340:, a phase of contraction begins, largely driven by compaction in Charon's interior. Approximately 100-200 million years after formation, enough heat builds up to where a subsurface ocean melts, leading to rapid differentiation, further contraction, and the hydration of core rocks. Despite this melting, a pristine crust of amorphous water ice on Charon remains. After this period, differentiation continues, but the core can no longer absorb more water, and thus freezing at the base of Charon's mantle begins. This freezing drives a period of expansion until Charon's core becomes warm enough to begin compaction, starting a final period of contraction. Serenity Chasma may have formed from the expansion episode, whilst the final contraction episode may have given rise to the arcuate ridges observed in Mordor Macula.
22:
254:
265:
856:
1232:
819:; McKinnon, William B.; Lisse, Carey M.; Runyon, Kirby; Beddingfield, Chloe B.; Schenk, Paul; Umurhan, Orkan M.; Cruikshank, Dale P.; Lauer, Tod R.; Bray, Veronica J.; Binzel, Richard P.; Buie, Marc W.; Buratti, Bonnie J.; Cheng, Andrew F.; Linscott, Ivan R.; Reuter, Dennis C.; Showalter, Mark R.; Young, Leslie A.; Olkin, Catherine B.; Ennico, Kimberly S.; Weaver, Harold A.; Stern, S. Alan (January 2019). "Geologic Landforms and Chronostratigraphic History of Charon as Revealed by a Hemispheric Geologic Map".
101:
227:. Later, when the area is again heated by the Sun as Charon's seasons change, the temperature at the pole rises to −213 °C, resulting in the volatiles sublimating and escaping Charon, leaving only the tholins behind. Over millions of years, the residual tholin builds up thick layers, obscuring the icy crust. The south polar region is also dark, and was imaged by New Horizons using sunlight reflected off Pluto.
327:
melt fraction where complete differentiation occurs, leading to the crust retaining part of its silicate content upon freezing. A liquid subsurface ocean forms during or soon after Charon's accretion and persists for approximately 2 billion years before freezing, possibly driving cryovolcanic resurfacing of Vulcan
Planitia. Radiogenic heat from Charon's core could then melt a second subsurface ocean composed of a
171:
imaged unexpectedly few other impact craters on Charon and found a youthful surface, indicating that Charon is probably geologically active. In particular, the southern hemisphere has fewer craters than the northern and is considerably less rugged, suggesting that a massive resurfacing event—perhaps
326:
years) from the circumplanetary disc, resulting from a highly-disruptive giant impact scenario. This rapid time scale prevents the heat from accretion from radiating away during the formation process, leading to the partial melting of Charon's outer layers. However, Charon's crust failed to reach a
235:
A geomorphological map published in 2019 classifies Charon's surface into 16 types, including: blocky terrain, smooth terrain, elevated smooth terrain, rough terrain, mottled terrain, lobate aprons, and Mons, depressed material, craters and crater ejecta. Linear features were classified as catena,
335:
In contrast, the cold start model argues that a large subsurface ocean early in Charon's history is not necessary to explain Charon's surface features, and instead proposes that Charon may have been homogeneous and more porous at formation. According to the cold start model, as Charon's interior
310:
flyby, numerous discovered features on Charon's surface strongly indicated that Charon is differentiated, and may even have had a subsurface ocean early in its history. The past resurfacing observed on Charon's surface indicated that Charon's ancient subsurface ocean may have fed large-scale
331:
water-ammonia mixture before it too freezes, possibly driving the formation of
Kubrick Mons and other similar features. These freezing cycles could increase Charon's size by >20 km, leading to the formation of the complex tectonic features observed in Serenity Chasma and Oz Terra.
675:
Stern, S. A.; Bagenal, F.; Ennico, K.; Gladstone, G. R.; Grundy, W. M.; McKinnon, W. B.; Moore, J. M.; Olkin, C. B.; Spencer, J. R.; Weaver, H. A.; et al. (15 October 2015). "The Pluto system: Initial results from its exploration by New
Horizons".
223:. In winter, the temperature is −258 °C, and these gases, which include nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and methane, condense into their solid forms; when these ices are subjected to solar radiation, they chemically react to form various reddish
138:. Mutual eclipses of Pluto and Charon in the 1980s allowed astronomers to take spectra of Pluto and then the combined spectrum of the pair. By subtracting Pluto's spectrum from the total, astronomers were able to
236:
crater rim crest, depression margin, graben trace, groove, ridge crest, scarp base, scarp crest, or broad warp. Different time periods were labelled Ozian (older than 4 billion years, exposed in a region titled
68:
Mutual eclipses of Pluto and Charon in the 1980s allowed astronomers to take spectra of Pluto and then the combined spectrum of the pair. By subtracting Pluto's spectrum from the total, astronomers were able to
303:, which is slightly lower than Pluto's. Hence, Charon has a slightly lower proportion of rock in its interior relative to Pluto. This difference is not as large as those of many other collisional satellites.
536:
Buie, M. W.; Grundy, W. M.; Young, E. F.; Young, L. A.; Stern, S. A. (2010). "Pluto and Charon with The Hubble Space
Telescope. Ii. Resolving Changes on Pluto's Surface and a Map for Charon".
157:, with a bright equator band and darker poles. The south polar region is apparently darker than the north. The north polar region is dominated by a very large dark area informally dubbed "
219:, is considerably darker and more reddish than the rest of its surface. The favored explanation for this phenomenon is that it was formed by condensation of gases that escaped from
88:
occurred in the past, giving rise to many of its more prominent geological features, observing evidence of subduction of tectonic plates while also noting the absence of
240:). The Vulcanian is next and features cryoflows, mainly near the equator in an area called Vulcan Planum. The Spokian is the period when impact craters have formed.
56:
of the Pluto system on 14 July 2015. Charon's diameter is 1,208 km (751 mi)—just over half that of Pluto. Charon is sufficiently massive to have
311:
cryoeruptions on the surface, erasing many older features. As a result, two broad competing views on the nature of Charon's interior arose: the so-called
1258:
1347:
188:
196:
172:
prompted by the partial or complete freezing of an internal ocean—occurred at some point in the past and removed many of the earlier craters.
204:
645:
1060:
815:
Robbins, Stuart J.; Beyer, Ross A.; Spencer, John R.; Grundy, William M.; White, Oliver L.; Singer, Kelsi N.; Moore, Jeffrey M.;
589:
416:
1093:
1017:
737:
113:
1340:
357:
150:, whereas the lower latitudes are more diverse in composition. Charon also appears to have little, if any, atmosphere.
967:
Bagheri, Amirhossein; Khan, Amir; Deschamps, Frédéric; Samuel, Henri; Kruglyakov, Mikhail; Giardini, Domenico (2022).
179:
deep. These are northeast-southwest trending. One system of troughs and cliffs extends for 1050 km. One such
1333:
1360:
590:"The New Horizons team refers to a dark patch on Pluto's moon as 'Mordor'; it may be a massive impact feature"
134:
of patches of ammonia hydrates and water crystals on the surface of Charon suggested the presence of active
1053:
1636:
1187:
771:
386:
968:
875:
142:
determine the surface composition of Charon. The northern regions of Charon are composed partially of
73:
determine the surface composition of Charon. The northern regions of Charon are composed partially of
918:"The contraction/expansion history of Charon with implications for its planetary-scale tectonic belt"
21:
855:
756:
558:
793:
497:"Near-Infrared Spectroscopy of Charon: Possible Evidence for Cryovolcanism on Kuiper Belt Objects"
1231:
127:
57:
496:
1631:
1289:
1046:
553:
319:
model, where Charon's formation is more gradual and involves a less violent impact with Pluto.
444:
990:
939:
887:
828:
695:
618:
545:
508:
315:
model, where Charon's formation is rapid and involves a violent impact with Pluto, and the
253:
1314:
264:
8:
1387:
220:
30:
enhanced-color image of Charon showing craters, grooves, and a depression with a mountain
994:
943:
891:
832:
699:
549:
512:
1197:
980:
929:
844:
816:
719:
685:
571:
567:
131:
1595:
1470:
1356:
848:
711:
469:
1448:
1109:
998:
947:
895:
876:"Differentiation and cryovolcanism on Charon: A view before and after New Horizons"
836:
723:
703:
575:
563:
516:
387:"New Horizons Composition Team Uses July 13 Data to Study Pluto's Puzzling Surface"
337:
47:
1546:
1481:
1459:
1438:
1422:
1397:
1382:
1212:
1202:
1171:
1166:
1156:
1124:
1002:
899:
200:
184:
158:
1325:
1519:
1377:
1279:
1217:
1161:
280:
model, with two different levels of silicate 'fines,' or micron-sized particles
84:
Researchers from NASA's Ames
Research Center in 2017 confirmed that icy plate
1625:
1573:
1443:
1407:
1274:
1253:
1207:
1192:
1114:
1069:
216:
43:
707:
1562:
1524:
1509:
1427:
1140:
952:
917:
715:
163:
139:
135:
70:
52:
26:
1514:
1412:
1284:
840:
619:"New Horizons Photos Show Pluto's Ice Mountains and Charon's Huge Crater"
143:
74:
1417:
393:. The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. 14 July 2015
167:
team. The Mordor Macula is distinctly red. Aside from Mordor, however,
38:
encompasses the characteristics of the surface, crust, and interior of
100:
1530:
153:
Photometric mapping of Charon's surface shows a latitudinal trend in
85:
1584:
191:
which lines up with
Serenity Chasma to form a belt that extends for
1392:
1119:
985:
934:
690:
521:
328:
322:
According to the hot start model, Charon accreted rapidly (within ~
237:
119:
123:
89:
1551:
1309:
224:
180:
154:
147:
81:, whereas the lower latitudes are more diverse in composition.
78:
381:
379:
39:
358:"How Big Is Pluto? New Horizons Settles Decades-Long Debate"
674:
421:
376:
361:
295:
Charon's volume and mass allow calculation of its density,
126:
ices, Charon's surface appears to be dominated by the less
966:
336:
begins to warm due to radiogenic heating and heating from
1038:
916:
Malamud, Uri; Perets, Hagai B.; Schubert, Gerald (2017).
814:
50:, almost nothing was known of Charon's geology until the
969:"The tidal–thermal evolution of the Pluto–Charon system"
772:"New Horizons probes the mystery of Charon's red pole"
757:"'Blowing my mind': Peaks on Pluto, canyons on Charon"
494:
445:"Pluto's Moon Charon Had Its Own, Icy Plate Tectonics"
417:"New Horizons Probes the Mystery of Charon's Red Pole"
915:
175:
Charon's surface contains several large canyons from
535:
470:"Charon: An ice machine in the ultimate deep freeze"
1009:
436:
1355:
922:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
1623:
410:
408:
911:
909:
1341:
1054:
646:"New Horizons Reveals Ice Mountains on Pluto"
118:Unlike Pluto's surface, which is composed of
869:
867:
865:
794:"Pluto 'paints' its largest moon Charon red"
405:
16:Geologic structure and composition of Charon
960:
906:
92:resulting from the freezing of the mantle.
1348:
1334:
1061:
1047:
873:
350:
1018:"Charon: Cracked, Cratered, and Colorful"
984:
951:
933:
862:
738:"Charon: Cracked, Cratered, and Colorful"
689:
557:
520:
273:Two proposed models of Charon's interior
187:which is 60 km wide. Others include
821:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets
670:
668:
666:
130:water ice. In 2007, observations by the
99:
20:
529:
60:into a spheroid under its own gravity.
1624:
1015:
791:
769:
613:
611:
442:
414:
1329:
1042:
663:
643:
243:
230:
114:List of geological features on Charon
770:Howett, Carley (11 September 2015).
754:
608:
13:
792:Keeter, Bill (14 September 2016).
462:
14:
1648:
443:Emspak, Jesse (25 January 2017).
415:Albert, P.T. (9 September 2015).
1230:
1016:Beatty, Kelly (2 October 2015).
874:Desch, S. J.; Neveu, M. (2017).
854:
644:Corum, Jonathan (15 July 2015).
263:
252:
210:
808:
785:
763:
748:
730:
637:
582:
488:
1:
755:Dunn, Marcia (16 July 2015).
343:
215:Charon's north polar region,
1003:10.1016/j.icarus.2021.114871
900:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.11.037
568:10.1088/0004-6256/139/3/1128
391:pluto.jhuapl.edu News center
7:
195:. Other named chasmata are
104:Global map of Charon, from
10:
1653:
1068:
495:Cook; et al. (2007).
283:A possible outcome of the
276:A possible outcome of the
111:
95:
63:
1503:
1499:
1371:
1367:
1302:
1267:
1246:
1239:
1228:
1180:
1149:
1133:
1102:
1089:
1076:
501:The Astrophysical Journal
207:which is 5 km deep.
538:The Astronomical Journal
708:10.1126/science.aad1815
1290:Trans-Neptunian object
817:Dalle Ore, Cristina M.
109:
31:
103:
24:
1361:likely dwarf planets
953:10.1093/mnras/stx546
841:10.1029/2018JE005684
995:2022Icar..37614871B
944:2017MNRAS.468.1056M
892:2017Icar..287..175D
833:2019JGRE..124..155R
742:Sky & Telescope
700:2015Sci...350.1815S
550:2010AJ....139.1128B
513:2007ApJ...663.1406C
474:Gemini Observatory
244:Internal structure
231:Geological mapping
221:Pluto's atmosphere
132:Gemini Observatory
110:
32:
1637:Planetary geology
1619:
1618:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1609:
1495:
1494:
1490:
1489:
1471:S/2015 (136472) 1
1323:
1322:
1298:
1297:
1226:
1225:
1022:Sky and Telescope
744:. 2 October 2015.
684:(6258): aad1815.
140:spectroscopically
71:spectroscopically
36:geology of Charon
1644:
1601:
1538:
1536:
1535:
1506:
1505:
1501:
1500:
1374:
1373:
1369:
1368:
1350:
1343:
1336:
1327:
1326:
1244:
1243:
1234:
1100:
1099:
1063:
1056:
1049:
1040:
1039:
1033:
1032:
1030:
1028:
1013:
1007:
1006:
988:
964:
958:
957:
955:
937:
928:(1): 1056–1069.
913:
904:
903:
871:
860:
859:
858:
852:
812:
806:
805:
803:
801:
789:
783:
782:
780:
778:
767:
761:
760:
752:
746:
745:
734:
728:
727:
693:
672:
661:
660:
658:
656:
641:
635:
634:
632:
630:
615:
606:
605:
603:
601:
586:
580:
579:
561:
544:(3): 1128–1143.
533:
527:
526:
524:
507:(2): 1406–1419.
492:
486:
485:
483:
481:
466:
460:
459:
457:
455:
440:
434:
433:
431:
429:
412:
403:
402:
400:
398:
383:
374:
373:
371:
369:
354:
338:serpentinization
325:
302:
300:
267:
256:
194:
178:
48:geology of Pluto
1652:
1651:
1647:
1646:
1645:
1643:
1642:
1641:
1622:
1621:
1620:
1611:
1606:
1600:
1596:
1589:
1578:
1567:
1556:
1533:
1532:
1529:
1491:
1486:
1475:
1464:
1453:
1432:
1363:
1354:
1324:
1319:
1294:
1263:
1235:
1222:
1176:
1172:Serenity Chasma
1167:Nostromo Chasma
1157:Caleuche Chasma
1145:
1129:
1091:
1085:
1072:
1067:
1037:
1036:
1026:
1024:
1014:
1010:
965:
961:
914:
907:
872:
863:
853:
813:
809:
799:
797:
790:
786:
776:
774:
768:
764:
753:
749:
736:
735:
731:
673:
664:
654:
652:
642:
638:
628:
626:
617:
616:
609:
599:
597:
588:
587:
583:
559:10.1.1.182.7004
534:
530:
493:
489:
479:
477:
468:
467:
463:
453:
451:
441:
437:
427:
425:
413:
406:
396:
394:
385:
384:
377:
367:
365:
356:
355:
351:
346:
323:
298:
296:
293:
292:
291:
290:
270:
269:
268:
259:
258:
257:
246:
233:
213:
201:Nostromo Chasma
192:
185:Serenity Chasma
177:5 to 10 km
176:
116:
98:
66:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1650:
1640:
1639:
1634:
1617:
1616:
1613:
1612:
1608:
1607:
1605:
1604:
1598:
1592:
1590:
1588:
1587:
1581:
1579:
1577:
1576:
1570:
1568:
1566:
1565:
1559:
1557:
1555:
1554:
1549:
1543:
1540:
1539:
1527:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1504:
1497:
1496:
1493:
1492:
1488:
1487:
1485:
1484:
1478:
1476:
1474:
1473:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1462:
1456:
1454:
1452:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1404:
1401:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1372:
1365:
1364:
1353:
1352:
1345:
1338:
1330:
1321:
1320:
1318:
1317:
1312:
1306:
1304:
1300:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1293:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1280:Moons of Pluto
1277:
1271:
1269:
1265:
1264:
1262:
1261:
1256:
1250:
1248:
1241:
1237:
1236:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1223:
1221:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1184:
1182:
1178:
1177:
1175:
1174:
1169:
1164:
1162:Mandjet Chasma
1159:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1146:
1144:
1143:
1137:
1135:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1112:
1106:
1104:
1097:
1087:
1086:
1084:
1083:
1077:
1074:
1073:
1066:
1065:
1058:
1051:
1043:
1035:
1034:
1008:
959:
905:
861:
827:(1): 155–174.
807:
784:
762:
747:
729:
662:
650:New York Times
636:
625:. 15 July 2015
607:
596:. 15 July 2015
581:
528:
522:10.1086/518222
487:
461:
435:
404:
375:
348:
347:
345:
342:
306:Following the
301:0.02 g/cm
289:
288:
281:
272:
271:
262:
261:
260:
251:
250:
249:
248:
247:
245:
242:
232:
229:
212:
209:
189:Macross Chasma
97:
94:
65:
62:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1649:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1632:Charon (moon)
1630:
1629:
1627:
1603:
1594:
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1591:
1586:
1583:
1582:
1580:
1575:
1572:
1571:
1569:
1564:
1561:
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1558:
1553:
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1545:
1544:
1542:
1541:
1537:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1507:
1502:
1498:
1483:
1480:
1479:
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1472:
1469:
1468:
1466:
1461:
1458:
1457:
1455:
1450:
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1445:
1442:
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1437:
1436:
1434:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1405:
1403:
1402:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1375:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1351:
1346:
1344:
1339:
1337:
1332:
1331:
1328:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1308:
1307:
1305:
1301:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1275:Double planet
1273:
1272:
1270:
1266:
1260:
1257:
1255:
1254:James Christy
1252:
1251:
1249:
1245:
1242:
1238:
1233:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1185:
1183:
1179:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1154:
1152:
1148:
1142:
1139:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1118:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1108:
1107:
1105:
1101:
1098:
1095:
1088:
1082:
1079:
1078:
1075:
1071:
1064:
1059:
1057:
1052:
1050:
1045:
1044:
1041:
1023:
1019:
1012:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
987:
982:
978:
974:
970:
963:
954:
949:
945:
941:
936:
931:
927:
923:
919:
912:
910:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
870:
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317:cold start
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112:See also:
1247:Discovery
1240:Astronomy
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1134:Mountains
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1090:Geography
1027:3 October
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313:hot start
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161:" by the
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1094:features
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