550:
2255:
2163:
1962:
1880:
1829:
1213:
3596:
3447:
3442:
3383:
3310:
3285:
3104:
2834:
2824:
2729:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2585:
2577:
2530:
2495:
2458:
2450:
2409:
2379:
2359:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2235:
2198:
2190:
2143:
2106:
2098:
2039:
2031:
1966:
1958:
1917:
1907:
1894:
Bley TA, Uhl M, Carew J, Markl M, Schmidt D, Peter HH, et al. (October 2007).
1860:
1825:
1788:
1778:
1695:
1687:
1660:
1640:
1566:
1558:
1490:
1480:
1469:"Giant cell arteritis or tension-type headache?: A differential diagnostic dilemma"
1343:
1301:
1266:
1191:
1083:
1075:
850:, however it does not appear that there are more risks than using corticosteroids.
529:
505:
352:
2829:
2812:
2734:
2717:
2239:
1783:
1766:
1348:
1331:
3737:
3707:
3591:
3519:
3373:
3326:
2938:
2716:
Walter MA, Melzer RA, Graf M, Tyndall A, Müller-Brand J, Nitzsche EU (May 2005).
2363:
1644:
1562:
660:
586:
477:
316:
300:
273:
257:
180:
176:
108:
2454:
1305:
461:(PMR), which is characterized by sudden onset of pain and stiffness in muscles (
3621:
3575:
3368:
2949:
793:
685:
537:
533:
525:
521:
517:
493:
288:
264:. It can be confirmed by biopsy of the temporal artery in about 90% of people.
2901:
2897:
2534:
2194:
2067:
319:
is typically normal. The first description of the condition occurred in 1890.
244:, and difficulty opening the mouth. Complications can include blockage of the
3869:
3796:
3388:
2776:
2134:
Richards RN (March 2008). "Side effects of short-term oral corticosteroids".
1485:
664:
Histopathology of giant cell vasculitis in a cerebral artery. Elastica-stain.
606:
562:
513:
371:
277:
241:
145:
87:
2147:
2035:
1994:
1336:
Oral
Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology, and Endodontics
267:
The cause is unknown. The underlying mechanism involves inflammation of the
3691:
3481:
3363:
3352:
3128:
2848:
2839:
2743:
2702:
2667:"Validation of a patient-reported outcome measure for giant cell arteritis"
2648:
2599:
2542:
2507:
2472:
2423:
2414:
2397:
2371:
2304:
2247:
2212:
2155:
2120:
2053:
1980:
1931:
1872:
1837:
1802:
1793:
1709:
1652:
1580:
1504:
1357:
1313:
1278:
1205:
1097:
814:
689:
614:
610:
501:
391:
361:
296:
268:
229:
222:
131:
59:
2581:
2102:
1691:
1388:
1372:
1079:
3378:
3358:
3342:
2979:
830:
509:
378:
1896:"Diagnostic value of high-resolution MR imaging in giant cell arteritis"
1850:
629:, an inflammatory marker, >60 mm/hour (normal 1–40 mm/hour)
3001:
2350:
Mariano VJ, Frishman WH (2018). "Tocilizumab in Giant Cell
Arteritis".
1912:
889:
797:
702:
681:
677:
598:
497:
292:
67:
3029:
2865:
2499:
1196:
1179:
2990:
2955:
1864:
1330:
Zadik Y, Findler M, Maly A, Rushinek H, Czerninski R (January 2011).
1232:
National
Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases
994:
National
Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases
847:
706:
648:
504:
leading to conditions such as aneurysm and dissection. Activation of
408:
404:
249:
191:
100:
1945:
van der Geest KS, Sandovici M, Brouwer E, Mackie SL (October 2020).
1676:"Clinical practice. Giant-cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica"
1270:
1064:"Clinical practice. Giant-cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica"
3012:
2520:
1944:
1259:
Canadian
Journal of Ophthalmology. Journal Canadien d'Ophtalmologie
838:
834:
822:
818:
572:
466:
384:
365:
341:
233:
79:
2960:
3301:
860:
826:
722:
for GCA when compared with other non invasive diagnostic tests.
714:
451:
430:
284:. However, in about 10% of people the temporal artery is normal.
2927:
2810:
2563:
1764:
3670:
3151:
3137:
2892:
2877:
829:
is beneficial or not as it has not been studied. Injections of
673:
462:
358:
162:
2269:
Mollan SP, Sharrack N, Burdon MA, Denniston AK (August 2014).
2225:
1815:
1467:
Rana AQ, Saeed U, Khan OA, Qureshi AR, Paul D (October 2014).
3637:
3305:
2485:
2268:
885:
578:
470:
347:
336:
331:
3284:
1544:
1407:"Polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell (temporal) arteritis"
892:
arteritis) reflects the type of inflammatory cell involved.
2612:
2398:"Giant cell arteritis: An updated review of an old disease"
1630:
2271:"Aspirin as adjunctive treatment for giant cell arteritis"
41:
2436:
1370:
2756:
1329:
837:
that targets the interleukin-6 receptor, which is a key
688:
does not definitively rule out the diagnosis; since the
457:
The disorder may co-exist (in about half of cases) with
2715:
2664:
1294:
The British Journal of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery
2176:
476:
Giant cell arteritis can affect the aorta and lead to
1674:
Weyand CM, Goronzy JJ (July 2014). Solomon CG (ed.).
1371:
Walz-Leblanc BA, Ameli FM, Keystone EC (March 1991).
1177:
1115:
701:
Radiological examination of the temporal artery with
2855:
2177:
Youssef J, Novosad SA, Winthrop KL (February 2016).
1466:
1332:"A 78-year-old woman with bilateral tongue necrosis"
2759:
Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: clinical Dermatology
2757:James WD, Elston DM, Berger TG, Andrews GC (2006).
1256:
2084:
792:due to the potential of irreversible vision loss.
411:may occur. In 76% of cases involving the eye, the
2179:"Infection Risk and Safety of Corticosteroid Use"
1893:
568:Decreased pulses may be found throughout the body
327:Common symptoms of giant cell arteritis include:
3867:
3756:Transfusion-associated graft-versus-host disease
2395:
1440:. University of Iowa Health Care. Archived from
403:The inflammation may affect blood supply to the
144:Based on symptoms and blood tests, confirmed by
2349:
2017:
1325:
1323:
204:~ 1 in 15,000 people a year (> 50 years old)
1291:
635:, another inflammatory marker, may be elevated
3270:
3158:Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis
3045:
2718:"[18F]FDG-PET of giant-cell aortitis"
2660:
2658:
1673:
1061:
833:may also be used. Tocilizumab is a humanized
2709:
2087:"Steroid management in giant cell arteritis"
2085:Chan CC, Paine M, O'Day J (September 2001).
2011:
1887:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1320:
984:
982:
915:
417:arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy
2275:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
2183:Rheumatic Diseases Clinics of North America
2068:"BestBets: Steroids and Temporal Arteritis"
1250:
1057:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1039:
1037:
1035:
884:. However, other large vessels such as the
536:, and more recently it has been found that
16:Inflammatory disease of large blood vessels
3896:Steroid-responsive inflammatory conditions
3277:
3263:
3052:
3038:
2655:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1473:Journal of Neurosciences in Rural Practice
1033:
1031:
1029:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1015:
496:in the vessel wall recruiting T cells and
40:
2838:
2828:
2733:
2692:
2682:
2638:
2589:
2462:
2413:
2294:
2202:
2136:Journal of Cutaneous Medicine and Surgery
2110:
2043:
2018:Font RL, Prabhakaran VC (February 2007).
1970:
1921:
1911:
1792:
1782:
1699:
1570:
1494:
1484:
1455:
1347:
1195:
1153:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 195.
1122:. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 300.
1116:Johnson RJ, Feehally J, Floege J (2014).
1087:
979:
911:
909:
907:
905:
2396:Rinden T, Miller E, Nasr R (July 2019).
2133:
1900:AJNR. American Journal of Neuroradiology
1119:Comprehensive Clinical Nephrology E-Book
1111:
1109:
1107:
951:
949:
947:
945:
943:
659:
642:, are abnormal particularly raised ALP-
592:
554:Palpation of the head reveals prominent
441:
287:Treatment is typical with high doses of
3790:Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis
3059:
1751:
1727:
1725:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1400:
1398:
1012:
3868:
1435:
1417:from the original on 25 September 2015
967:from the original on 14 September 2017
902:
3901:Vascular-related cutaneous conditions
3612:Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis
3258:
3033:
2391:
2389:
2345:
2343:
2341:
2339:
1626:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1516:
1514:
1146:
1104:
940:
672:for diagnosing temporal arteritis is
322:
2402:Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine
2091:The British Journal of Ophthalmology
2024:The British Journal of Ophthalmology
1737:The Lecturio Medical Concept Library
1716:
1395:
1238:from the original on 22 October 2017
1000:from the original on 22 October 2017
725:
684:infiltrating the tissue. However, a
528:play a critical part; specifically,
315:descent are more commonly affected.
260:. GCA is frequently associated with
1680:The New England Journal of Medicine
1068:The New England Journal of Medicine
1062:Weyand CM, Goronzy JJ (July 2014).
620:
429:While studies vary as to the exact
134:within the walls of larger arteries
13:
3204:Acute hemorrhagic edema of infancy
2761:. Saunders Elsevier. p. 840.
2386:
2336:
1611:
1511:
1404:
737:Stiffness in joints and/or muscles
696:
601:showing giant cell arteritis in a
364:(pain in tongue when chewing) and
346:tenderness and sensitivity on the
196:Life expectancy (typically normal)
49:The arteries of the face and scalp
14:
3912:
3829:Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome
3219:Cutaneous small-vessel vasculitis
3183:Cutaneous small-vessel vasculitis
2804:
866:
3466:Hemolytic disease of the newborn
3144:Granulomatosis with polyangiitis
2074:from the original on 2009-02-27.
1167:from the original on 2017-10-22.
1136:from the original on 2017-10-22.
957:"Orphanet: Giant cell arteritis"
936:from the original on 2017-10-22.
859:those residing further from the
746:Physical malaise and/or weakness
548:
3648:Subacute bacterial endocarditis
3510:Immune thrombocytopenic purpura
3214:Bullous small vessel vasculitis
2783:
2750:
2606:
2557:
2514:
2479:
2430:
2311:
2262:
2219:
2170:
2127:
2078:
2060:
1987:
1963:10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.3050
1938:
1844:
1830:10.1016/j.jviscsurg.2017.05.001
1809:
1667:
1587:
1538:
1429:
1364:
1285:
922:. Academic Press. p. 367.
853:
749:Bloated arteries of the temples
2287:10.1002/14651858.CD010453.pub2
1853:The British Journal of Surgery
1633:Journal of Neuro-Ophthalmology
1438:"Ocular Manifestations of GCA"
1220:
1171:
1140:
875:
627:Erythrocyte sedimentation rate
540:also play a suppressive role.
90:, difficulty opening the mouth
1:
3728:Postorgasmic illness syndrome
2240:10.1517/14740338.2016.1140743
2228:Expert Opinion on Drug Safety
1349:10.1016/j.tripleo.2010.09.001
895:
307:to prevent stomach problems.
3785:Hypersensitivity pneumonitis
2795:Dorland's Medical Dictionary
2684:10.1093/rheumatology/kead201
2631:10.1093/rheumatology/keab076
2364:10.1097/CRD.0000000000000204
1645:10.1097/WNO.0000000000000538
1563:10.1212/WNL.0000000000001409
844:gastrointestinal perforation
783:
575:may be noted on fundal exam.
543:
487:
7:
3851:Systemic autoimmune disease
3687:Allergic contact dermatitis
3607:Hypersensitivity vasculitis
3490:Autoimmune hemolytic anemia
3209:Cryoglobulinemic vasculitis
2830:10.1093/rheumatology/kez672
2735:10.1093/rheumatology/keh551
2570:The Journal of Rheumatology
2455:10.1136/bmjopen-2017-017073
1818:Journal of Visceral Surgery
1784:10.1093/rheumatology/kez672
1377:The Journal of Rheumatology
1306:10.1016/j.bjoms.2008.03.027
767:Reduced eyesight, blindness
597:Intermediate magnification
508:(Th17) cells involved with
407:; blurred vision or sudden
303:to prevent bone loss and a
10:
3917:
3357:common allergies include:
3110:Thromboangiitis obliterans
709:. Contrast-enhanced brain
558:with or without pulsation.
355:(pain in jaw when chewing)
3811:
3777:
3768:
3746:
3700:
3679:
3660:
3630:
3584:
3569:
3528:
3480:
3473:
3459:
3429:
3404:
3319:
3296:
3231:
3196:
3175:Type III hypersensitivity
3173:
3127:
3118:
3090:
3067:
2970:
2859:
2535:10.1007/s10067-017-3619-4
2195:10.1016/j.rdc.2015.08.004
740:Painful jaws when chewing
655:
236:, pain over the temples,
200:
190:
172:
152:
138:
126:
118:
94:
82:, pain over the temples,
73:
53:
48:
39:
31:
26:
3602:Henoch–Schönlein purpura
3417:Eosinophilic esophagitis
3163:Microscopic polyangiitis
2488:Arthritis and Rheumatism
1486:10.4103/0976-3147.140005
1436:Hayreh (April 3, 2003).
1184:Arthritis and Rheumatism
764:Poor or lack of appetite
3718:Hashimoto's thyroiditis
3505:Guillain–Barré syndrome
2148:10.2310/7750.2008.07029
2036:10.1136/bjo.2006.101725
1999:www.symptomatrix-eng.eu
916:Nussinovitch U (2017).
232:. Symptoms may include
3886:Neurological disorders
3819:Autoimmune adrenalitis
2790:"giant cell arteritis"
2415:10.3949/ccjm.86a.18103
1951:JAMA Internal Medicine
1733:"Giant Cell Arteritis"
1595:"Giant cell arteritis"
1228:"Giant Cell Arteritis"
990:"Giant Cell Arteritis"
817:, avascular necrosis,
796:, typically high-dose
770:Unusual loss of weight
665:
617:
581:may be heard over the
459:polymyalgia rheumatica
448:varicella-zoster virus
436:polymyalgia rheumatica
397:polymyalgia rheumatica
262:polymyalgia rheumatica
154:Differential diagnosis
148:of the temporal artery
113:polymyalgia rheumatica
2582:10.3899/jrheum.141144
2523:Clinical Rheumatology
2103:10.1136/bjo.85.9.1061
1692:10.1056/NEJMcp1214825
1080:10.1056/NEJMcp1214825
758:Bleakness, depression
663:
596:
442:Associated conditions
415:is involved, causing
305:proton-pump inhibitor
185:proton-pump inhibitor
3824:Autoimmune hepatitis
3803:Transplant rejection
3713:Giant cell arteritis
3643:Rheumatoid arthritis
3500:Goodpasture syndrome
3412:Autoimmune urticaria
3239:Goodpasture syndrome
3100:Polyarteritis nodosa
3082:Giant cell arteritis
3077:Takayasu's arteritis
3007:Giant cell arteritis
2352:Cardiology in Review
788:GCA is considered a
776:Unusual perspiration
651:may also be elevated
644:alkaline phosphatase
640:liver function tests
211:Giant cell arteritis
130:Inflammation of the
27:Giant cell arteritis
3881:Medical emergencies
3290:autoimmune diseases
3061:Systemic vasculitis
752:Headaches, migraine
276:, and confirmed by
269:small blood vessels
167:primary amyloidosis
132:small blood vessels
122:Age greater than 50
3733:Reactive arthritis
3723:Multiple sclerosis
3617:Reactive arthritis
3515:Pemphigus vulgaris
3495:Bullous pemphigoid
3396:Penicillin allergy
3332:Allergic urticaria
3244:Sneddon's syndrome
2971:External resources
1995:"Symptomatix Home"
1913:10.3174/ajnr.A0638
1739:. 26 November 2020
1413:. Wolters Kluwer.
807:avascular necrosis
734:Fatigue and apathy
666:
633:C-reactive protein
618:
381:(sudden blindness)
323:Signs and symptoms
226:autoimmune disease
219:temporal arteritis
159:Takayasu arteritis
64:emergency medicine
3863:
3862:
3859:
3858:
3764:
3763:
3656:
3655:
3565:
3564:
3561:
3560:
3553:Pernicious anemia
3548:Myasthenia gravis
3425:
3424:
3348:Atopic dermatitis
3337:Allergic rhinitis
3252:
3251:
3227:
3226:
3027:
3026:
2768:978-0-7216-2921-6
2625:(10): 4671–4680.
2576:(12): 2465–2469.
2500:10.1002/art.11464
1957:(10): 1295–1304.
1859:(11): 1556–1560.
1599:BMJ Best Practice
1557:(19): 1948–1955.
1234:. 13 April 2017.
1197:10.1002/art.37715
1160:978-0-323-08163-4
1147:Ferri FF (2010).
996:. 13 April 2017.
929:978-0-12-803268-8
811:diabetes mellitus
802:ophthalmic artery
790:medical emergency
726:Early recognition
720:likelihood ratios
556:temporal arteries
482:aortic dissection
424:medical emergency
413:ophthalmic artery
313:northern European
254:aortic dissection
246:artery to the eye
238:flu-like symptoms
208:
207:
140:Diagnostic method
105:aortic dissection
84:flu-like symptoms
21:Medical condition
3908:
3846:Sjögren syndrome
3775:
3774:
3677:
3676:
3582:
3581:
3478:
3477:
3457:
3456:
3317:
3316:
3286:Hypersensitivity
3279:
3272:
3265:
3256:
3255:
3125:
3124:
3105:Kawasaki disease
3054:
3047:
3040:
3031:
3030:
2857:
2856:
2852:
2842:
2832:
2798:
2787:
2781:
2780:
2754:
2748:
2747:
2737:
2713:
2707:
2706:
2696:
2686:
2662:
2653:
2652:
2642:
2610:
2604:
2603:
2593:
2561:
2555:
2554:
2529:(9): 2055–2062.
2518:
2512:
2511:
2483:
2477:
2476:
2466:
2434:
2428:
2427:
2417:
2393:
2384:
2383:
2347:
2334:
2333:
2331:
2329:
2315:
2309:
2308:
2298:
2266:
2260:
2259:
2223:
2217:
2216:
2206:
2174:
2168:
2167:
2131:
2125:
2124:
2114:
2097:(9): 1061–1064.
2082:
2076:
2075:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2047:
2015:
2009:
2008:
2006:
2005:
1991:
1985:
1984:
1974:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1925:
1915:
1906:(9): 1722–1727.
1891:
1885:
1884:
1865:10.1002/bjs.7595
1848:
1842:
1841:
1813:
1807:
1806:
1796:
1786:
1762:
1749:
1748:
1746:
1744:
1729:
1714:
1713:
1703:
1671:
1665:
1664:
1628:
1609:
1608:
1606:
1605:
1591:
1585:
1584:
1574:
1542:
1536:
1535:
1533:
1532:
1526:www.uptodate.com
1518:
1509:
1508:
1498:
1488:
1464:
1453:
1452:
1450:
1449:
1433:
1427:
1426:
1424:
1422:
1402:
1393:
1392:
1368:
1362:
1361:
1351:
1327:
1318:
1317:
1289:
1283:
1282:
1254:
1248:
1247:
1245:
1243:
1224:
1218:
1217:
1199:
1175:
1169:
1168:
1144:
1138:
1137:
1113:
1102:
1101:
1091:
1059:
1010:
1009:
1007:
1005:
986:
977:
976:
974:
972:
953:
938:
937:
913:
761:Changed eyesight
621:Laboratory tests
374:(blurred vision)
353:jaw claudication
44:
24:
23:
3916:
3915:
3911:
3910:
3909:
3907:
3906:
3905:
3866:
3865:
3864:
3855:
3807:
3770:
3760:
3742:
3738:Type 1 diabetes
3708:Coeliac disease
3696:
3668:
3652:
3626:
3592:Arthus reaction
3573:
3557:
3543:Graves' disease
3524:
3520:Rheumatic fever
3469:
3437:
3421:
3400:
3327:Allergic asthma
3308:
3292:
3283:
3253:
3248:
3223:
3192:
3169:
3114:
3086:
3063:
3058:
3028:
3023:
3022:
2966:
2965:
2868:
2807:
2802:
2801:
2788:
2784:
2769:
2755:
2751:
2714:
2710:
2663:
2656:
2611:
2607:
2562:
2558:
2519:
2515:
2484:
2480:
2435:
2431:
2394:
2387:
2348:
2337:
2327:
2325:
2317:
2316:
2312:
2281:(8): CD010453.
2267:
2263:
2224:
2220:
2175:
2171:
2132:
2128:
2083:
2079:
2066:
2065:
2061:
2016:
2012:
2003:
2001:
1993:
1992:
1988:
1943:
1939:
1892:
1888:
1849:
1845:
1814:
1810:
1763:
1752:
1742:
1740:
1731:
1730:
1717:
1672:
1668:
1629:
1612:
1603:
1601:
1593:
1592:
1588:
1543:
1539:
1530:
1528:
1520:
1519:
1512:
1465:
1456:
1447:
1445:
1434:
1430:
1420:
1418:
1403:
1396:
1369:
1365:
1328:
1321:
1290:
1286:
1271:10.3129/i08-070
1255:
1251:
1241:
1239:
1226:
1225:
1221:
1176:
1172:
1161:
1145:
1141:
1130:
1114:
1105:
1060:
1013:
1003:
1001:
988:
987:
980:
970:
968:
955:
954:
941:
930:
914:
903:
898:
882:temporal artery
878:
869:
856:
794:Corticosteroids
786:
755:Tongue problems
743:Sensitive scalp
728:
699:
697:Medical imaging
686:negative result
678:microscopically
658:
623:
603:temporal artery
551:
546:
538:IL-6 inhibitors
534:glucocorticoids
494:dendritic cells
490:
478:aortic aneurysm
444:
387:(double vision)
325:
317:Life expectancy
301:bisphosphonates
282:temporal artery
274:medical imaging
258:aortic aneurysm
248:with resulting
217:), also called
181:bisphosphonates
109:aortic aneurysm
22:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3914:
3904:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3861:
3860:
3857:
3856:
3854:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3842:
3841:
3836:
3826:
3821:
3815:
3813:
3809:
3808:
3806:
3805:
3800:
3794:
3793:
3792:
3781:
3779:
3772:
3766:
3765:
3762:
3761:
3759:
3758:
3752:
3750:
3744:
3743:
3741:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3704:
3702:
3698:
3697:
3695:
3694:
3689:
3683:
3681:
3674:
3658:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3651:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3634:
3632:
3628:
3627:
3625:
3624:
3622:Serum sickness
3619:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3588:
3586:
3579:
3576:Immune complex
3567:
3566:
3563:
3562:
3559:
3558:
3556:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3539:
3537:
3526:
3525:
3523:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3486:
3484:
3475:
3471:
3470:
3468:
3463:
3461:
3454:
3453:
3452:
3451:
3450:
3445:
3427:
3426:
3423:
3422:
3420:
3419:
3414:
3408:
3406:
3402:
3401:
3399:
3398:
3393:
3392:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3334:
3329:
3323:
3321:
3314:
3294:
3293:
3282:
3281:
3274:
3267:
3259:
3250:
3249:
3247:
3246:
3241:
3235:
3233:
3229:
3228:
3225:
3224:
3222:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3200:
3198:
3194:
3193:
3191:
3190:
3188:IgA vasculitis
3185:
3179:
3177:
3171:
3170:
3168:
3167:
3166:
3165:
3160:
3148:
3147:
3146:
3133:
3131:
3122:
3116:
3115:
3113:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3096:
3094:
3088:
3087:
3085:
3084:
3079:
3073:
3071:
3065:
3064:
3057:
3056:
3049:
3042:
3034:
3025:
3024:
3021:
3020:
3009:
2998:
2987:
2975:
2974:
2972:
2968:
2967:
2964:
2963:
2952:
2941:
2930:
2919:
2904:
2885:
2869:
2864:
2863:
2861:
2860:Classification
2854:
2853:
2806:
2805:External links
2803:
2800:
2799:
2782:
2767:
2749:
2728:(5): 690–691.
2708:
2677:(1): 181–189.
2654:
2605:
2556:
2513:
2494:(6): 819–825.
2478:
2449:(8): e017073.
2429:
2408:(7): 465–472.
2385:
2358:(6): 321–330.
2335:
2310:
2261:
2234:(4): 457–465.
2218:
2189:(1): 157–176.
2169:
2126:
2077:
2059:
2030:(2): 204–209.
2010:
1986:
1937:
1886:
1843:
1824:(3): 203–207.
1808:
1750:
1715:
1666:
1639:(3): 314–319.
1610:
1586:
1537:
1510:
1479:(4): 409–411.
1454:
1428:
1394:
1383:(3): 470–472.
1363:
1319:
1300:(8): 671–672.
1284:
1265:(4): 445–448.
1249:
1219:
1170:
1159:
1139:
1128:
1103:
1011:
978:
939:
928:
900:
899:
897:
894:
877:
874:
868:
867:Disease impact
865:
855:
852:
785:
782:
781:
780:
777:
774:
771:
768:
765:
762:
759:
756:
753:
750:
747:
744:
741:
738:
735:
727:
724:
698:
695:
657:
654:
653:
652:
646:
636:
630:
622:
619:
591:
590:
576:
569:
566:
565:may be tender.
559:
550:
547:
545:
542:
489:
486:
443:
440:
401:
400:
394:
388:
382:
375:
368:
356:
350:
344:
339:
334:
324:
321:
206:
205:
202:
198:
197:
194:
188:
187:
174:
170:
169:
156:
150:
149:
142:
136:
135:
128:
124:
123:
120:
116:
115:
98:
92:
91:
77:
71:
70:
57:
51:
50:
46:
45:
37:
36:
33:
29:
28:
20:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3913:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3873:
3871:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3831:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3816:
3814:
3810:
3804:
3801:
3798:
3797:Latex allergy
3795:
3791:
3788:
3787:
3786:
3783:
3782:
3780:
3776:
3773:
3767:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3751:
3749:
3745:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3705:
3703:
3699:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3684:
3682:
3678:
3675:
3672:
3667:
3666:cell-mediated
3663:
3659:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3635:
3633:
3629:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3597:Farmer's lung
3595:
3593:
3590:
3589:
3587:
3583:
3580:
3577:
3572:
3568:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3540:
3538:
3536:
3532:
3527:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3487:
3485:
3483:
3479:
3476:
3472:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3458:
3455:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3440:
3439:
3438:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3409:
3407:
3403:
3397:
3394:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3356:
3355:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3324:
3322:
3318:
3315:
3312:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3280:
3275:
3273:
3268:
3266:
3261:
3260:
3257:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3236:
3234:
3230:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3201:
3199:
3195:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3180:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3155:
3154:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3142:
3141:
3140:
3139:
3135:
3134:
3132:
3130:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3117:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3097:
3095:
3093:
3092:Medium vessel
3089:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3074:
3072:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3055:
3050:
3048:
3043:
3041:
3036:
3035:
3032:
3019:
3015:
3014:
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251:
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96:Complications
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88:double vision
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52:
47:
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34:
30:
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3891:Rheumatology
3876:Eye diseases
3712:
3692:Mantoux test
3353:Food allergy
3150:
3136:
3129:Pauci-immune
3120:Small vessel
3081:
3069:Large vessel
3011:
3000:
2989:
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2671:Rheumatology
2670:
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2326:. Retrieved
2322:
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2182:
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2142:(2): 77–81.
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2002:. Retrieved
1998:
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1950:
1940:
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1771:Rheumatology
1770:
1741:. Retrieved
1736:
1686:(1): 50–57.
1683:
1679:
1669:
1636:
1632:
1602:. Retrieved
1598:
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1529:. Retrieved
1525:
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1446:. Retrieved
1442:the original
1431:
1421:23 September
1419:. Retrieved
1411:uptodate.com
1410:
1380:
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1366:
1342:(1): 15–19.
1339:
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1240:. Retrieved
1231:
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1071:
1067:
1002:. Retrieved
993:
971:14 September
969:. Retrieved
960:
918:
879:
870:
857:
854:Epidemiology
815:osteoporosis
787:
779:Night sweats
729:
700:
667:
571:Evidence of
502:tunica media
491:
475:
456:
445:
428:
421:
402:
392:claudication
362:claudication
326:
309:
297:prednisolone
286:
266:
223:inflammatory
218:
214:
210:
209:
60:Rheumatology
18:
3343:Anaphylaxis
3339:(Hay fever)
2980:MedlinePlus
2328:10 February
2323:www.fda.gov
1405:Hunder GG.
1190:(1): 1–11.
876:Terminology
831:tocilizumab
682:giant cells
510:interleukin
506:T helper 17
498:macrophages
379:visual loss
119:Usual onset
32:Other names
3870:Categories
3812:Autoimmune
3701:Autoimmune
3631:Autoimmune
3474:Autoimmune
3405:Autoimmune
3002:Patient UK
2945:DiseasesDB
2004:2023-05-07
1604:2019-11-25
1531:2019-11-25
1522:"UpToDate"
1448:2007-10-15
1242:21 October
1004:21 October
896:References
890:giant cell
848:infections
798:prednisone
703:ultrasound
599:micrograph
583:subclavian
293:prednisone
68:Immunology
3482:Cytotoxic
3197:Ungrouped
2996:neuro/592
2991:eMedicine
2961:414341000
2956:SNOMED CT
2777:663444979
1551:Neurology
823:cataracts
784:Treatment
718:positive
707:halo sign
705:yields a
649:Platelets
544:Diagnosis
488:Mechanism
409:blindness
250:blindness
228:of large
201:Frequency
192:Prognosis
173:Treatment
101:Blindness
55:Specialty
3771:multiple
3769:Unknown/
3571:Type III
3535:receptor
3384:Tree nut
3013:Orphanet
2849:31970405
2744:15728420
2703:37144946
2694:10765151
2649:33528002
2600:26077399
2551:21925882
2543:28405843
2508:14673969
2473:28838902
2443:BMJ Open
2424:31291180
2372:29570475
2305:25087045
2296:10589060
2256:39396172
2248:26789102
2213:26611557
2164:30995207
2156:18346404
2121:11520757
2072:Archived
2054:16987903
1981:32804186
1932:17885247
1881:20149393
1873:21706476
1838:28601496
1803:31970405
1710:24988557
1653:28614098
1581:25695965
1505:25288850
1415:Archived
1358:21176820
1314:18499311
1279:18711459
1236:Archived
1214:20891451
1206:23045170
1165:Archived
1134:Archived
1098:24988557
998:Archived
965:Archived
934:Archived
839:cytokine
835:antibody
819:glaucoma
613:.
589:arteries
587:axillary
573:ischemia
467:shoulder
399:(in 50%)
385:diplopia
370:reduced
366:necrosis
342:headache
291:such as
289:steroids
234:headache
221:, is an
177:Steroids
80:Headache
75:Symptoms
3778:Foreign
3680:Foreign
3671:T cells
3662:Type IV
3585:Foreign
3460:Foreign
3431:Type II
3374:Seafood
3320:Foreign
3302:allergy
2939:D013700
2640:8487303
2591:4668221
2464:5724062
2380:4227514
2204:4751577
2112:1724128
2045:1857614
1972:7432275
1923:8134183
1743:23 July
1701:4277693
1661:3747982
1572:4433460
1496:4173245
1389:1856819
1089:4277693
861:Equator
827:aspirin
471:cranial
452:antigen
431:relapse
280:of the
3799:(I+IV)
3531:Type V
3369:Peanut
3298:Type I
3152:p-ANCA
3138:c-ANCA
2985:000448
2928:187360
2883:4A44.2
2847:
2775:
2765:
2742:
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1312:
1277:
1212:
1204:
1157:
1126:
1096:
1086:
926:
674:biopsy
656:Biopsy
638:LFTs,
607:intima
579:Bruits
463:pelvis
450:(VZV)
377:acute
359:tongue
332:bruits
278:biopsy
256:, and
163:stroke
146:biopsy
127:Causes
3638:Lupus
3389:Wheat
3306:atopy
3232:Other
2950:12938
2917:446.5
2902:M31.6
2898:M31.5
2547:S2CID
2376:S2CID
2252:S2CID
2160:S2CID
1877:S2CID
1657:S2CID
1210:S2CID
886:aorta
611:media
526:IL-23
522:IL-21
518:IL-17
512:(IL)
390:limb
348:scalp
337:fever
3839:APS2
3834:APS1
3748:GVHD
3435:ADCC
3364:Milk
3288:and
2934:MeSH
2923:OMIM
2912:9-CM
2845:PMID
2773:OCLC
2763:ISBN
2740:PMID
2699:PMID
2645:PMID
2596:PMID
2539:PMID
2504:PMID
2469:PMID
2420:PMID
2368:PMID
2330:2018
2301:PMID
2279:2014
2244:PMID
2209:PMID
2152:PMID
2117:PMID
2050:PMID
1977:PMID
1928:PMID
1869:PMID
1834:PMID
1799:PMID
1745:2021
1706:PMID
1649:PMID
1577:PMID
1501:PMID
1423:2015
1385:PMID
1354:PMID
1310:PMID
1275:PMID
1244:2017
1202:PMID
1155:ISBN
1124:ISBN
1094:PMID
1006:2017
973:2017
924:ISBN
846:and
713:and
680:for
668:The
609:and
585:and
561:The
530:Th17
524:and
480:and
446:The
3448:IgM
3443:IgG
3379:Soy
3359:Egg
3311:IgE
3018:397
2908:ICD
2889:ICD
2874:ICD
2835:hdl
2825:doi
2792:at
2730:doi
2689:PMC
2679:doi
2635:PMC
2627:doi
2586:PMC
2578:doi
2531:doi
2496:doi
2459:PMC
2451:doi
2410:doi
2360:doi
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2283:doi
2236:doi
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2191:doi
2144:doi
2107:PMC
2099:doi
2040:PMC
2032:doi
1967:PMC
1959:doi
1955:180
1918:PMC
1908:doi
1861:doi
1826:doi
1822:154
1789:hdl
1779:doi
1696:PMC
1688:doi
1684:371
1641:doi
1567:PMC
1559:doi
1491:PMC
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1340:111
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1267:doi
1192:doi
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711:MRI
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