2702:
236:
1273:
5479:
1656:
4989:
1292:
2686:. That may mean that there was dialectal variation in the timing and spread of the two changes, with final loss happening before umlaut in the south but after umlaut in the north. On the other hand, umlaut may have still been partly allophonic, and the loss of the conditioning sound may have triggered an "un-umlauting" of the preceding vowel. Nevertheless, medial
227:, the process by which one speech sound is altered to make it more like another adjacent sound. If a word has two vowels with one far back in the mouth and the other far forward, more effort is required to pronounce the word than if the vowels were closer together; therefore, one possible linguistic development is for these two vowels to be drawn closer together.
4483:'s suggestion that the Old High German umlaut phenomena produced phonemic changes before the factors that triggered them off changed or disappeared, because the umlaut allophones gradually shifted to such a degree that they became distinctive in the phonological system of the language and contrastive at a lexical level.
2538:. These verbs exhibit the dental suffix used to form the preterite of weak verbs, and also exhibit what appears to be the vowel gradation characteristic of strong verbs. Examples in English are think/thought, bring/brought, tell/told, sell/sold. The phenomenon can also be observed in some German verbs including
2588:
fell out of the preterite. Thus, while short-stem verbs exhibit umlaut in all tenses, long-stem verbs only do so in the present. When the German philologist Jacob Grimm first attempted to explain the phenomenon, he assumed that the lack of umlaut in the preterite resulted from the reversal of umlaut.
4486:
However, sporadic place-name attestations demonstrate the presence of the secondary umlaut already for the early 9th century, which makes it likely that all types of umlaut were indeed already present in Old High German, even if they were not indicated in the spelling. Presumably, they arose already
2705:
The vowels and diphthongs of proto-Old
English prior to i-mutation (in black) and how they generally changed under i-mutation (in red). Outcomes varied according to dialect; i-mutation of diphthongs is given for Early West Saxon as spelled in manuscripts due to uncertainty about the precise phonetic
4853:
In general, the effects of the
Germanic umlaut in plural formation are limited. One of the defining phonological features of Dutch, is the general absence of the I-mutation or secondary umlaut when dealing with long vowels. Unlike English and German, Dutch does not palatalize the long vowels, which
4518:
In modern German, umlaut as a marker of the plural of nouns is a regular feature of the language, and although umlaut generally is no longer a productive force in German, new plurals of this type can be created by analogy. Likewise, umlaut marks the comparative of many adjectives and other kinds of
4453:
That has led to a controversy over when and how i-mutation appeared on these vowels. Some (for example, Herbert Penzl) have suggested that the vowels must have been modified without being indicated for lack of proper symbols and/or because the difference was still partly allophonic. Others (such as
4474:
was indeed phonetic, occurring late in OHG, but later spread analogically to the environments where the conditioning had already disappeared by OHG (this is where failure of i-mutation is most likely). It must also be kept in mind that it is an issue of relative chronology: already early in the
1350:
However, in a small number of words, a vowel affected by i-umlaut is not marked with the umlaut diacritic because its origin is not obvious. Either there is no unumlauted equivalent or they are not recognized as a pair because the meanings have drifted apart. The adjective
2457:
would not be a normal result of umlaut in German. There are, in fact, two distinct phenomena at play here; the first is indeed umlaut as it is best known, but the second is older and occurred already in Proto-Germanic itself. In both cases, a following
2589:
In actuality, umlaut never occurred in the first place. Nevertheless, the term "Rückumlaut" makes some sense since the verb exhibits a shift from an umlauted vowel in the basic form (the infinitive) to a plain vowel in the respective inflections.
4941:
have umlaut of long vowels (or in case of
Limburgish, all rounded back vowels), however. Consequently, these dialects also make grammatical use of umlaut to form plurals and diminutives, much as most other modern Germanic languages do. Compare
190:
While
Germanic umlaut has had important consequences for all modern Germanic languages, its effects are particularly apparent in German, because vowels resulting from umlaut are generally spelled with a specific set of letters:
2652:
Although umlauts operated the same way in all the West
Germanic languages, the exact words in which it took place and the outcomes of the process differ between the languages. Of particular note is the loss of word-final
4663:); that rounded front vowels have become unrounded in many dialects does not prevent them from serving as markers of the plural given that they remain distinct from their non-umlauted counterparts (just like in English
1459:. Here the diacritic is a purely phonological marker, indicating that the English and French sounds (or at least, the approximation of them used in German) are identical to the native German umlauted sounds. Similarly,
345:
occurred in the next, the vowel in the first syllable was raised. This happened less often in the
Germanic languages, partly because of earlier vowel harmony in similar contexts. However, for example, proto-Old English
1723:
Unusual umlaut designs are sometimes also created for graphic design purposes, such as to fit an umlaut into tightly-spaced lines of text. This may include umlauts placed vertically or inside the body of the letter.
5597:
Hogg, Richard M., ‘Phonology and
Morphology’, in The Cambridge History of the English Language, Volume 1: The Beginnings to 1066, ed. by Richard M. Hogg (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 67–167 (p.
2408:
Some interesting examples of umlaut involve vowel distinctions in
Germanic verbs. Although these are often subsumed under the heading "ablaut" in tables of Germanic irregular verbs, they are a separate phenomenon.
1732:
Although umlaut was not a grammatical process, umlauted vowels often serve to distinguish grammatical forms (and thus show similarities to ablaut when viewed synchronically), as can be seen in the
English word
3505:) or been lost entirely, with the result that i-mutation generally appears as a morphological process that affects a certain (seemingly arbitrary) set of forms. These are most common forms affected:
667:
vowels which later underwent i-umlaut generally appear in modern languages—though there are many exceptions to these patterns owing to other sound changes and chance variations. The table gives two
4479:
after geminates and clusters), and depending on the age of OHG umlaut, that could explain some cases where expected umlaut is missing. The whole question should now be reconsidered in the light of
4414:(the so-called "primary umlaut"), although in certain phonological environments the mutation fails to occur. By then, it had already become partly phonologized, since some of the conditioning
4434:
that had not been umlauted already, were also affected (the so-called "secondary umlaut"); starting in Middle High German, the remaining conditioning environments disappear and
1303:, consisting of two dots above the vowel, is used for the fronted vowels, making the historical process much more visible in the modern language than is the case in English:
4937:
in the south-easternmost Dutch dialects during the High
Medieval period) the more eastern and southeastern dialects of Dutch, including easternmost Brabantian and all of
5834:
4462:
was entirely analogical and pointed to the lack of i-mutation of these vowels in certain places where it would be expected, in contrast to the consistent mutation of
1799:. Umlaut is conspicuous when it occurs in one of such a pair of forms, but there are many mutated words without an unmutated parallel form. Germanic actively derived
5607:
Table adapted from Campbell, Historical Linguistics (2nd edition), 2004, p. 23. See also Malmkjær, The Linguistics Encyclopedia (2nd Edition), 2002, pp. 230-233.
5049:
The situation in Old Norse is complicated as there are two forms of i-mutation. Of these two, only one is phonologized. I-mutation in Old Norse is phonological:
163:). Germanic umlaut, as covered in this article, does not include other historical vowel phenomena that operated in the history of the Germanic languages such as
4921:
Later developments in Middle Dutch show that long vowels and diphthongs were not affected by umlaut in the more western dialects, including those in western
6951:
2710:
I-mutation generally affected Old English vowels as follows in each of the main dialects. It led to the introduction into Old English of the new sounds
2534:("reverse umlaut"), sometimes known in English as "unmutation", is a term given to the vowel distinction between present and preterite forms of certain
2550:("know/knew"), and a handful of others. In some dialects, particularly of western Germany, the phenomenon is preserved in many more forms (for example
66:
6231:
Cercignani, Fausto (2022). The development of the Old High German umlauted vowels and the reflex of New High German /ɛ:/ in Present Standard German.
4906:). As a result of this relatively sparse occurrence of umlaut, standard Dutch does not use umlaut as a grammatical marker. An exception is the noun
5864:
1807:
by applying a suffix, which later caused umlaut, to a past tense form. Some of these survived into modern English as doublets of verbs, including
675:
examples (Swedish, from the east, and Icelandic, from the west). Spellings are marked by pointy brackets (⟨...⟩) and pronunciation, given in the
1712:
handwriting, as used in German manuscripts of the later Middle Ages and also in many printed texts of the early modern period, the superscript
6152:
Cercignani, Fausto (2022). On the Germanic and Old High German distance assimilation changes, in “Linguistik online”, 116/4, 2022, pp. 41–59.
4798:. It must have had a greater effect than the orthography shows since all later dialects have a regular umlaut of both long and short vowels.
6239:
6156:
7326:
6404:
7124:
1751:, this suffix caused fronting of the vowel and, when the suffix later disappeared, the mutated vowel remained as the only plural marker:
6025:
2693:
consistently triggers umlaut although its subsequent loss is universal in West Germanic except for Old Saxon and early Old High German.
255:, and some other old Germanic languages. The precise developments varied from one language to another, but the general trend was this:
4733:"fish," which had never had a front rounded vowel in the first place, were interpreted as such (i.e., as if from Middle High German **
4657:
In various dialects, the umlaut became even more important as a morphological marker of the plural after the apocope of final schwa (
2472:. The effect on back vowels did not occur until hundreds of years later, after the Germanic languages had already begun to split up:
3900:"to bind." Note that in some cases the abstract noun has a different vowel than the corresponding verb, due to Proto-Indo-European
1437:
Some words have umlaut diacritics that do not mark a vowel produced by the sound change of umlaut. This includes loanwords such as
5994:
5964:
5933:
5663:
has been included in this table, however, to ensure that all the outcomes of i-umlaut in the modern languages are accounted for.
5822:
6363:
8369:
6941:
8349:
1335:. This is a neat solution when pairs of words with and without umlaut mutation are compared, as in umlauted plurals like
7853:
6332:
The development of the Old High German umlauted vowels and the reflex of New High German /ɛ:/ in Present Standard German
1823:. Umlaut could occur in borrowings as well if a stressed vowel was coloured by a subsequent front vowel, such as German
4219:
A few hundred years after i-umlaut began, another similar change called double umlaut occurred. It was triggered by an
2667:
often show no umlaut, but in the more northern languages (Old English, Old Frisian), the forms do. Compare Old English
243:
Germanic umlaut is a specific historical example of this process that took place in the unattested earliest stages of
6294:
6216:
5036:
1693:
to the affected vowel, either after the vowel or, in the small form, above it. This can still be seen in some names:
6138:
Voyles, Joseph (1992). "On Old High German i-umlaut". In Rauch, Irmengard; Carr, Gerald F.; Kyes, Robert L. (eds.).
5018:
6397:
5010:
16:
This article is about the linguistic phenomenon in the Germanic languages. For the diacritic umlaut symbol ¨, see
676:
208:
48:
2701:
1206:
Whereas modern English does not have any special letters for vowels produced by i-umlaut, in German the letters
239:
The vowels of proto-Germanic and their general direction of change when i-mutated in the later Germanic dialects
8364:
6056:
5014:
2660:
after heavy syllables. In the more southern languages (Old High German, Old Dutch, Old Saxon), forms that lost
1408:
204:
8220:
235:
212:
1720:, but in manuscript writing, umlauted vowels could be indicated by two dots since the late medieval period.
8250:
7420:
7382:
7367:
4934:
827:
6694:
4948:
4899:
4895:
4891:
4887:
4883:
4867:
4860:
4835:
4831:
4823:
4819:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4771:
4767:
4763:
4585:
4578:
4508:
4476:
4471:
4467:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4411:
4407:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4224:
4220:
4192:
4188:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4126:
4122:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4090:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2585:
2581:
2573:
2569:
649:
643:
637:
631:
359:
355:
351:
347:
342:
338:
327:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
123:
119:
62:
58:
8379:
8374:
8230:
8090:
7440:
7399:
7389:
6390:
4515:
prefers the assimilation theory and presents a history of the OHG umlauted vowels up to the present day.
961:
911:
168:
109:
32:
3540:"mice." Many more words were affected by this change in Old English versus modern English, for example,
6606:
5856:
1800:
220:
129:
4550:
was developed, making the phenomenon very visible. The result in German is that the vowels written as
2417:
A variety of umlaut occurs in the second and third person singular forms of the present tense of some
374:
when the context was lost but the variant sound remained. The following examples show how, when final
7947:
4762:, umlaut is much less apparent than in Old Norse. The only vowel that is regularly fronted before an
4475:
history of attested OHG, some umlauting factors are known to have disappeared (such as word-internal
3509:
The plural, and genitive/dative singular, forms of consonant-declension nouns (Proto-Germanic (PGmc)
766:
716:
216:
127:
107:
8359:
8225:
8179:
8174:
8098:
7708:
7692:
7571:
7430:
7321:
7316:
4999:
4746:
4650:
4639:
4628:
4617:
4606:
4595:
4209:
by analogy with the singular form, which then allowed it to be umlauted to a form that resulted in
1620:
1011:
3493:
in the syllable following the affected vowel, by the time of the surviving Old English texts, the
1357:("ready, finished"; originally "ready to go") contains an umlaut mutation, but it is spelled with
8164:
8108:
8103:
8023:
7696:
7646:
6946:
6764:
6520:
6448:
6436:
6348:
6335:
6236:
6153:
5507:
5003:
4818:. The lengthening in open syllables in early Middle Dutch then lengthened and lowered this short
467:
296:
8286:
8006:
7404:
8169:
7651:
7617:
7235:
7051:
6911:
6751:
6646:
3472:
2551:
44:
6017:
5753:
arose due to later processes specific to each daughter language of Germanic. See A. Campbell,
8354:
8327:
8291:
7559:
7552:
7504:
7274:
7245:
7214:
7177:
7102:
6859:
6772:
6633:
6595:
5885:
7792:
6667:
8296:
8276:
8245:
8118:
7978:
7724:
7542:
7134:
6961:
6923:
6918:
6792:
6739:
6497:
5502:
4978:
4929:
that were most influential for standard Dutch. However in what is traditionally called the
3578:
2418:
1804:
622:
603:
180:
172:
99:
87:
7952:
4886:. Thus, only two of the original Germanic vowels were affected by umlaut at all in Dutch:
3475:
since it affected so many of the Old English vowels. Of 16 basic vowels and diphthongs in
8:
8384:
8235:
7471:
7425:
7359:
7112:
6759:
6672:
6470:
5492:
4938:
4922:
2560:
164:
115:
24:
7782:
7627:
6874:
2597:
In German, some verbs that display a back vowel in the past tense undergo umlaut in the
8281:
8205:
8133:
8123:
8078:
7840:
7767:
7664:
7509:
7484:
7479:
7372:
7200:
7085:
6906:
6684:
6679:
6658:
6619:
6423:
6413:
6189:
6120:
6103:
5986:
5956:
5552:
5512:
5484:
4547:
4531:'European.' Umlaut seems to be totally productive in connection with diminutive suffix
3571:
2535:
1689:. From the Middle High German, it was sometimes denoted in written German by adding an
1686:
1300:
1263:
785:
17:
7435:
5929:
4422:
sounds had been deleted or modified. The later history of German, however, shows that
8255:
8054:
7970:
7963:
7918:
7862:
7622:
7612:
7595:
7590:
7494:
7256:
7056:
7017:
6997:
6835:
6727:
6709:
6561:
6359:
6340:
6327:
6317:
6307:
6290:
6254:
Robert B. Howell and Joseph C. Salmons: Umlautless Residues in Germanic, 1997, p. 93.
6212:
6193:
6091:
Campbell, A. 1959. Old English Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press. §§112, 190–204, 288.
6052:
5532:
4512:
4480:
617:
1371:("journey") has, for most speakers of the language, been lost from sight. Likewise,
8210:
8001:
7935:
7891:
7886:
7846:
7835:
7827:
7632:
7600:
7547:
7536:
7449:
7158:
7097:
6887:
6869:
6704:
6465:
6457:
6181:
6112:
5830:
5544:
2598:
1562:
1218:
almost always represent umlauted vowels (see further below). Likewise, the Swedish
8047:
4488:
3485:
were unaffected by i-mutation. Although i-mutation was originally triggered by an
1299:
German orthography is generally consistent in its representation of i-umlaut. The
137:
It took place separately in various Germanic languages starting around 450 or 500
8200:
8033:
7940:
7923:
7908:
7903:
7896:
7605:
7514:
7499:
7454:
7306:
7269:
7261:
7240:
7227:
7207:
7193:
6956:
6933:
6864:
6854:
6846:
6626:
6243:
6160:
5757:(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959), §§112, 115, 195-96. Similarly, many examples of
5058:
4854:
are notably absent from the language. Thus, for example, where modern German has
4403:
4364:
4268:
3574:
2636:
1682:
252:
142:
8321:
8215:
8195:
8147:
8039:
7913:
7583:
7350:
7289:
7068:
7025:
6982:
6899:
6894:
6783:
6733:
6584:
6535:
6490:
6483:
5907:
4164:
672:
664:
626:
530:
422:
6172:
Adolf Gütter (2011). "Frühe Belege für den Umlaut von ahd. /u/, /ō/ und /ū/".
2584:
is present in both the present and preterite. In long-stem verbs however, the
1272:
370:(a variant sound automatically predictable from context), but it later became
283:
occurred in the next, the vowel in the first syllable was fronted (usually to
8343:
8271:
8113:
7869:
7820:
7637:
7576:
7489:
7394:
7332:
7279:
7163:
7090:
5911:
3935:
3568:
2632:
1566:
1554:
668:
224:
4972:
2625:(subj.) ("fence/fenced"). Again, this is due to the presence of a following
8140:
7564:
7528:
7461:
7284:
7107:
7080:
7063:
7007:
6966:
6548:
6527:
3966:"to tell," the forms at one point in the early history of Old English were
3695:), as compared to the forms from which the verbs were derived – e.g.
1246:
vowels are almost always used of for produced by i-umlaut. However, German
7787:
6185:
5588:
Campbell, A. 1959. Old English Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press. §§624-27.
5180:
phonological if the vowel of a long syllable is i-mutated by a syncopated
7957:
7930:
7748:
7656:
7338:
7299:
6882:
6577:
6541:
6476:
6374:
The Development of Old English – A Linguistic History of English, vol. II
5142:
In Old Norse, if the following syllable contains a remaining Proto-Norse
5113:). The rule is not perfect, as some light syllables were still umlauted:
5054:
3633:
3476:
1709:
1558:
577:
502:
337:
When a low or mid-front vowel occurred in a syllable and the front vowel
306:
244:
103:
95:
7802:
6358:, Linguistic history of English, v. 1, Oxford: Oxford University Press,
5889:
5783:
4734:
4507:
theory, which views the origin of the umlaut vowels in the insertion of
4430:, as well as long vowels and diphthongs, and the remaining instances of
3471:
I-mutation is particularly visible in the inflectional and derivational
2568:, "to tell, count"). The cause lies with the insertion of the semivowel
1606:
1594:
1582:
7797:
7777:
7142:
6812:
6513:
6209:
Untersuchungen zur älteren nordischen und germanischen Sprachgeschichte
5497:
4519:
inflected and derived forms. Borrowed words have acquired umlaut as in
4504:
4106:
3596:
1772:
367:
260:
138:
91:
28:
6124:
5556:
4231:
previous vowels but worked only when the vowel directly preceding the
145:. An example of the resulting vowel alternation is the English plural
7983:
7731:
7377:
7294:
7075:
7030:
7002:
6828:
6382:
5163:
4759:
4320:
3637:
1854:
1737:. In ancient Germanic, it and some other words had the plural suffix
1702:
1659:
Development of the umlaut (anachronistically lettered in Sütterlin):
1655:
248:
7807:
6263:
R. Willemyns: Dutch: Biography of a Language, OUP USA, 2013, pp. 36.
6101:
Penzl, H. (1949). "Umlaut and Secondary Umlaut in Old High German".
4988:
4299:
4271:
2674:
2626:
1250:
represents vowels from multiple sources, which is also the case for
275:, whether long or short) occurred in a syllable and the front vowel
7772:
7120:
6116:
5979:
5825:[Fast food: McDonald's abolishes "Big Mäc" and "Fishmäc"].
5548:
5478:
4466:. Perhaps the answer is somewhere in between — i-mutation of
3516:), as compared to the nominative/accusative singular – e.g.,
1698:
371:
54:
6272:
R. Belemans: Belgisch-Limburgs, Lannoo Uitgeverij, 2004, pp. 22-25
2465:
triggered a vowel change, but in Proto-Germanic, it affected only
7813:
7409:
7311:
6345:
On the Germanic and Old High German distance assimilation changes
4926:
4511:
after back vowels, not only in West, but also in North Germanic.
3453:
in most later varieties of Old English, giving alternations like
3380:
in most later varieties of Old English, giving alternations like
2517:
1830:
1460:
387:
5287:
5094:) or, regardless of syllable weight, if followed by consonantal
4546:
Because of the grammatical importance of such pairs, the German
4389:
4351:
4337:
4331:
4307:
4279:
4255:
4210:
4158:
4081:
4075:
4068:
4061:
4054:
4047:
4041:
4034:
4027:
4020:
4014:
4007:
4001:
3994:
3988:
3981:
3974:
3967:
3961:
3955:
3895:
3889:
3883:
3877:
3871:
3865:
3859:
3853:
3837:
3831:
3813:
3807:
3794:
3785:
3779:
3773:
3767:
3761:
3755:
3742:
3733:
3727:
3721:
3715:
3702:
3696:
3681:
3675:
3669:
3624:
3618:
3612:
3606:
3600:
3559:
3553:
3547:
3541:
3535:
3529:
3523:
3517:
3480:
3460:
3454:
3448:
3442:
3436:
3430:
3423:
3417:
3410:
3404:
3397:
3387:
3381:
3375:
3369:
3363:
3356:
3349:
3343:
3336:
3330:
3323:
3313:
3307:
3271:
3265:
3258:
3248:
3242:
3206:
3200:
3193:
3183:
3177:
3170:
3163:
3157:
3150:
3140:
3134:
3128:
3121:
3114:
3108:
3101:
3091:
3085:
3078:
3072:
3065:
3058:
3048:
3042:
3035:
3029:
3022:
3015:
3005:
2999:
2993:
2986:
2980:
2973:
2963:
2957:
2943:
2937:
2930:
2891:
2884:
2874:
2868:
2861:
2854:
2844:
2838:
2831:
2824:
2814:
2808:
2802:
2796:
2790:
2784:
2777:
2771:
2764:
2757:
2668:
658:
608:
583:
556:
549:
542:
535:
515:
507:
381:
375:
309:
7116:
6324:, in «Indogermanische Forschungen», 85, 1980, pp. 207–213.
3901:
1694:
1291:
5535:(1980). "Early "Umlaut" Phenomena in the Germanic Languages".
1545:). There are also several non-borrowed words where the vowels
7034:
6051:. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co. pp. 315–316.
5152:-stems are i-mutated as the desinence contains a Proto-Norse
5796:
A Middle High German Reader With Grammar, Notes and Glossary
5733:, therefore, occur in words borrowed into Germanic (such as
6174:
Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur
1619:
When German words (names in particular) are written in the
6289:(2nd ed.). London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
5823:"Fast Food: McDonald's schafft "Big Mäc" und "Fishmäc" ab"
4814:, causing their umlauted results to merge as well, giving
3689:
Throughout the first class of weak verbs (original suffix
2722:), and a sound written in Early West Saxon manuscripts as
1744:, with the same vowel as the singular. As it contained an
1267:
488:
480:
472:
320:
299:
4060:. In this case, however, once a-restoration took effect,
5921:
4691:"guests" served as the model for analogical pairs like
4376:
As shown by the examples, affected words typically had
4877:), standard Dutch retains a back vowel in the stem in
4227:
in the third or fourth syllable of a word and mutated
2412:
1716:
still had a form that would now be recognisable as an
1553:
have not arisen through historical umlaut, but due to
5570:
Cercignani, Fausto (1980). "Alleged Gothic Umlauts".
4830:) in some words. This is parallel to the lowering of
4454:
Joseph Voyles) have suggested that the i-mutation of
4006:
by i-mutation. The same process "should" have led to
1771:). This effect also can be found in a few fossilized
1757:
man, woman, tooth, goose, foot, mouse, louse, brother
1469:
in German. In borrowings from Latin and Greek, Latin
6376:. United States of America: Oxford University Press.
5776:
5747:
5734:
5727:
5720:
5713:
5706:
5699:
5692:
5685:
5678:
5671:
5664:
5657:
5650:
5643:
5636:
5629:
5474:
4871:
4357:
4313:
4292:
4261:
4203:
4196:
4181:
4174:
4167:
3846:
3800:
3754:) corresponding to certain adjectives – e.g.,
3748:
3662:
3648:
3510:
3300:
3293:
3286:
3279:
3235:
3228:
3221:
3214:
2920:
2913:
2906:
2899:
2687:
2680:
2661:
2654:
2572:
between the verb stem and inflectional ending. This
2508:
2501:
2494:
2487:
2480:
2473:
2466:
2459:
2330:
2323:
2252:
2245:
2174:
2167:
2065:
2058:
2051:
1979:
1972:
1901:
1894:
1745:
1738:
1160:
1112:
1064:
1016:
966:
916:
893:
874:
855:
838:
778:
771:
721:
451:
443:
435:
427:
366:
The fronted variant caused by umlaut was originally
157:
150:
53:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
4394:or to trigger palatalization of a preceding velar.
2554:
6347:, in «Linguistik online», 116/4, 2022, pp. 41–59.
6334:, in «Linguistik online», 113/1, 2022, pp. 45–57.
6312:Early "Umlaut" Phenomena in the Germanic Languages
6081:. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. pp. 159–160.
5148:. For example, the root of the dative singular of
4157:by analogy before umlaut took place. For example,
3845:In i-stem abstract nouns derived from verbs (PGmc
1855:Parallel umlauts in some modern Germanic languages
4053:, which would normally have evolved by umlaut to
3793:In female forms of several nouns with the suffix
2673:"guest", which shows umlaut, and Old High German
2592:
1681:The German phonological umlaut is present in the
1650:
8341:
5184:. I-mutation does not occur in short syllables.
2642:
2563:
67:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
5691:earlier in the development of Common Germanic.
5459:
5453:
5446:
5439:
5429:
5423:
5416:
5406:
5400:
5393:
5386:
5376:
5370:
5363:
5356:
5346:
5340:
5333:
5326:
5316:
5310:
5303:
5296:
5285:
5278:
5271:
5261:
5255:
5248:
5241:
5231:
5225:
5217:
5211:
5204:
5134:
5121:
5108:
5088:
5075:
4912:"city" which has the irregular umlauted plural
4793:
4787:
4781:
4775:
4323:
1195:
1147:
1099:
1051:
1001:
951:
900:
817:
756:
330:and was unaffected, eventually becoming modern
167:and the various language-specific processes of
141:and affected all of the early languages except
6314:, in «Language», 56/1, 1980, pp. 126–136.
6009:
4195:. At some point prior to i-mutation, the form
4191:unaffected by a-mutation due to the following
6398:
6206:
5888:could also be written using superscripts: in
5763:in Modern German come from a later change of
5167:
5153:
5143:
5127:
5114:
5101:
5095:
5081:
5068:
5062:
4343:
4285:
3708:
3690:
3668:), as compared to the base form – e.g.
3655:
3641:
3589:
3582:
2898:not clearly attested due to earlier Germanic
2393:
2387:
2380:
2374:
2314:
2308:
2301:
2295:
2236:
2230:
2223:
2217:
2157:
2151:
2145:
2137:
2131:
2125:
2042:
2036:
2029:
2023:
1963:
1957:
1950:
1944:
1431:
1383:("older"), but the noun from this is spelled
1186:
1138:
1090:
1042:
992:
942:
881:
808:
747:
659:Outcomes in modern spelling and pronunciation
179:), which is observable in the conjugation of
6171:
5789:
5770:
5764:
5758:
4855:
4740:
4728:
4722:
4716:
4710:
4704:
4698:
4692:
4686:
4680:
4658:
4644:
4633:
4622:
4611:
4600:
4589:
4538:
4532:
4526:
4520:
4397:
4367:
4089:A similar process resulted in the umlaut of
3825:
3819:
2718:(which, in most varieties, soon turned into
2696:
2620:
2614:
2608:
2602:
2545:
2539:
2529:
2519:
2452:
2446:
2440:
2434:
2428:
2422:
2344:
2338:
2266:
2260:
2188:
2182:
2085:
2079:
2073:
1993:
1987:
1915:
1909:
1840:
1824:
1672:
1666:
1660:
1600:
1588:
1576:
1570:
1540:
1534:
1528:
1514:
1508:
1502:
1496:
1490:
1481:
1464:
1454:
1448:
1438:
1425:
1418:
1412:
1402:
1401:("to spend, to dedicate") and the adjective
1396:
1390:
1384:
1378:
1372:
1366:
1352:
1342:
1336:
1177:
1129:
1081:
1033:
983:
933:
862:
799:
738:
6371:
6140:On Germanic linguistics: issues and methods
5741:
5017:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
4966:
4958:
4952:
4943:
4913:
4907:
4878:
4845:
4839:
4503:in the early attestations, affirms the old
3599:and other present-tense forms – e.g.
2951:
2679:, which does not, both from Proto-Germanic
2403:
2366:
2360:
2288:
2282:
2210:
2204:
2117:
2111:
2105:
2015:
2009:
1937:
1931:
1846:
1834:
6405:
6391:
6356:From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic
5814:
5569:
5531:
4753:
3278:examples are rare due to earlier Germanic
3213:examples are rare due to earlier Germanic
2647:
5037:Learn how and when to remove this message
4491:, also in view of spellings of the type
3980:, respectively. A-restoration converted
2700:
1727:
1654:
1290:
1271:
234:
6302:Historical Linguistics: An Introduction
6015:
5954:
4750:, which are attested in some dialects.
3318:in most later varieties of Old English
3253:in most later varieties of Old English
1623:, umlauts are usually substituted with
1295:New and old notation of umlauted vowels
315:, which eventually developed to modern
118:) when the following syllable contains
8342:
6412:
6304:(2nd ed.). Edinburgh University Press.
6137:
5997:from the original on 25 September 2015
4801:
4133:, the reason for alternations between
4125:, which later triggered umlaut of the
4000:alone, and it subsequently evolved to
3914:The phonologically expected umlaut of
2807:particularly before nasal consonants:
671:examples (English and German) and two
8076:
7690:
6434:
6386:
6353:
6100:
6072:
6070:
6068:
6046:
6016:Hardwig, Florian (17 December 2014).
5987:"Flickr collection: vertical umlauts"
5820:
5798:(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974), §10.
5656:are vanishingly rare. Proto-Germanic
5616:
4745:
4649:
4638:
4627:
4616:
4605:
4594:
2726:but whose phonetic value is debated.
1755:. In English, such plurals are rare:
1411:now permits the alternative spelling
1257:
6076:
5967:from the original on 7 November 2020
5936:from the original on 11 October 2017
5015:adding citations to reliable sources
4982:
4097:and sometimes (usually, in fact) as
57:. For the distinction between ,
6967:Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German
6372:Ringe, Donald; Taylor, Ann (2014).
5927:
5726:. Most examples of the i-umlaut of
4180:. The plural in Proto-Germanic was
2518:Present stem Umlaut in weak verbs (
2427:("to catch") has the present tense
2413:Present stem Umlaut in strong verbs
1685:period and continues to develop in
832:no single example in all languages
13:
8326:Languages between parentheses are
7691:
6065:
3501:had generally changed (usually to
1759:(archaic or specialized plural in
1635:to differentiate them from simple
1575:occurring on both sides), such as
295:respectively). Thus, for example,
14:
8396:
6028:from the original on 16 July 2015
5837:from the original on 9 March 2012
4739:) and led to singular forms like
4450:in the appropriate environments.
3930:in Old English stem from earlier
1581:("five"; from Middle High German
6285:Malmkjær, Kirsten (Ed.) (2002).
6049:A Grammar of the German Language
5955:Hardwig, Florian (28 May 2013).
5898:was frequently placed above the
5857:"Alternate Spelling Conventions"
5698:, meanwhile, only existed where
5477:
4987:
4406:(OHG), c. 800 CE, only on short
4019:. That is, the early forms were
3950:, which subsequently mutated to
2577:
1767:(poetic and dialectal plural in
1407:("requiring effort") though the
663:The following table surveys how
6279:
6266:
6257:
6248:
6225:
6200:
6165:
6146:
6131:
6094:
6085:
6040:
5948:
5884:In medieval manuscripts, other
5878:
5867:from the original on 2022-06-16
5849:
4806:Late Old Dutch saw a merger of
4388:developed too late to break to
3938:. This change was blocked when
3870:"a son (orig., a being born),"
3686:"oldest" (cf. "elder, eldest").
2439:("give") has the present tense
1614:
677:international phonetic alphabet
49:International Phonetic Alphabet
8330:of the language on their left.
5801:
5712:, which never happened before
5622:
5610:
5601:
5591:
5582:
5563:
5525:
4251:in Old English or is deleted:
3954:. For example, in the case of
2593:Umlaut as a subjunctive marker
2576:triggers umlaut, as explained
2430:ich fange, du fängst, er fängt
1651:Orthography and design history
230:
1:
8221:Germanic substrate hypothesis
8077:
5894:("flower"), for example, the
5518:
5158:, but the dative singular of
4149:occurs only when an original
4080:, and then later umlauted to
2643:Historical survey by language
1519:, "economy"). However, Latin
1287:on a German computer keyboard
8251:Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
6942:Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
6287:The linguistics encyclopedia
6079:Mittelhochdeutsche Grammatik
5809:Die deutsche Rechtschreibung
5628:Examples of Common Germanic
4368:
3567:The second and third person
1495:, are rendered in German as
1377:("old") has the comparative
380:was lost, the variant sound
7:
8370:Germanic language histories
8231:High German consonant shift
5572:Indogermanische Forschungen
5470:
4384:in the first syllable. The
4380:in the second syllable and
4117:was blocked by a following
3934:because of a change called
2873:"covering" (cf. "thatch"),
2580:. In short-stem verbs, the
2442:ich gebe, du gibst, er gibt
10:
8401:
8350:Assimilation (linguistics)
6769:Westlauwers–Terschellings
6422:According to contemporary
5930:"Unusual Umlauts (German)"
4976:
4970:
4727:). Even plural forms like
4487:in the early 8th century.
4033:. A-restoration converted
3581:(Pre-Old-English (Pre-OE)
3459:"to boil" (cf. "seethe"),
1261:
1254:in Swedish and Icelandic.
693:usual modern reflex after
319:, while the singular form
94:changes to the associated
86:) is a type of linguistic
22:
15:
8313:
8264:
8188:
8157:
8089:
8085:
8072:
8021:
7994:
7948:Southern Schleswig Danish
7879:
7760:
7716:
7707:
7703:
7686:
7527:
7470:
7358:
7349:
7254:
7226:
7185:
7176:
7151:
7133:
7044:
7016:
6990:
6981:
6932:
6845:
6820:
6811:
6750:
6645:
6594:
6569:
6560:
6456:
6447:
6443:
6430:
6420:
6354:Ringe, Donald A. (2006),
6211:. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
6047:Curme, George O. (1952).
5821:Isert, Jörg (June 2007).
5794:'king'): M. O'C. Walshe,
5392:
4402:I-mutation is visible in
4398:I-mutation in High German
4336:"to hasten" < archaic
3922:. However, in many cases
3741:In the abstract nouns in
3629:"(we/you pl./they) help."
3473:morphology of Old English
3416:
3342:
3264:
3199:
3169:
3120:
3064:
3021:
2979:
2936:
2890:
2860:
2843:"teaching" (cf. "lore"),
2830:
2763:
2740:
2737:
2734:
2697:I-mutation in Old English
692:
689:
686:
582:
548:
541:
534:
500:
479:
426:
8226:West Germanic gemination
8180:Ancient Belgian language
8175:Germanic parent language
8119:Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)
7241:Austrian Standard German
6435:
5912:development of the tilde
5162:-stems is not, as their
5061:and followed by vocalic
4967:North Germanic languages
4141:being common. Umlaut of
3908:
2404:Umlaut in Germanic verbs
1557:of an earlier unrounded
1395:("effort") has the verb
1347:("mother" – "mothers").
777:('geese'), which became
305:"mice" shifted to proto-
251:and apparently later in
6300:Campbell, Lyle (2004).
5902:, although this letter
5890:
5811:, 21st edition, p. 133.
5784:
5778:
5749:
5736:
5729:
5722:
5715:
5708:
5701:
5694:
5687:
5680:
5673:
5666:
5659:
5652:
5645:
5638:
5631:
5508:Umlaut (disambiguation)
5460:
5454:
5447:
5440:
5430:
5424:
5417:
5407:
5401:
5394:
5387:
5377:
5371:
5364:
5357:
5347:
5341:
5334:
5327:
5317:
5311:
5304:
5297:
5286:
5279:
5272:
5262:
5256:
5249:
5242:
5232:
5226:
5218:
5212:
5205:
5168:
5166:stems from Proto-Norse
5154:
5144:
5135:
5129:
5122:
5116:
5109:
5103:
5096:
5090:
5083:
5076:
5070:
5063:
4933:(the spread of certain
4873:
4794:
4788:
4782:
4776:
4754:I-mutation in Old Saxon
4735:
4410:, which was mutated to
4390:
4359:
4352:
4345:
4338:
4332:
4324:
4315:
4308:
4300:
4294:
4287:
4280:
4272:
4263:
4256:
4211:
4205:
4198:
4183:
4176:
4169:
4159:
4093:sometimes appearing as
4082:
4076:
4070:
4063:
4056:
4049:
4042:
4036:
4029:
4022:
4015:
4009:
4002:
3996:
3989:
3983:
3976:
3969:
3962:
3956:
3896:
3890:
3884:
3878:
3872:
3866:
3860:
3854:
3848:
3838:
3832:
3814:
3808:
3802:
3795:
3786:
3780:
3774:
3768:
3762:
3756:
3750:
3743:
3734:
3728:
3722:
3716:
3710:
3703:
3697:
3691:
3682:
3676:
3670:
3664:
3657:
3650:
3643:
3625:
3619:
3613:
3607:
3601:
3591:
3584:
3560:
3554:
3548:
3542:
3536:
3530:
3524:
3518:
3512:
3481:
3479:, only the four vowels
3461:
3455:
3449:
3443:
3437:
3431:
3424:
3418:
3411:
3405:
3398:
3388:
3382:
3376:
3370:
3364:
3358:
3350:
3344:
3337:
3331:
3324:
3314:
3308:
3302:
3295:
3288:
3281:
3272:
3266:
3259:
3249:
3243:
3237:
3230:
3223:
3216:
3207:
3201:
3194:
3188:"nearest" (cf. "next")
3184:
3178:
3171:
3164:
3158:
3151:
3141:
3135:
3129:
3122:
3115:
3109:
3102:
3092:
3086:
3079:
3073:
3066:
3059:
3049:
3043:
3036:
3030:
3023:
3016:
3006:
3000:
2994:
2987:
2981:
2974:
2964:
2958:
2944:
2938:
2931:
2922:
2915:
2908:
2901:
2892:
2885:
2875:
2869:
2862:
2855:
2845:
2839:
2832:
2825:
2815:
2809:
2803:
2797:
2791:
2785:
2778:
2772:
2765:
2758:
2689:
2682:
2675:
2669:
2663:
2656:
2648:West Germanic languages
2627:
2613:(subj.) ("sing/sang");
2510:
2503:
2496:
2489:
2482:
2475:
2468:
2461:
2332:
2325:
2254:
2247:
2176:
2169:
2067:
2060:
2053:
1981:
1974:
1903:
1896:
1845:, "cheese", from Latin
1747:
1740:
1607:
1595:
1583:
1365:as its relationship to
1162:
1114:
1066:
1018:
968:
918:
895:
876:
857:
840:
788:, though not in German
780:
773:
723:
609:
584:
557:
550:
543:
536:
517:
509:
490:
482:
474:
453:
445:
437:
429:
394:Umlaut and final vowel
382:
376:
322:
311:
301:
219:/. Umlaut is a form of
159:
152:
45:phonetic transcriptions
8287:Preterite-present verb
8170:Proto-Germanic grammar
8124:North Sea (Ingvaeonic)
7236:German Standard German
6912:East Frisian Low Saxon
6322:Alleged Gothic Umlauts
6207:Ottar Grønvik (1998).
6077:Paul, Hermann (1966).
5790:
5771:
5765:
5759:
5742:
5057:, if the syllable was
4959:
4953:
4944:
4914:
4908:
4879:
4856:
4846:
4840:
4741:
4729:
4723:
4717:
4711:
4705:
4699:
4693:
4687:
4681:
4659:
4645:
4634:
4623:
4612:
4601:
4590:
4539:
4533:
4527:
4521:
3826:
3820:
3818:"goddess" (cf. German
3707:"to feed" < Pre-OE
3595:), as compared to the
3145:"older" (cf. "elder")
2952:
2707:
2621:
2615:
2609:
2603:
2564:
2555:
2546:
2540:
2530:
2520:
2453:
2447:
2441:
2435:
2429:
2423:
2421:. For example, German
2394:
2388:
2381:
2375:
2367:
2361:
2345:
2339:
2315:
2309:
2302:
2296:
2289:
2283:
2267:
2261:
2237:
2231:
2224:
2218:
2211:
2205:
2189:
2183:
2158:
2152:
2146:
2138:
2132:
2126:
2118:
2112:
2106:
2086:
2080:
2074:
2043:
2037:
2030:
2024:
2016:
2010:
1994:
1988:
1964:
1958:
1951:
1945:
1938:
1932:
1916:
1910:
1847:
1841:
1835:
1825:
1678:
1673:
1667:
1661:
1601:
1589:
1577:
1571:
1541:
1535:
1529:
1515:
1509:
1503:
1497:
1491:
1482:
1465:
1455:
1449:
1439:
1426:
1420:
1413:
1403:
1397:
1391:
1385:
1379:
1373:
1367:
1353:
1343:
1337:
1296:
1288:
1196:
1187:
1178:
1148:
1139:
1130:
1100:
1091:
1082:
1052:
1043:
1034:
1002:
993:
984:
952:
943:
934:
901:
882:
863:
818:
809:
800:
784:in North Germanic and
757:
748:
739:
679:, in slashes (/.../).
240:
203:, usually pronounced /
42:This article contains
8365:Linguistic morphology
8292:Grammatischer Wechsel
7275:Namibian Black German
7246:Swiss Standard German
7215:Early New High German
6773:Mainland West Frisian
6634:Harlingerland Frisian
6186:10.1515/bgsl.2011.002
5906:survives now only in
5746:), or in words where
4870:(from Proto-Germanic
4834:in open syllables to
4721:"arms" (vs. standard
4703:"days" (vs. standard
4298:(cf. Old High German
4284:"embers" < Pre-OE
4247:typically appears as
4105:generally stems from
3182:"near" (cf. "nigh"),
2704:
2419:Germanic strong verbs
1728:Morphological effects
1658:
1533:in German instead of
1463:was originally spelt
1294:
1275:
687:Proto-Germanic vowel
238:
181:Germanic strong verbs
149:(from Proto-Germanic
8297:Indo-European ablaut
8277:Germanic strong verb
8246:Germanic spirant law
7383:Southeast Limburgish
6879:Gelders-Overijssels
6508:Irish Middle English
6498:Early Modern English
5503:Indo-European ablaut
5011:improve this section
4979:Old Norse morphology
4935:West German features
4574:, and the diphthong
2635:verb endings in the
1801:causative weak verbs
1621:basic Latin alphabet
1409:1996 spelling reform
604:Early Middle English
173:Indo-European ablaut
37:Type of vowel change
8265:Synchronic features
8236:Germanic a-mutation
8189:Diachronic features
7539:in the broad sense
7472:East Central German
7426:Lorraine Franconian
7400:Transylvanian Saxon
7360:West Central German
7135:East Low Franconian
7045:West Low Franconian
5910:. Compare also the
5755:Old English Grammar
5670:had been raised to
5619:, pp. 274, 280
5493:Germanic a-mutation
5189:
4802:I-mutation in Dutch
4543:'little scandal.'
4356:"upmost" < PGmc
4312:"errand" < PGmc
3368:"(he/she) fights".
2741:Examples and notes
2731:
2706:value of the graph.
2536:Germanic weak verbs
1791:, and the feminine
1561:(possibly from the
683:
395:
341:or the front glide
326:lacked a following
279:or the front glide
165:Germanic a-mutation
25:Germanic a-mutation
8380:Germanic philology
8375:Germanic languages
8282:Germanic weak verb
8091:Language subgroups
7441:Pennsylvania Dutch
7390:Moselle Franconian
7368:Central Franconian
7201:Middle High German
6952:Central Pomeranian
6907:Northern Low Saxon
6620:Wangerooge Frisian
6414:Germanic languages
6341:Cercignani, Fausto
6328:Cercignani, Fausto
6318:Cercignani, Fausto
6308:Cercignani, Fausto
6242:2022-02-11 at the
6159:2022-09-28 at the
5928:Hardwig, Florian.
5533:Cercignani, Fausto
5513:Umlaut (diacritic)
5485:Linguistics portal
5187:
4957:"little man" from
4828:⟨eu⟩
4583:⟨äu⟩
4576:⟨au⟩
4501:⟨oi⟩
4497:⟨ui⟩
4493:⟨ei⟩
4260:"witch" < PGmc
4101:. In Old English,
3946:followed, leaving
3623:"(he/she) helps,"
3617:"(you sg.) help,"
3053:"(he/she) mourns"
2795:"(he/she) bakes".
2729:
2724:⟨ie⟩
2708:
2565:tèlle/talj/getaldj
2486:with no umlaut of
1687:Middle High German
1679:
1633:⟨ue⟩
1629:⟨oe⟩
1625:⟨ae⟩
1488:⟨οι⟩
1479:⟨αι⟩
1475:⟨oe⟩
1471:⟨ae⟩
1333:⟨äu⟩
1329:⟨au⟩
1297:
1289:
1264:Umlaut (diacritic)
1258:German orthography
1248:⟨eu⟩
1244:⟨ey⟩
786:North Sea Germanic
682:
393:
241:
171:, nor the earlier
106:becomes closer to
78:(sometimes called
18:Umlaut (diacritic)
8337:
8336:
8322:extinct languages
8309:
8308:
8305:
8304:
8256:Great Vowel Shift
8068:
8067:
8064:
8063:
8017:
8016:
7863:Greenlandic Norse
7682:
7681:
7678:
7677:
7674:
7673:
7613:Southern Bavarian
7596:Northern Bavarian
7572:Highest Alemannic
7523:
7522:
7257:standard variants
7172:
7171:
7018:Standard variants
6977:
6976:
6836:Middle Low German
6807:
6806:
6803:
6802:
6607:Saterland Frisian
6365:978-0-19-955229-0
6233:Linguistik Online
5916:⟨n⟩
5914:as a superscript
5904:⟨ů⟩
5900:⟨u⟩
5896:⟨o⟩
5468:
5467:
5047:
5046:
5039:
4931:Cologne Expansion
4904:⟨u⟩
4572:⟨ü⟩
4568:⟨ö⟩
4564:⟨ä⟩
4560:⟨u⟩
4556:⟨o⟩
4552:⟨a⟩
4513:Fausto Cercignani
4481:Fausto Cercignani
4249:⟨e⟩
3469:
3468:
3465:"(he/she) boils"
3392:"(he/she) burns"
2401:
2400:
1718:⟨e⟩
1714:⟨e⟩
1691:⟨e⟩
1645:⟨u⟩
1641:⟨o⟩
1637:⟨a⟩
1525:⟨υ⟩
1521:⟨y⟩
1363:⟨ä⟩
1359:⟨e⟩
1325:⟨ü⟩
1321:⟨u⟩
1317:⟨ö⟩
1313:⟨o⟩
1309:⟨ä⟩
1305:⟨a⟩
1285:⟨Ü⟩
1281:⟨Ö⟩
1277:⟨Ä⟩
1252:⟨e⟩
1240:⟨ý⟩
1236:⟨y⟩
1232:⟨æ⟩
1228:⟨y⟩
1224:⟨ö⟩
1220:⟨ä⟩
1216:⟨ü⟩
1212:⟨ö⟩
1208:⟨ä⟩
1204:
1203:
1169:⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (
1121:⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (
1073:⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (
1032:⟨eu, äu⟩, /ɔʏ̯/ (
925:⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (
791:⟨ea⟩, ⟨ee⟩, /i/ (
656:
655:
618:Great Vowel Shift
201:⟨ü⟩
197:⟨ö⟩
193:⟨ä⟩
8392:
8114:Elbe (Irminonic)
8087:
8086:
8074:
8073:
8002:Mainland Gutnish
7892:Swedish dialects
7854:Middle Icelandic
7828:Middle Norwegian
7717:Historical forms
7714:
7713:
7705:
7704:
7688:
7687:
7647:South Franconian
7633:Hutterite German
7601:Central Bavarian
7421:Rhine Franconian
7356:
7355:
7186:Historical forms
7183:
7182:
7098:Surinamese Dutch
6991:Historical forms
6988:
6987:
6821:Historical forms
6818:
6817:
6570:Historical forms
6567:
6566:
6454:
6453:
6445:
6444:
6432:
6431:
6407:
6400:
6393:
6384:
6383:
6377:
6368:
6273:
6270:
6264:
6261:
6255:
6252:
6246:
6235:. 113/1: 45–57.
6229:
6223:
6222:
6204:
6198:
6197:
6169:
6163:
6150:
6144:
6143:
6135:
6129:
6128:
6098:
6092:
6089:
6083:
6082:
6074:
6063:
6062:
6044:
6038:
6037:
6035:
6033:
6018:"Compact umlaut"
6013:
6007:
6006:
6004:
6002:
5983:
5977:
5976:
5974:
5972:
5952:
5946:
5945:
5943:
5941:
5925:
5919:
5917:
5905:
5901:
5897:
5893:
5882:
5876:
5875:
5873:
5872:
5853:
5847:
5846:
5844:
5842:
5831:Axel Springer AG
5818:
5812:
5805:
5799:
5793:
5787:
5781:
5774:
5768:
5762:
5752:
5745:
5739:
5732:
5725:
5718:
5711:
5704:
5697:
5690:
5683:
5676:
5669:
5662:
5655:
5648:
5641:
5634:
5626:
5620:
5614:
5608:
5605:
5599:
5595:
5589:
5586:
5580:
5579:
5567:
5561:
5560:
5529:
5487:
5482:
5481:
5463:
5457:
5450:
5443:
5433:
5427:
5420:
5410:
5404:
5397:
5390:
5380:
5374:
5367:
5360:
5350:
5344:
5337:
5330:
5320:
5314:
5307:
5300:
5291:
5282:
5275:
5265:
5259:
5252:
5245:
5235:
5229:
5221:
5215:
5208:
5190:
5186:
5171:
5157:
5147:
5138:
5132:
5125:
5119:
5112:
5106:
5099:
5093:
5086:
5079:
5073:
5066:
5042:
5035:
5031:
5028:
5022:
4991:
4983:
4973:Old Norse umlaut
4962:
4956:
4950:
4947:
4917:
4911:
4905:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4882:
4876:
4869:
4863:and English has
4862:
4859:
4849:
4843:
4837:
4833:
4829:
4825:
4821:
4817:
4813:
4809:
4797:
4791:
4785:
4779:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4749:
4744:
4738:
4732:
4726:
4720:
4714:
4708:
4702:
4696:
4690:
4684:
4662:
4653:
4651:[ˈmɔʏzə]
4648:
4642:
4637:
4631:
4629:[ˈfyːsə]
4626:
4620:
4615:
4609:
4604:
4598:
4593:
4587:
4584:
4580:
4577:
4573:
4569:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4548:umlaut diacritic
4542:
4536:
4530:
4524:
4510:
4502:
4498:
4494:
4478:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4461:
4457:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4393:
4387:
4383:
4379:
4371:
4362:
4355:
4348:
4341:
4335:
4327:
4318:
4311:
4303:
4297:
4290:
4283:
4275:
4266:
4259:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4234:
4226:
4222:
4214:
4208:
4202:was modified to
4201:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4179:
4172:
4163:comes from late
4162:
4156:
4153:was modified to
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4116:
4113:. A-mutation of
4112:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4092:
4085:
4079:
4074:by analogy with
4073:
4067:was modified to
4066:
4059:
4052:
4045:
4039:
4032:
4025:
4018:
4012:
4005:
3999:
3992:
3986:
3979:
3972:
3965:
3959:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3899:
3893:
3887:
3881:
3875:
3869:
3863:
3857:
3851:
3841:
3835:
3829:
3823:
3817:
3811:
3806:) – e.g.,
3805:
3798:
3789:
3783:
3777:
3771:
3765:
3759:
3753:
3746:
3737:
3731:
3725:
3719:
3713:
3706:
3700:
3694:
3685:
3679:
3673:
3667:
3660:
3653:
3646:
3628:
3622:
3616:
3610:
3604:
3594:
3587:
3563:
3557:
3551:
3545:
3539:
3533:
3527:
3521:
3515:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3464:
3458:
3452:
3446:
3440:
3434:
3427:
3421:
3414:
3408:
3401:
3391:
3385:
3379:
3373:
3367:
3361:
3353:
3347:
3340:
3334:
3327:
3317:
3311:
3305:
3298:
3291:
3284:
3275:
3269:
3262:
3252:
3246:
3240:
3233:
3226:
3219:
3210:
3204:
3197:
3187:
3181:
3174:
3167:
3161:
3154:
3144:
3138:
3132:
3125:
3118:
3112:
3105:
3095:
3089:
3082:
3076:
3069:
3062:
3052:
3046:
3039:
3033:
3026:
3019:
3009:
3003:
2997:
2990:
2984:
2977:
2967:
2961:
2955:
2947:
2941:
2934:
2925:
2918:
2911:
2904:
2895:
2888:
2878:
2872:
2865:
2858:
2848:
2842:
2835:
2828:
2818:
2812:
2806:
2800:
2794:
2788:
2781:
2775:
2768:
2761:
2732:
2728:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2692:
2685:
2678:
2672:
2666:
2659:
2630:
2624:
2618:
2612:
2606:
2599:subjunctive mood
2587:
2583:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2559:, "to put", and
2558:
2556:stellen/gestallt
2549:
2544:("burn/burnt"),
2543:
2533:
2528:The German word
2523:
2513:
2506:
2499:
2492:
2485:
2478:
2471:
2464:
2456:
2450:
2445:, but the shift
2444:
2438:
2432:
2426:
2397:
2391:
2384:
2378:
2370:
2364:
2348:
2342:
2335:
2328:
2318:
2312:
2305:
2299:
2292:
2286:
2270:
2264:
2257:
2250:
2240:
2234:
2227:
2221:
2214:
2208:
2192:
2186:
2179:
2172:
2161:
2155:
2149:
2141:
2135:
2129:
2121:
2115:
2109:
2089:
2083:
2077:
2070:
2063:
2056:
2046:
2040:
2033:
2027:
2019:
2013:
1997:
1991:
1984:
1977:
1967:
1961:
1954:
1948:
1941:
1935:
1919:
1913:
1906:
1899:
1859:
1858:
1850:
1844:
1838:
1828:
1750:
1743:
1719:
1715:
1692:
1676:
1670:
1664:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1610:
1605:("create"; from
1604:
1598:
1593:("twelve"; from
1592:
1586:
1580:
1574:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1512:
1506:
1500:
1494:
1489:
1485:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1458:
1452:
1442:
1429:
1423:
1416:
1406:
1400:
1394:
1388:
1382:
1376:
1370:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1346:
1340:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1301:umlaut diacritic
1286:
1282:
1278:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1199:
1190:
1181:
1165:
1151:
1142:
1133:
1117:
1103:
1094:
1085:
1069:
1055:
1046:
1037:
1021:
1005:
996:
987:
971:
955:
946:
937:
921:
904:
898:
885:
879:
866:
860:
843:
821:
812:
803:
783:
776:
760:
751:
742:
726:
684:
681:
651:
645:
639:
633:
612:
587:
560:
553:
546:
539:
520:
512:
493:
485:
477:
456:
448:
440:
432:
396:
392:
390:in Old English:
385:
379:
361:
357:
353:
349:
344:
340:
329:
325:
314:
304:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
202:
198:
194:
162:
155:
133:
125:
121:
113:
64:
60:
8400:
8399:
8395:
8394:
8393:
8391:
8390:
8389:
8360:German language
8340:
8339:
8338:
8333:
8301:
8260:
8241:Germanic umlaut
8206:Holtzmann's law
8184:
8153:
8081:
8060:
8013:
7990:
7924:South Jutlandic
7909:Danish dialects
7875:
7756:
7699:
7670:
7652:East Franconian
7606:Viennese German
7519:
7500:Silesian German
7466:
7455:Central Hessian
7345:
7270:Namibian German
7259:
7250:
7228:Standard German
7222:
7208:New High German
7194:Old High German
7168:
7147:
7129:
7040:
7012:
6973:
6957:East Pomeranian
6947:Brandenburgisch
6934:East Low German
6928:
6855:Dutch Low Saxon
6847:West Low German
6841:
6799:
6765:Schiermonnikoog
6746:
6641:
6627:Wursten Frisian
6590:
6556:
6439:
6426:
6416:
6411:
6366:
6282:
6277:
6276:
6271:
6267:
6262:
6258:
6253:
6249:
6244:Wayback Machine
6230:
6226:
6219:
6205:
6201:
6170:
6166:
6161:Wayback Machine
6151:
6147:
6136:
6132:
6099:
6095:
6090:
6086:
6075:
6066:
6059:
6045:
6041:
6031:
6029:
6014:
6010:
6000:
5998:
5985:
5984:
5980:
5970:
5968:
5953:
5949:
5939:
5937:
5932:. Typojournal.
5926:
5922:
5915:
5903:
5899:
5895:
5883:
5879:
5870:
5868:
5861:docs.oracle.com
5855:
5854:
5850:
5840:
5838:
5819:
5815:
5806:
5802:
5705:had changed to
5627:
5623:
5615:
5611:
5606:
5602:
5596:
5592:
5587:
5583:
5568:
5564:
5530:
5526:
5521:
5483:
5476:
5473:
5043:
5032:
5026:
5023:
5008:
4992:
4981:
4975:
4969:
4903:
4898:, which became
4890:, which became
4827:
4804:
4756:
4679:). The example
4607:[ˈmɛnɐ]
4582:
4575:
4571:
4567:
4563:
4559:
4555:
4551:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4404:Old High German
4400:
4269:Old High German
4248:
4173:, from earlier
4046:but left alone
3911:
3852:) – e.g.
2723:
2699:
2650:
2645:
2637:Old High German
2595:
2541:brennen/brannte
2526:
2507:with umlaut of
2415:
2406:
2255:langīn/*langiþō
1857:
1775:forms, such as
1730:
1717:
1713:
1690:
1683:Old High German
1653:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1617:
1524:
1520:
1487:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1362:
1358:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1270:
1260:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
661:
498:Germanic umlaut
253:Old High German
233:
200:
196:
192:
177:vowel gradation
76:Germanic umlaut
72:
71:
70:
38:
35:
21:
12:
11:
5:
8398:
8388:
8387:
8382:
8377:
8372:
8367:
8362:
8357:
8352:
8335:
8334:
8332:
8331:
8324:
8314:
8311:
8310:
8307:
8306:
8303:
8302:
8300:
8299:
8294:
8289:
8284:
8279:
8274:
8268:
8266:
8262:
8261:
8259:
8258:
8253:
8248:
8243:
8238:
8233:
8228:
8223:
8218:
8213:
8208:
8203:
8198:
8192:
8190:
8186:
8185:
8183:
8182:
8177:
8172:
8167:
8165:Proto-Germanic
8161:
8159:
8155:
8154:
8152:
8151:
8144:
8137:
8129:
8128:
8127:
8126:
8121:
8116:
8106:
8101:
8095:
8093:
8083:
8082:
8070:
8069:
8066:
8065:
8062:
8061:
8059:
8058:
8051:
8044:
8040:Crimean Gothic
8029:
8027:
8019:
8018:
8015:
8014:
8012:
8011:
8010:
8009:
8004:
7995:
7992:
7991:
7989:
7988:
7987:
7986:
7976:
7975:
7974:
7967:
7960:
7955:
7950:
7945:
7944:
7943:
7938:
7928:
7927:
7926:
7916:
7914:Insular Danish
7911:
7901:
7900:
7899:
7897:Rinkebysvenska
7894:
7883:
7881:
7877:
7876:
7874:
7873:
7866:
7859:
7858:
7857:
7850:
7838:
7833:
7832:
7831:
7824:
7817:
7811:
7805:
7800:
7795:
7790:
7785:
7780:
7775:
7764:
7762:
7758:
7757:
7755:
7754:
7753:
7752:
7745:
7743:Old East Norse
7740:
7738:Old West Norse
7728:
7720:
7718:
7711:
7701:
7700:
7684:
7683:
7680:
7679:
7676:
7675:
7672:
7671:
7669:
7668:
7661:
7660:
7659:
7649:
7644:
7643:
7642:
7641:
7640:
7635:
7630:
7625:
7620:
7618:South Tyrolean
7610:
7609:
7608:
7598:
7588:
7587:
7586:
7581:
7580:
7579:
7569:
7568:
7567:
7560:High Alemannic
7557:
7556:
7555:
7550:
7533:
7531:
7525:
7524:
7521:
7520:
7518:
7517:
7512:
7507:
7502:
7497:
7492:
7487:
7482:
7476:
7474:
7468:
7467:
7465:
7464:
7459:
7458:
7457:
7447:
7446:
7445:
7444:
7443:
7438:
7428:
7418:
7417:
7416:
7415:
7414:
7413:
7412:
7402:
7397:
7387:
7386:
7385:
7380:
7364:
7362:
7353:
7351:Central German
7347:
7346:
7344:
7343:
7342:
7341:
7336:
7329:
7324:
7319:
7309:
7304:
7303:
7302:
7292:
7290:Barossa German
7287:
7282:
7277:
7272:
7266:
7264:
7252:
7251:
7249:
7248:
7243:
7238:
7232:
7230:
7224:
7223:
7221:
7220:
7219:
7218:
7204:
7197:
7189:
7187:
7180:
7174:
7173:
7170:
7169:
7167:
7166:
7161:
7155:
7153:
7149:
7148:
7146:
7145:
7139:
7137:
7131:
7130:
7128:
7127:
7110:
7105:
7100:
7094:
7093:
7088:
7083:
7078:
7073:
7072:
7071:
7069:French Flemish
7061:
7060:
7059:
7048:
7046:
7042:
7041:
7039:
7038:
7028:
7022:
7020:
7014:
7013:
7011:
7010:
7005:
7000:
6994:
6992:
6985:
6983:Low Franconian
6979:
6978:
6975:
6974:
6972:
6971:
6970:
6969:
6959:
6954:
6949:
6944:
6938:
6936:
6930:
6929:
6927:
6926:
6921:
6916:
6915:
6914:
6904:
6903:
6902:
6897:
6892:
6891:
6890:
6885:
6877:
6872:
6867:
6862:
6851:
6849:
6843:
6842:
6840:
6839:
6832:
6824:
6822:
6815:
6809:
6808:
6805:
6804:
6801:
6800:
6798:
6797:
6796:
6795:
6790:
6789:
6788:
6787:
6786:
6784:Westereendersk
6778:
6767:
6762:
6756:
6754:
6748:
6747:
6745:
6744:
6743:
6742:
6737:
6730:
6725:
6724:
6723:
6718:
6715:
6707:
6702:
6701:
6700:
6689:
6688:
6687:
6682:
6677:
6676:
6675:
6670:
6662:
6651:
6649:
6643:
6642:
6640:
6639:
6638:
6637:
6630:
6623:
6611:
6610:
6609:
6600:
6598:
6592:
6591:
6589:
6588:
6585:Middle Frisian
6581:
6573:
6571:
6564:
6558:
6557:
6555:
6554:
6553:
6552:
6545:
6533:
6532:
6531:
6524:
6517:
6505:
6504:
6503:
6502:
6501:
6491:Modern English
6487:
6484:Middle English
6480:
6473:
6462:
6460:
6451:
6441:
6440:
6428:
6427:
6421:
6418:
6417:
6410:
6409:
6402:
6395:
6387:
6381:
6380:
6379:
6378:
6364:
6351:
6338:
6325:
6315:
6305:
6298:
6281:
6278:
6275:
6274:
6265:
6256:
6247:
6224:
6217:
6199:
6164:
6145:
6130:
6117:10.2307/410084
6111:(3): 223–240.
6093:
6084:
6064:
6057:
6039:
6008:
5978:
5957:"Jazz in Town"
5947:
5920:
5877:
5848:
5813:
5800:
5621:
5609:
5600:
5590:
5581:
5562:
5549:10.2307/412645
5543:(1): 126–136.
5523:
5522:
5520:
5517:
5516:
5515:
5510:
5505:
5500:
5495:
5489:
5488:
5472:
5469:
5466:
5465:
5451:
5444:
5436:
5435:
5421:
5413:
5412:
5398:
5391:
5383:
5382:
5368:
5361:
5353:
5352:
5338:
5331:
5323:
5322:
5308:
5301:
5293:
5292:
5283:
5276:
5268:
5267:
5253:
5246:
5238:
5237:
5223:
5209:
5201:
5200:
5197:
5194:
5176:I-mutation is
5174:
5173:
5140:
5045:
5044:
4995:
4993:
4986:
4971:Main article:
4968:
4965:
4803:
4800:
4755:
4752:
4640:[maʊs]
4618:[fuːs]
4399:
4396:
4374:
4373:
4349:
4329:
4305:
4277:
4217:
4216:
4165:Proto-Germanic
4087:
3926:appears. Most
3910:
3907:
3906:
3905:
3843:
3791:
3772:"whole/hale,"
3739:
3687:
3630:
3565:
3467:
3466:
3441:"illuminate".
3428:
3415:
3402:
3394:
3393:
3354:
3341:
3328:
3320:
3319:
3276:
3263:
3255:
3254:
3211:
3198:
3190:
3189:
3175:
3168:
3155:
3147:
3146:
3126:
3119:
3106:
3098:
3097:
3083:
3070:
3063:
3055:
3054:
3040:
3027:
3020:
3012:
3011:
2991:
2978:
2970:
2969:
2956:, Old English
2948:
2935:
2927:
2926:
2896:
2889:
2881:
2880:
2866:
2859:
2851:
2850:
2836:
2829:
2821:
2820:
2782:
2769:
2762:
2754:
2753:
2750:
2747:
2743:
2742:
2739:
2736:
2698:
2695:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2594:
2591:
2525:
2516:
2414:
2411:
2405:
2402:
2399:
2398:
2385:
2372:
2358:
2349:
2336:
2320:
2319:
2306:
2293:
2280:
2271:
2258:
2242:
2241:
2228:
2215:
2202:
2193:
2180:
2164:
2163:
2143:
2123:
2103:
2090:
2071:
2048:
2047:
2034:
2021:
2007:
1998:
1985:
1969:
1968:
1955:
1942:
1929:
1920:
1907:
1891:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1865:
1856:
1853:
1833:", from Latin
1803:from ordinary
1729:
1726:
1652:
1649:
1616:
1613:
1513:, "Egypt", or
1507:respectively (
1259:
1256:
1230:and Icelandic
1202:
1201:
1192:
1183:
1174:
1167:
1158:
1154:
1153:
1144:
1135:
1126:
1119:
1110:
1106:
1105:
1096:
1087:
1078:
1071:
1062:
1058:
1057:
1048:
1039:
1030:
1023:
1014:
1008:
1007:
998:
989:
980:
973:
964:
958:
957:
948:
939:
930:
923:
914:
908:
907:
888:
869:
850:
833:
830:
824:
823:
814:
805:
796:
789:
769:
763:
762:
753:
744:
735:
728:
719:
713:
712:
709:
706:
703:
699:
698:
691:
688:
673:North Germanic
665:Proto-Germanic
660:
657:
654:
653:
647:
641:
635:
629:
627:Modern English
620:
614:
613:
606:
601:
592:Unrounding of
589:
588:
581:
574:
565:Unrounding of
562:
561:
554:
547:
540:
533:
531:heavy syllable
522:
521:
513:
505:
499:
495:
494:
486:
478:
470:
465:
461:Loss of final
458:
457:
449:
441:
433:
425:
423:Proto-Germanic
420:
416:
415:
412:
409:
406:
403:
400:
364:
363:
335:
232:
229:
185:sing/sang/sung
65:⟩, see
41:
40:
39:
36:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8397:
8386:
8383:
8381:
8378:
8376:
8373:
8371:
8368:
8366:
8363:
8361:
8358:
8356:
8353:
8351:
8348:
8347:
8345:
8329:
8325:
8323:
8319:
8316:
8315:
8312:
8298:
8295:
8293:
8290:
8288:
8285:
8283:
8280:
8278:
8275:
8273:
8272:Germanic verb
8270:
8269:
8267:
8263:
8257:
8254:
8252:
8249:
8247:
8244:
8242:
8239:
8237:
8234:
8232:
8229:
8227:
8224:
8222:
8219:
8217:
8214:
8212:
8211:Sievers's law
8209:
8207:
8204:
8202:
8199:
8197:
8194:
8193:
8191:
8187:
8181:
8178:
8176:
8173:
8171:
8168:
8166:
8163:
8162:
8160:
8158:Reconstructed
8156:
8150:
8149:
8145:
8143:
8142:
8138:
8136:
8135:
8131:
8130:
8125:
8122:
8120:
8117:
8115:
8112:
8111:
8110:
8107:
8105:
8102:
8100:
8097:
8096:
8094:
8092:
8088:
8084:
8080:
8075:
8071:
8057:
8056:
8052:
8050:
8049:
8045:
8042:
8041:
8036:
8035:
8031:
8030:
8028:
8026:
8025:
8020:
8008:
8005:
8003:
8000:
7999:
7997:
7996:
7993:
7985:
7982:
7981:
7980:
7977:
7973:
7972:
7971:Middle Danish
7968:
7966:
7965:
7961:
7959:
7956:
7954:
7951:
7949:
7946:
7942:
7939:
7937:
7934:
7933:
7932:
7929:
7925:
7922:
7921:
7920:
7917:
7915:
7912:
7910:
7907:
7906:
7905:
7902:
7898:
7895:
7893:
7890:
7889:
7888:
7885:
7884:
7882:
7878:
7872:
7871:
7867:
7865:
7864:
7860:
7856:
7855:
7851:
7849:
7848:
7847:Old Icelandic
7844:
7843:
7842:
7839:
7837:
7834:
7830:
7829:
7825:
7823:
7822:
7821:Old Norwegian
7818:
7815:
7812:
7809:
7806:
7804:
7801:
7799:
7796:
7794:
7791:
7789:
7786:
7784:
7781:
7779:
7776:
7774:
7771:
7770:
7769:
7766:
7765:
7763:
7759:
7751:
7750:
7746:
7744:
7741:
7739:
7736:
7735:
7734:
7733:
7729:
7727:
7726:
7722:
7721:
7719:
7715:
7712:
7710:
7706:
7702:
7698:
7694:
7689:
7685:
7667:
7666:
7662:
7658:
7655:
7654:
7653:
7650:
7648:
7645:
7639:
7638:Gottscheerish
7636:
7634:
7631:
7629:
7626:
7624:
7621:
7619:
7616:
7615:
7614:
7611:
7607:
7604:
7603:
7602:
7599:
7597:
7594:
7593:
7592:
7589:
7585:
7582:
7578:
7577:Walser German
7575:
7574:
7573:
7570:
7566:
7563:
7562:
7561:
7558:
7554:
7551:
7549:
7546:
7545:
7544:
7543:Low Alemannic
7541:
7540:
7538:
7535:
7534:
7532:
7530:
7526:
7516:
7513:
7511:
7508:
7506:
7505:High Prussian
7503:
7501:
7498:
7496:
7493:
7491:
7490:Erzgebirgisch
7488:
7486:
7483:
7481:
7478:
7477:
7475:
7473:
7469:
7463:
7460:
7456:
7453:
7452:
7451:
7448:
7442:
7439:
7437:
7434:
7433:
7432:
7429:
7427:
7424:
7423:
7422:
7419:
7411:
7408:
7407:
7406:
7403:
7401:
7398:
7396:
7395:Luxembourgish
7393:
7392:
7391:
7388:
7384:
7381:
7379:
7376:
7375:
7374:
7371:
7370:
7369:
7366:
7365:
7363:
7361:
7357:
7354:
7352:
7348:
7340:
7337:
7335:
7334:
7333:Klezmer-loshn
7330:
7328:
7327:Scots Yiddish
7325:
7323:
7320:
7318:
7315:
7314:
7313:
7310:
7308:
7305:
7301:
7298:
7297:
7296:
7293:
7291:
7288:
7286:
7283:
7281:
7278:
7276:
7273:
7271:
7268:
7267:
7265:
7263:
7258:
7253:
7247:
7244:
7242:
7239:
7237:
7234:
7233:
7231:
7229:
7225:
7217:
7216:
7212:
7211:
7210:
7209:
7205:
7203:
7202:
7198:
7196:
7195:
7191:
7190:
7188:
7184:
7181:
7179:
7175:
7165:
7164:Meuse-Rhenish
7162:
7160:
7157:
7156:
7154:
7150:
7144:
7141:
7140:
7138:
7136:
7132:
7126:
7122:
7118:
7114:
7111:
7109:
7106:
7104:
7101:
7099:
7096:
7095:
7092:
7091:Kleverlandish
7089:
7087:
7084:
7082:
7079:
7077:
7074:
7070:
7067:
7066:
7065:
7062:
7058:
7055:
7054:
7053:
7052:Central Dutch
7050:
7049:
7047:
7043:
7036:
7032:
7029:
7027:
7024:
7023:
7021:
7019:
7015:
7009:
7006:
7004:
7001:
6999:
6996:
6995:
6993:
6989:
6986:
6984:
6980:
6968:
6965:
6964:
6963:
6960:
6958:
6955:
6953:
6950:
6948:
6945:
6943:
6940:
6939:
6937:
6935:
6931:
6925:
6922:
6920:
6917:
6913:
6910:
6909:
6908:
6905:
6901:
6898:
6896:
6893:
6889:
6886:
6884:
6881:
6880:
6878:
6876:
6873:
6871:
6868:
6866:
6863:
6861:
6860:Stellingwarfs
6858:
6857:
6856:
6853:
6852:
6850:
6848:
6844:
6838:
6837:
6833:
6831:
6830:
6826:
6825:
6823:
6819:
6816:
6814:
6810:
6794:
6791:
6785:
6782:
6781:
6780:Wood Frisian
6779:
6776:
6775:
6774:
6771:
6770:
6768:
6766:
6763:
6761:
6758:
6757:
6755:
6753:
6749:
6741:
6738:
6736:
6735:
6731:
6729:
6726:
6722:
6719:
6716:
6713:
6712:
6711:
6708:
6706:
6703:
6698:
6697:
6696:
6693:
6692:
6690:
6686:
6683:
6681:
6678:
6674:
6671:
6669:
6666:
6665:
6663:
6661:
6660:
6656:
6655:
6653:
6652:
6650:
6648:
6647:North Frisian
6644:
6636:
6635:
6631:
6629:
6628:
6624:
6622:
6621:
6617:
6616:
6615:
6612:
6608:
6605:
6604:
6602:
6601:
6599:
6597:
6593:
6587:
6586:
6582:
6580:
6579:
6575:
6574:
6572:
6568:
6565:
6563:
6559:
6551:
6550:
6546:
6544:
6543:
6539:
6538:
6537:
6534:
6530:
6529:
6525:
6523:
6522:
6518:
6516:
6515:
6511:
6510:
6509:
6506:
6500:
6499:
6495:
6494:
6493:
6492:
6488:
6486:
6485:
6481:
6479:
6478:
6474:
6472:
6469:
6468:
6467:
6464:
6463:
6461:
6459:
6455:
6452:
6450:
6449:Anglo-Frisian
6446:
6442:
6438:
6433:
6429:
6425:
6419:
6415:
6408:
6403:
6401:
6396:
6394:
6389:
6388:
6385:
6375:
6370:
6369:
6367:
6361:
6357:
6352:
6349:
6346:
6342:
6339:
6336:
6333:
6329:
6326:
6323:
6319:
6316:
6313:
6309:
6306:
6303:
6299:
6296:
6295:0-415-22209-5
6292:
6288:
6284:
6283:
6269:
6260:
6251:
6245:
6241:
6238:
6234:
6228:
6220:
6218:3-631-33479-6
6214:
6210:
6203:
6195:
6191:
6187:
6183:
6179:
6175:
6168:
6162:
6158:
6155:
6149:
6141:
6134:
6126:
6122:
6118:
6114:
6110:
6106:
6105:
6097:
6088:
6080:
6073:
6071:
6069:
6060:
6054:
6050:
6043:
6027:
6023:
6019:
6012:
5996:
5992:
5988:
5982:
5966:
5962:
5958:
5951:
5935:
5931:
5924:
5913:
5909:
5892:
5887:
5881:
5866:
5862:
5858:
5852:
5836:
5832:
5829:(in German).
5828:
5824:
5817:
5810:
5804:
5797:
5792:
5786:
5780:
5773:
5767:
5761:
5756:
5751:
5744:
5740:, from Latin
5738:
5731:
5724:
5717:
5710:
5703:
5696:
5689:
5682:
5675:
5668:
5661:
5654:
5647:
5640:
5633:
5625:
5618:
5613:
5604:
5594:
5585:
5577:
5573:
5566:
5558:
5554:
5550:
5546:
5542:
5538:
5534:
5528:
5524:
5514:
5511:
5509:
5506:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5496:
5494:
5491:
5490:
5486:
5480:
5475:
5462:
5456:
5452:
5449:
5445:
5442:
5438:
5437:
5432:
5426:
5422:
5419:
5415:
5414:
5409:
5403:
5399:
5396:
5389:
5385:
5384:
5381:(to lift up)
5379:
5373:
5369:
5366:
5362:
5359:
5355:
5354:
5349:
5343:
5339:
5336:
5332:
5329:
5325:
5324:
5319:
5313:
5309:
5306:
5302:
5299:
5295:
5294:
5290:
5289:
5284:
5281:
5277:
5274:
5270:
5269:
5264:
5258:
5254:
5251:
5247:
5244:
5240:
5239:
5234:
5228:
5224:
5220:
5214:
5210:
5207:
5203:
5202:
5198:
5195:
5192:
5191:
5185:
5183:
5179:
5170:
5165:
5161:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5137:
5131:
5124:
5118:
5111:
5105:
5098:
5092:
5085:
5078:
5072:
5065:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5051:
5050:
5041:
5038:
5030:
5020:
5016:
5012:
5006:
5005:
5001:
4996:This section
4994:
4990:
4985:
4984:
4980:
4974:
4964:
4961:
4955:
4946:
4940:
4936:
4932:
4928:
4924:
4919:
4916:
4910:
4881:
4875:
4866:
4858:
4851:
4848:
4842:
4799:
4796:
4790:
4784:
4778:
4761:
4751:
4748:
4747:[fʊʃ]
4743:
4737:
4731:
4725:
4719:
4713:
4707:
4701:
4695:
4689:
4683:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4661:
4655:
4652:
4647:
4641:
4636:
4630:
4625:
4619:
4614:
4608:
4603:
4597:
4596:[man]
4592:
4549:
4544:
4541:
4535:
4529:
4523:
4516:
4514:
4506:
4490:
4489:Ottar Grønvik
4484:
4482:
4451:
4405:
4395:
4392:
4370:
4366:
4361:
4354:
4350:
4347:
4340:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4322:
4317:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4296:
4289:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4270:
4265:
4258:
4254:
4253:
4252:
4230:
4213:
4207:
4200:
4185:
4178:
4171:
4166:
4161:
4108:
4088:
4084:
4078:
4072:
4065:
4058:
4051:
4044:
4038:
4031:
4024:
4017:
4011:
4004:
3998:
3991:
3985:
3978:
3971:
3964:
3958:
3937:
3936:a-restoration
3913:
3912:
3903:
3898:
3892:
3886:
3882:"a falling,"
3880:
3874:
3868:
3862:
3856:
3850:
3844:
3840:
3834:
3828:
3822:
3816:
3810:
3804:
3797:
3792:
3788:
3782:
3776:
3770:
3764:
3758:
3752:
3745:
3740:
3736:
3730:
3724:
3718:
3712:
3705:
3699:
3693:
3688:
3684:
3678:
3672:
3666:
3659:
3652:
3645:
3639:
3636:form of some
3635:
3631:
3627:
3621:
3615:
3609:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3586:
3580:
3576:
3573:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3556:
3550:
3544:
3538:
3532:
3526:
3520:
3514:
3508:
3507:
3506:
3483:
3478:
3474:
3463:
3457:
3451:
3445:
3439:
3433:
3429:
3426:
3420:
3413:
3407:
3403:
3400:
3396:
3395:
3390:
3384:
3378:
3372:
3366:
3360:
3355:
3352:
3346:
3339:
3333:
3329:
3326:
3322:
3321:
3316:
3310:
3304:
3297:
3290:
3283:
3277:
3274:
3268:
3261:
3257:
3256:
3251:
3245:
3239:
3232:
3225:
3218:
3212:
3209:
3203:
3196:
3192:
3191:
3186:
3180:
3176:
3173:
3166:
3160:
3156:
3153:
3149:
3148:
3143:
3137:
3131:
3127:
3124:
3117:
3111:
3107:
3104:
3100:
3099:
3094:
3088:
3084:
3081:
3075:
3071:
3068:
3061:
3057:
3056:
3051:
3045:
3041:
3038:
3032:
3028:
3025:
3018:
3014:
3013:
3008:
3002:
2996:
2992:
2989:
2983:
2976:
2972:
2971:
2966:
2960:
2954:
2949:
2946:
2940:
2933:
2929:
2928:
2924:
2917:
2910:
2903:
2897:
2894:
2887:
2883:
2882:
2877:
2871:
2867:
2864:
2857:
2853:
2852:
2847:
2841:
2837:
2834:
2827:
2823:
2822:
2817:
2811:
2805:
2799:
2793:
2787:
2783:
2780:
2774:
2770:
2767:
2760:
2756:
2755:
2751:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2733:
2727:
2703:
2694:
2691:
2684:
2677:
2671:
2665:
2658:
2640:
2638:
2634:
2629:
2623:
2617:
2616:fechten/focht
2611:
2605:
2600:
2590:
2579:
2566:
2562:
2557:
2553:
2552:Luxembourgish
2548:
2547:kennen/kannte
2542:
2537:
2532:
2522:
2515:
2512:
2505:
2498:
2491:
2484:
2477:
2470:
2463:
2455:
2449:
2443:
2437:
2431:
2425:
2420:
2410:
2396:
2390:
2386:
2383:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2363:
2359:
2357:
2353:
2350:
2347:
2341:
2337:
2334:
2327:
2322:
2321:
2317:
2311:
2307:
2304:
2298:
2294:
2291:
2285:
2281:
2279:
2275:
2272:
2269:
2263:
2259:
2256:
2249:
2244:
2243:
2239:
2233:
2229:
2226:
2220:
2216:
2213:
2207:
2203:
2201:
2197:
2194:
2191:
2185:
2181:
2178:
2171:
2166:
2165:
2160:
2154:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2134:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2114:
2108:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2082:
2076:
2072:
2069:
2062:
2055:
2050:
2049:
2045:
2039:
2035:
2032:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2012:
2008:
2006:
2002:
1999:
1996:
1990:
1986:
1983:
1976:
1971:
1970:
1966:
1960:
1956:
1953:
1947:
1943:
1940:
1934:
1930:
1928:
1924:
1921:
1918:
1912:
1908:
1905:
1898:
1893:
1892:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1864:
1861:
1860:
1852:
1849:
1843:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1749:
1742:
1736:
1725:
1721:
1711:
1706:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1688:
1684:
1675:
1669:
1663:
1657:
1648:
1622:
1612:
1609:
1603:
1597:
1591:
1585:
1579:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1537:
1531:
1517:
1511:
1505:
1499:
1493:
1484:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1451:
1446:
1443:from English
1441:
1435:
1433:
1428:
1422:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1399:
1393:
1389:("parents").
1387:
1381:
1375:
1369:
1355:
1348:
1345:
1339:
1302:
1293:
1274:
1269:
1265:
1255:
1198:
1193:
1189:
1184:
1180:
1176:⟨eu⟩, /ɔʏ̯/ (
1175:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1159:
1156:
1155:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1136:
1132:
1128:⟨ei⟩, /aɪ̯/ (
1127:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1111:
1108:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1093:
1088:
1084:
1079:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1060:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1045:
1040:
1036:
1031:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1013:
1010:
1009:
1004:
999:
995:
990:
986:
981:
978:
974:
970:
965:
963:
960:
959:
954:
949:
945:
940:
936:
931:
928:
924:
920:
915:
913:
910:
909:
906:
903:
897:
889:
887:
884:
878:
870:
868:
865:
859:
851:
849:
847:
842:
834:
831:
829:
826:
825:
820:
815:
811:
806:
802:
797:
794:
790:
787:
782:
775:
770:
768:
765:
764:
759:
754:
750:
745:
741:
736:
733:
729:
725:
720:
718:
715:
714:
710:
707:
704:
701:
700:
696:
690:example word
685:
680:
678:
674:
670:
669:West Germanic
666:
648:
642:
636:
630:
628:
624:
621:
619:
616:
615:
611:
607:
605:
602:
599:
595:
591:
590:
586:
579:
575:
572:
568:
564:
563:
559:
555:
552:
545:
538:
532:
528:
524:
523:
519:
514:
511:
506:
504:
497:
496:
492:
487:
484:
476:
471:
469:
468:West Germanic
466:
464:
460:
459:
455:
450:
447:
442:
439:
434:
431:
424:
421:
419:Original form
418:
417:
413:
410:
407:
404:
401:
398:
397:
391:
389:
386:became a new
384:
378:
373:
369:
336:
333:
324:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
297:West Germanic
262:
258:
257:
256:
254:
250:
246:
237:
228:
226:
225:vowel harmony
222:
218:
214:
210:
207:/ (formerly /
206:
188:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
161:
154:
148:
144:
140:
135:
131:
117:
111:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
68:
56:
52:
50:
46:
34:
30:
26:
19:
8355:Vowel shifts
8317:
8240:
8201:Verner's law
8146:
8141:Gotho-Nordic
8139:
8132:
8053:
8046:
8038:
8032:
8022:
8007:Fårö Gutnish
7969:
7962:
7868:
7861:
7852:
7845:
7826:
7819:
7747:
7742:
7737:
7730:
7723:
7663:
7565:Swiss German
7529:Upper German
7462:Amana German
7436:Volga German
7405:Hunsrückisch
7331:
7285:Unserdeutsch
7280:Berlinerisch
7213:
7206:
7199:
7192:
7152:Cover groups
7108:Mohawk Dutch
7103:Jersey Dutch
7081:East Flemish
7064:West Flemish
7008:Middle Dutch
6962:Low Prussian
6834:
6827:
6793:Terschelling
6777:Clay Frisian
6752:West Frisian
6740:Wiedingharde
6732:
6720:
6680:Heligolandic
6657:
6632:
6625:
6618:
6613:
6596:East Frisian
6583:
6576:
6549:Middle Scots
6547:
6540:
6526:
6519:
6512:
6507:
6496:
6489:
6482:
6475:
6373:
6355:
6344:
6331:
6321:
6311:
6301:
6286:
6280:Bibliography
6268:
6259:
6250:
6232:
6227:
6208:
6202:
6177:
6173:
6167:
6148:
6139:
6133:
6108:
6102:
6096:
6087:
6078:
6048:
6042:
6030:. Retrieved
6022:Fonts in Use
6021:
6011:
5999:. Retrieved
5990:
5981:
5969:. Retrieved
5961:Fonts in Use
5960:
5950:
5938:. Retrieved
5923:
5880:
5869:. Retrieved
5860:
5851:
5839:. Retrieved
5826:
5816:
5808:
5803:
5795:
5754:
5624:
5612:
5603:
5593:
5584:
5575:
5571:
5565:
5540:
5536:
5527:
5315:(to come) /
5266:(to loosen)
5181:
5177:
5175:
5159:
5149:
5048:
5033:
5024:
5009:Please help
4997:
4930:
4920:
4864:
4852:
4805:
4757:
4685:"guest" vs.
4676:
4672:
4668:
4664:
4656:
4643:"mouse" vs.
4545:
4540:Skandäl-chen
4525:'choirs' or
4517:
4485:
4452:
4401:
4375:
4342:< Pre-OE
4228:
4218:
4109:of original
3858:"a coming,"
3766:"strength;"
3726:"to teach;"
3611:"(I) help,"
3579:strong verbs
3470:
3362:"to fight",
3047:"to mourn",
2709:
2651:
2596:
2527:
2416:
2407:
2371:(no umlaut)
2355:
2351:
2277:
2273:
2199:
2195:
2162:(irregular)
2142:(irregular)
2122:(no umlaut)
2100:
2096:
2092:
2020:(no umlaut)
2004:
2000:
1926:
1922:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1805:strong verbs
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1734:
1731:
1722:
1707:
1680:
1677:'beautiful'.
1618:
1615:Substitution
1550:
1546:
1527:are written
1453:from French
1444:
1436:
1361:rather than
1349:
1298:
1205:
1170:
1146:⟨ei⟩, /ɛɪ/ (
1122:
1098:⟨ey⟩, /ɛɪ/ (
1074:
1026:
976:
926:
891:
872:
853:
845:
836:
792:
731:
694:
662:
623:Early Modern
597:
593:
570:
566:
526:
462:
365:
331:
316:
242:
221:assimilation
189:
184:
176:
146:
136:
83:
79:
75:
73:
61:and ⟨
43:
8216:Kluge's law
8196:Grimm's law
7979:Dalecarlian
7958:Perkerdansk
7931:East Danish
7749:Old Gutnish
7725:Proto-Norse
7665:Langobardic
7657:Vogtlandian
7485:Upper Saxon
7339:Lachoudisch
7300:Lotegorisch
7178:High German
6924:Westphalian
6919:Eastphalian
6883:Achterhooks
6760:Hindeloopen
6695:Bökingharde
6664:Föhr–Amrum
6578:Old Frisian
6542:Early Scots
6477:Old English
6180:(1): 1–13.
5827:Welt Online
5428:(to lie) /
5345:(to row) /
5188:i-mutation
5055:Proto-Norse
5027:August 2010
4850:("ships").
4844:("ship") –
4621:"foot" vs.
4013:instead of
3993:, but left
3960:"tale" vs.
3888:"to fall;"
3876:"to bear;"
3864:"to come;"
3732:"to fall,"
3634:comparative
3605:"to help,"
3477:Old English
3386:"to burn",
2879:"to cover"
2849:"to teach"
2789:"to bake",
2746:West Saxon
2730:i-mutation
2604:singen/sang
2433:. The verb
2087:am ältesten
1710:blackletter
1569:consonants
1559:front vowel
1542:Psychologie
1477:, or Greek
1025:⟨i⟩, /aɪ/ (
950:⟨æ⟩, /aɪ/ (
816:⟨æ⟩, /aɪ/ (
727:('people')
578:Old English
503:Old English
307:Old English
259:Whenever a
245:Old English
231:Description
147:foot ~ feet
104:front vowel
96:front vowel
90:in which a
8385:Sound laws
8344:Categories
8048:Burgundian
7964:Old Danish
7953:Gøtudanskt
7936:Bornholmsk
7798:Vestlandsk
7778:Kebabnorsk
7515:Halcnovian
7480:Thuringian
7143:Limburgish
7113:Stadsfries
7086:Brabantian
6813:Low German
6659:Eiderstedt
6514:Fingallian
6058:0879682132
5871:2022-05-22
5617:Ringe 2006
5578:: 207–213.
5519:References
5498:I-mutation
5464:(to sink)
5288:Áss / Æsir
5260:(loose) /
5236:(fairest)
4977:See also:
4939:Limburgish
4884:/ˈvulə(n)/
4715:"arm" vs.
4697:"day" vs.
4599:"man" vs.
4528:europäisch
4505:epenthesis
4442:appear as
4291:< PGmc
4107:a-mutation
3894:"a bond,"
3778:"health;"
3763:strengþ(u)
3760:"strong,"
3738:"to fell."
3661:< PGmc
3647:< PGmc
3638:adjectives
3597:infinitive
3575:indicative
3564:"friends."
3558:"friend,"
3482:ǣ, ē, i, ī
2813:"person",
2738:i-mutated
2561:Limburgish
2531:Rückumlaut
2521:Rückumlaut
1773:diminutive
1567:labialized
1523:and Greek
1262:See also:
1194:⟨ý⟩, /i/ (
1185:⟨y⟩, /y/ (
1166:('steer')
1137:⟨e⟩, /e/ (
1089:⟨ö⟩, /ø/ (
1080:⟨ö⟩, /ø/ (
1050:⟨ý⟩, /i/ (
1041:⟨ö⟩, /ø/ (
1000:⟨y⟩, /ɪ/ (
991:⟨y⟩, /y/ (
982:⟨ü⟩, /y/ (
975:⟨i⟩, /ɪ/ (
941:⟨ö⟩, /ø/ (
932:⟨ü⟩, /y/ (
807:⟨ä⟩, /ɛ/ (
798:⟨ä⟩, /ɛ/ (
755:⟨e⟩, /ɛ/ (
746:⟨ä⟩, /ɛ/ (
737:⟨ä⟩, /ɛ/ (
730:⟨e⟩, /ɛ/ (
711:Icelandic
368:allophonic
261:back vowel
169:u-mutation
92:back vowel
84:i-mutation
33:u-mutation
29:i-mutation
23:See also:
8328:varieties
8320:indicate
8134:Northwest
8079:Philology
7984:Elfdalian
7919:Jutlandic
7841:Icelandic
7816:(written)
7810:(written)
7788:Trøndersk
7768:Norwegian
7732:Old Norse
7553:Coloniero
7537:Alemannic
7510:Wymysorys
7378:Colognian
7373:Ripuarian
7295:Rotwelsch
7125:Midslands
7076:Zeelandic
7057:Hollandic
7031:Afrikaans
7003:Old Dutch
6829:Old Saxon
6728:Karrharde
6710:Goesharde
6691:Mainland
6424:philology
6194:162809692
5458:(sank) /
5405:(foul) /
5230:(fair) /
5193:Original
5164:desinence
4998:does not
4949:/vylə(n)/
4902:(spelled
4861:/ˈfyːlən/
4826:(spelled
4770:is short
4760:Old Saxon
4369:áuhumists
4360:uhumistaz
4321:Old Saxon
4316:ǣrundijaz
4273:hagazussa
4264:hagatusjō
3680:"older,"
3654:, Pre-OE
3552:"books;"
3534:"mouse,"
3435:"light",
3090:"mouse",
2819:"people"
2735:Original
2619:(ind.) →
2607:(ind.) →
2177:fullijaną
1904:fallijaną
1703:Staedtler
1421:aufwänden
1417:(but not
1414:aufwändig
1404:aufwendig
1398:aufwenden
1163:steurjaną
1118:('heal')
1115:hailijaną
1070:('hear')
1022:('lice')
972:('fill')
969:fullijaną
922:('feet')
890:⟨e⟩, /ɛ/
871:⟨ö⟩, /ø/
852:⟨ö⟩, /ø/
835:⟨e⟩, /ɛ/
652:("feet")
634:("mouse")
356:*/bæddj-/
249:Old Norse
8055:Vandalic
7998:Gutnish
7803:Vikværsk
7783:Sognamål
7773:Bergensk
7623:Cimbrian
7591:Bavarian
7548:Alsatian
7495:Lusatian
7431:Palatine
7121:Amelands
6998:Frankish
6888:Sallaans
6870:Gronings
6721:Southern
6714:Northern
6705:Halligen
6654:Insular
6471:dialects
6240:Archived
6157:Archived
6104:Language
6026:Archived
5995:Archived
5965:Archived
5934:Archived
5886:digraphs
5865:Archived
5841:21 April
5835:Archived
5779:kuningaz
5537:Language
5471:See also
5411:(filth)
5321:(comes)
5199:Example
5196:Mutated
4874:fōlijaną
4838:, as in
4822:to long
4730:Fisch(e)
4654:"mice."
4632:"feet,"
4581:becomes
4537:, as in
3842:"vixen."
3790:"filth."
3784:"foul,"
3720:"lore,"
3701:"food,"
3640:(Pre-OE
3572:singular
3546:"book,"
3528:"feet;"
3522:"foot,"
3010:"feet".
2998:"foot",
2752:Kentish
2749:Anglian
2639:period.
2633:optative
2068:alþistaz
1863:Germanic
1761:brethren
1699:Goebbels
1665:becomes
1608:schepfen
1602:schöpfen
1555:rounding
1516:Ökonomie
1445:kangaroo
1067:hauzjaną
708:Swedish
702:English
697:-umlaut
646:("foot")
640:("mice")
580:dialects
529:after a
525:Loss of
411:Singular
405:Singular
402:Language
372:phonemic
215:/, and /
183:such as
100:fronting
80:i-umlaut
59:/ /
55:Help:IPA
8318:Italics
7941:Scanian
7887:Swedish
7836:Faroese
7814:Nynorsk
7793:Valdris
7628:Mòcheno
7584:Swabian
7450:Hessian
7410:Hunsrik
7322:Western
7317:Eastern
7312:Yiddish
7262:creoles
7159:Bergish
6875:Drèents
6865:Tweants
6717:Central
6699:Mooring
6562:Frisian
6521:Kildare
6466:English
6032:15 July
6001:15 July
5971:15 July
5940:15 July
5807:Duden,
5775:(e.g.,
5677:before
5642:before
5434:(lies)
5375:(up) /
5351:(rows)
5233:fegrstr
5019:removed
5004:sources
4954:menneke
4927:Holland
4923:Brabant
4847:schepen
4688:Gäst(e)
4610:"men,"
4562:become
4346:ofustan
4339:øfestan
4301:eimurja
4295:aimurjǭ
4257:hægtess
4243:. This
4206:dohtriz
4199:duhtriz
4187:, with
4184:duhtriz
3997:tælljan
3977:tælljan
3885:feallan
3836:"fox,"
3812:"god,"
3787:fȳlþ(u)
3775:hǣlþ(u)
3735:fiellan
3729:feallan
3683:ieldest
3674:"old,"
3569:present
3447:became
3438:līehtan
3383:beornan
3374:became
3359:fiohtan
3312:became
3292:before
3247:became
3227:before
3133:"old",
3096:"mice"
2912:before
2631:in the
2483:fą̄hidi
2476:fą̄haną
1927:to fell
1923:to fall
1897:fallaną
1888:Faroese
1883:Swedish
1873:English
1836:Colonia
1831:Cologne
1815:versus
1763:), and
1599:), and
1572:w/f/sch
1510:Ägypten
1466:Big Mäc
1461:Big Mac
1440:Känguru
1424:). For
1392:Aufwand
1179:steuern
1157:eu, iu
705:German
414:Plural
399:Process
388:phoneme
350:became
116:raising
102:) or a
47:in the
8034:Gothic
7904:Danish
7808:Bokmål
7307:Yenish
7117:Bildts
6900:Veluws
6895:Urkers
6734:Strand
6458:Anglic
6362:
6293:
6237:Online
6215:
6192:
6154:Online
6125:410084
6123:
6055:
5991:Flickr
5891:bluome
5557:412645
5555:
5461:søkkva
5104:skunja
5080:, but
5071:gastiʀ
4915:steden
4894:, and
4880:voelen
4868:/fiːl/
4857:fühlen
4795:slehis
4789:slahan
4736:füsche
4718:Ärm(e)
4709:) and
4700:Täg(e)
4602:Männer
4570:, and
4558:, and
4499:, and
4365:Gothic
4333:efstan
4325:ārundi
4309:ǣrende
4288:āmurja
4281:ǣmerge
4212:dehter
4177:duhter
4170:dohter
4160:dohtor
4003:tellan
3963:tellan
3902:ablaut
3897:bindan
3839:fyxenn
3827:Göttin
3815:gydenn
3799:(PGmc
3757:strang
3747:(PGmc
3711:fōdjan
3677:ieldra
3665:-istaz
3626:helpaþ
3614:hilpst
3602:helpan
3561:frīend
3555:frēond
3495:/i(ː)/
3487:/i(ː)/
3456:sēoþan
3389:biernþ
3185:nīehst
3136:ieldra
3044:murnan
2950:Latin
2876:þeccan
2720:/e(ː)/
2716:/ø(ː)/
2712:/y(ː)/
2683:gastiz
2622:föchte
2504:gibidi
2497:gebaną
2493:, but
2424:fangen
2368:luizen
2310:langur
2290:lengte
2278:length
2248:langaz
2232:fullur
2212:vullen
2190:füllen
2170:fullaz
2159:elstur
2127:gammal
2101:eldest
2061:alþizô
2031:fötter
2017:voeten
1939:vellen
1933:vallen
1917:fällen
1911:fallen
1868:German
1848:caseus
1785:kernel
1777:kitten
1695:Goethe
1674:schoͤn
1662:schoen
1643:, and
1563:labial
1456:bureau
1447:, and
1430:, see
1427:denken
1386:Eltern
1354:fertig
1344:Mütter
1338:Mutter
1242:, and
1226:, and
1214:, and
1131:heilen
985:füllen
944:fötter
883:nötter
877:hnotiz
774:gansiz
740:Männer
724:manniz
650:/fiːt/
638:/maɪs/
632:/maʊs/
596:(>
569:(>
446:fō(t)s
408:Plural
362:'bed'.
360:/bedd/
291:, and
199:, and
156:, pl.
143:Gothic
88:umlaut
63:
31:, and
8148:South
8099:North
7709:North
7693:North
7035:Kaaps
7026:Dutch
6673:Amrum
6614:Weser
6536:Scots
6190:S2CID
6121:JSTOR
5908:Czech
5791:König
5788:>
5785:Künig
5782:>
5777:*
5748:*
5743:oleum
5735:*
5728:*
5721:*
5714:*
5707:*
5700:*
5693:*
5686:*
5679:*
5672:*
5665:*
5658:*
5651:*
5644:*
5637:*
5630:*
5598:113).
5553:JSTOR
5425:ljúga
5263:leysa
5257:lauss
5133:>
5130:komiʀ
5128:*
5120:>
5115:*
5107:>
5102:*
5089:*
5087:>
5084:staði
5082:*
5077:gestr
5074:>
5069:*
5059:heavy
4945:vulen
4872:*
4841:schip
4783:gesti
4742:Fusch
4673:mouse
4646:Mäuse
4534:-chen
4522:Chöre
4363:(cf.
4358:*
4353:ȳmest
4344:*
4319:(cf.
4314:*
4293:*
4286:*
4267:(cf.
4262:*
4204:*
4197:*
4182:*
4175:*
4168:*
4077:bacan
4071:baciþ
4069:*
4064:bæciþ
4062:*
4055:*
4050:bæciþ
4048:*
4043:bacan
4037:bæcan
4035:*
4030:bæciþ
4028:*
4023:bæcan
4021:*
4008:*
3995:*
3982:*
3975:*
3968:*
3909:Notes
3879:fiell
3873:beran
3861:cuman
3847:*
3803:-injō
3801:*
3749:*
3723:lǣran
3709:*
3704:fēdan
3663:*
3656:*
3649:*
3642:*
3620:hilpþ
3608:helpe
3590:*
3583:*
3511:*
3462:sīeþþ
3432:līoht
3409:>
3365:fieht
3357:*
3335:>
3301:*
3294:*
3287:*
3285:>
3280:*
3270:>
3236:*
3229:*
3222:*
3220:>
3215:*
3205:>
3162:>
3142:eldra
3113:>
3077:>
3050:myrnþ
3034:>
3004:>
2985:>
2962:>
2953:olium
2942:>
2921:*
2914:*
2907:*
2905:>
2900:*
2846:lǣran
2801:>
2786:bacan
2776:>
2688:*
2681:*
2670:ġiest
2662:*
2655:*
2610:sänge
2578:above
2509:*
2502:*
2495:*
2488:*
2481:*
2474:*
2467:*
2460:*
2436:geben
2352:louse
2346:Läuse
2333:lūsiz
2331:*
2324:*
2316:longd
2303:längd
2268:Länge
2253:*
2246:*
2238:fylla
2225:fylla
2175:*
2168:*
2153:eldri
2147:gamal
2139:äldst
2133:äldre
2119:oudst
2113:ouder
2097:elder
2081:älter
2066:*
2059:*
2054:aldaz
2052:*
2044:føtur
2038:fótur
1982:fōtiz
1980:*
1973:*
1965:fella
1959:falla
1952:fälla
1946:falla
1902:*
1895:*
1878:Dutch
1839:, or
1795:from
1793:vixen
1787:from
1779:from
1746:*
1739:*
1668:schön
1596:zwelf
1590:zwölf
1432:below
1419:*
1380:älter
1368:Fahrt
1197:stýra
1188:styra
1171:steer
1161:*
1149:heila
1113:*
1101:heyra
1083:hören
1065:*
1035:Läuse
1019:lūsiz
1017:*
1003:fylla
994:fylla
967:*
953:fætur
919:fōtiz
917:*
902:kemur
899:>
896:komiz
894:*
880:>
875:*
861:>
856:*
846:eaves
844:>
841:obisu
839:*
801:Gänse
793:geese
781:gą̄si
779:*
772:*
722:*
644:/fʊt/
576:Most
518:fø̄ti
516:*
508:*
489:*
481:*
473:*
454:fōtiz
452:*
444:*
438:mūsiz
436:*
428:*
358:>
332:mouse
321:*
310:*
300:*
211:/), /
160:fōtiz
158:*
151:*
126:, or
51:(IPA)
8109:West
8104:East
8024:East
7880:East
7870:Norn
7761:West
7697:East
7695:and
7260:and
7255:Non-
6685:Sylt
6668:Föhr
6603:Ems
6528:Yola
6437:West
6360:ISBN
6291:ISBN
6213:ISBN
6053:ISBN
6034:2015
6003:2015
5973:2015
5942:2015
5843:2012
5719:and
5684:and
5635:and
5455:sǫkk
5431:lýgr
5408:fýla
5402:fúll
5378:yppa
5318:kømr
5312:koma
5227:fagr
5136:kømr
5117:kuni
5110:skyn
5091:stað
5002:any
5000:cite
4951:and
4925:and
4909:stad
4865:feel
4836:/eː/
4824:/øː/
4810:and
4777:gast
4724:Arme
4706:Tage
4682:Gast
4677:mice
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