Geographic information system

2515: 2437: 2146:, defined as broadly as possible, is to discover new knowledge; this may be performed by someone who considers herself a scientist, but may also be done by anyone who is trying to learn why the world appears to work the way it does. A study as practical as deciphering why a business location has failed would be research in this sense. Management (sometimes called operational applications), also defined as broadly as possible, is the application of knowledge to make practical decisions on how to employ the resources one has control over to achieve one's goals. These resources could be time, capital, labor, equipment, land, mineral deposits, wildlife, and so on. 2813:(OGC) is an international industry consortium of 384 companies, government agencies, universities, and individuals participating in a consensus process to develop publicly available geoprocessing specifications. Open interfaces and protocols defined by OpenGIS Specifications support interoperable solutions that "geo-enable" the Web, wireless and location-based services, and mainstream IT, and empower technology developers to make complex spatial information and services accessible and useful with all kinds of applications. Open Geospatial Consortium protocols include 1470:, and hence flow accumulation for the formation of streams, rivers and lakes. Areas of divergent flow can also give a clear indication of the boundaries of a catchment. Once a flow direction and accumulation matrix has been created, queries can be performed that show contributing or dispersal areas at a certain point. More detail can be added to the model, such as terrain roughness, vegetation types and soil types, which can influence infiltration and evapotranspiration rates, and hence influencing surface flow. One of the main uses of hydrological modeling is in 1842:

dot approximately where that address belongs along the segment of centerline. For example, an address point of 500 will be at the midpoint of a line segment that starts with address 1 and ends with address 1,000. Geocoding can also be applied against actual parcel data, typically from municipal tax maps. In this case, the result of the geocoding will be an actually positioned space as opposed to an interpolated point. This approach is being increasingly used to provide more precise location information.

1969: 2304:. A Project GIS is focused on accomplishing a single task: data is gathered, analysis is performed, and results are produced separately from any other projects the person may perform, and the implementation is essentially transitory. An Enterprise GIS is intended to be a permanent institution, including a database that is carefully designed to be useful for a variety of projects over many years, and is likely used by many individuals across an enterprise, with some employed full-time just to maintain it. 2365: 1020:(heads-down digitizing). Heads-down digitizing, or manual digitizing, uses a special magnetic pen, or stylus, that feeds information into a computer to create an identical, digital map. Some tablets use a mouse-like tool, called a puck, instead of a stylus. The puck has a small window with cross-hairs which allows for greater precision and pinpointing map features. Though heads-up digitizing is more commonly used, heads-down digitizing is still useful for digitizing maps of poor quality. 444:(LCGSA 1965–1991), where a number of important theoretical concepts in spatial data handling were developed, and which by the 1970s had distributed seminal software code and systems, such as SYMAP, GRID, and ODYSSEY, to universities, research centers and corporations worldwide. These programs were the first examples of general-purpose GIS software that was not developed for a particular installation, and was very influential on future commercial software, such as 7169: 2828: 7181: 32: 836: 249: 1773:

the first consideration should be whether or not the source data will change (exact or approximate). Next is whether the method is subjective, a human interpretation, or objective. Then there is the nature of transitions between points: are they abrupt or gradual. Finally, there is whether a method is global (it uses the entire data set to form the model), or local where an algorithm is repeated for a small section of terrain.

7205: 7193: 6476: 2168:. Strategic tasks are long-term, visionary decisions about what goals one should have, such as whether a business should expand or not. Tactical tasks are medium-term decisions about how to achieve strategic goals, such as a national forest creating a grazing management plan. Operational decisions are concerned with the day-to-day tasks, such as a person finding the shortest route to a pizza restaurant. 478: (Computer Aided Resource Information System), and ERDAS (Earth Resource Data Analysis System) emerged as commercial vendors of GIS software, successfully incorporating many of the CGIS features, combining the first-generation approach to separation of spatial and attribute information with a second-generation approach to organizing attribute data into database structures. 6213: 1346:

non commercial development teams), while in other cases facilities have been developed and are provided by third parties. Furthermore, many products offer software development kits (SDKs), programming languages and language support, scripting facilities and/or special interfaces for developing one's own analytical tools or variants. The increased availability has created a new dimension to

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example, the changes in vegetation vigor through a growing season can be animated to determine when drought was most extensive in a particular region. The resulting graphic represents a rough measure of plant health. Working with two variables over time would then allow researchers to detect regional differences in the lag between a decline in rainfall and its effect on vegetation.

1126:, the data must be close enough to reality so that the results of GIS procedures correctly correspond to the results of real world processes. This means that there is no single standard for data quality, because the necessary degree of quality depends on the scale and purpose of the tasks for which it is to be used. Several elements of data quality are important to GIS data: 1385: 1327: (ETL) software, but with a primary focus on the ability to manage spatial data. They provide GIS users with the ability to translate data between different standards and proprietary formats, whilst geometrically transforming the data en route. These tools can come in the form of add-ins to existing wider-purpose software such as 2382:. Water by its very nature is dynamic. Features associated with water are thus ever-changing. To be able to keep up with these changes, technological advancements have given scientists methods to enhance all aspects of scientific investigation, from satellite tracking of wildlife to computer mapping of habitats. Agencies like the 726:) location as the key index variable for all other information. Just as a relational database containing text or numbers can relate many different tables using common key index variables, GIS can relate otherwise unrelated information by using location as the key index variable. The key is the location and/or extent in space-time. 4677: 1016:(from satellites, aircraft, Helikites and UAVs), heads-up digitizing is becoming the main avenue through which geographic data is extracted. Heads-up digitizing involves the tracing of geographic data directly on top of the aerial imagery instead of by the traditional method of tracing the geographic form on a separate 343:, which allowed maps to be split into layers, for example one layer for vegetation and another for water. This was particularly used for printing contours – drawing these was a labour-intensive task but having them on a separate layer meant they could be worked on without the other layers to confuse the 2885:. In this data set, the populations of cities are shown for daytime and evening hours highlighting the pattern of concentration and dispersion generated by North American commuting patterns. The manipulation and generation of data required to produce this data would not have been possible without GIS. 2873:(AVHRR). This sensor system detects the amounts of energy reflected from the Earth's surface across various bands of the spectrum for surface areas of about 1 km (0.39 sq mi). The satellite sensor produces images of a particular location on the Earth twice a day. AVHRR and more recently the 1498:. Slope, aspect, and surface curvature in terrain analysis are all derived from neighborhood operations using elevation values of a cell's adjacent neighbours. Each of these is strongly affected by the level of detail in the terrain data, such as the resolution of a DEM, which should be chosen carefully. 2491:

tools from GIS. Spatial interpolation allows for more efficient approach to remediation and monitoring of soil and water contaminants. Soil and water contamination by metals and other contaminants have become a major environmental problem after the industrialization across many parts of the world.

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Since its origin in the 1960s, GIS has been used in an ever-increasing range of applications, corroborating the widespread importance of location and aided by the continuing reduction in the barriers to adopting geospatial technology. The perhaps hundreds of different uses of GIS can be classified in

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individual addresses, such as a road centerline file with address ranges. The individual address locations have historically been interpolated, or estimated, by examining address ranges along a road segment. These are usually provided in the form of a table or database. The software will then place a

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equipment, but GPS locations on the average smartphone are much less accurate. Common datasets such as digital terrain and aerial imagery are available in a wide variety of levels of quality, especially spatial precision. Paper maps, which have been digitized for many years as a data source, can also

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through the use of spatial analysis. Snow achieved this through plotting the residence of each casualty on a map of the area, as well as the nearby water sources. Once these points were marked, he was able to identify the water source within the cluster that was responsible for the outbreak. This was

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are software products that implement OpenGIS Specifications but have not yet passed a compliance test. Compliance tests are not available for all specifications. Developers can register their products as implementing draft or approved specifications, though OGC reserves the right to review

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Web mapping is not without its drawbacks. Web mapping allows for the creation and distribution of maps by people without proper cartographic training. This has led to maps that ignore cartographic conventions and are potentially misleading, with one study finding that more than half of United States

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methods support decision-makers in analysing a set of alternative spatial solutions, such as the most likely ecological habitat for restoration, against multiple criteria, such as vegetation cover or roads. MCDA uses decision rules to aggregate the criteria, which allows the alternative solutions to

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is the process by which a surface is created, usually a raster dataset, through the input of data collected at a number of sample points. There are several forms of interpolation, each which treats the data differently, depending on the properties of the data set. In comparing interpolation methods,

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GIS spatial analysis is a rapidly changing field, and GIS packages are increasingly including analytical tools as standard built-in facilities, as optional toolsets, as add-ins or 'analysts'. In many instances these are provided by the original software suppliers (commercial vendors or collaborative

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The degree of refinement in a represented value. In a quantitative property, this is the number of significant digits in the measured value. An imprecise value is vague or ambiguous, including a range of possible values. For example, if one were to say that the population of Houston on April 1, 2020

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and it stored the attribute and locational information in separate files. As a result of this, Tomlinson has become known as the "father of GIS", particularly for his use of overlays in promoting the spatial analysis of convergent geographic data. CGIS lasted into the 1990s and built a large digital

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collection, and to perform highly developed analysis and visual production of geospatial data. Therefore, GIS produces up-to-date and more reliable GEOINT to reduce uncertainty for a decisionmaker. Since GIS programs are Web-enabled, a user can constantly work with a decision maker to solve their

2083:. These services give the public access to huge amounts of geographic data, perceived by many users to be as trustworthy and usable as professional information. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, web maps hosted on dashboards were used to rapidly disseminate case data to the general public. 1860:

number as it relates to a given coordinate. For example, a user can click on a road centerline theme (thus providing a coordinate) and have information returned that reflects the estimated house number. This house number is interpolated from a range assigned to that road segment. If the user clicks

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that indicate differing amounts of rainfall. Such a map can be thought of as a rainfall contour map. Many sophisticated methods can estimate the characteristics of surfaces from a limited number of point measurements. A two-dimensional contour map created from the surface modeling of rainfall point

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Data extraction is a GIS process similar to vector overlay, though it can be used in either vector or raster data analysis. Rather than combining the properties and features of both datasets, data extraction involves using a "clip" or "mask" to extract the features of one data set that fall within

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layer (contour lines) over it. Next up is a standing water layer (pond, lake) and then a flowing water layer (stream, river), followed by the boundary layer and finally the road layer on top. The order is very important in order to properly display the final result. Note that the ponds are layered

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A quantitative analysis of maps brings accuracy issues into focus. The electronic and other equipment used to make measurements for GIS is far more precise than the machines of conventional map analysis. All geographical data are inherently inaccurate, and these inaccuracies will propagate through

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Related by accurate spatial information, an incredible variety of real-world and projected past or future data can be analyzed, interpreted and represented. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry into behaviors and patterns of real-world information that

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model of transparency. With open data, local government organizations can implement citizen engagement applications and online portals, allowing citizens to see land information, report potholes and signage issues, view and sort parks by assets, view real-time crime rates and utility repairs, and

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With the popularization of GIS in decision making, scholars have begun to scrutinize the social and political implications of GIS. GIS can also be misused to distort reality for individual and political gain. It has been argued that the production, distribution, utilization, and representation of

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first pioneered the use of compact airborne digital cameras as airborne geo-information systems. Aircraft measurement software, accurate to 0.4 mm, was used to link the photographs and measure the ground. Helikites are inexpensive and gather more accurate data than aircraft. Helikites can be

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Geographic information systems are utilized in multiple technologies, processes, techniques and methods. They are attached to various operations and numerous applications, that relate to: engineering, planning, management, transport/logistics, insurance, telecommunications, and business. For this

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Economic development departments use interactive GIS mapping tools, aggregated with other data (demographics, labor force, business, industry, talent) along with a database of available commercial sites and buildings in order to attract investment and support existing business. Businesses making

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The condition of the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and subsurface can be examined by feeding satellite data into a GIS. GIS technology gives researchers the ability to examine the variations in Earth processes over days, months, and years through the use of cartographic visualizations. As an

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amounts recorded at different points such as airports, television stations, and schools. A GIS, however, can be used to depict two- and three-dimensional characteristics of the Earth's surface, subsurface, and atmosphere from information points. For example, a GIS can quickly generate a map with

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was introduced, with the advantages of being lighter, using less storage space and being less brittle, among others. When all the layers were finished, they were combined into one image using a large process camera. Once color printing came in, the layers idea was also used for creating separate

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The implementation of a GIS is often driven by jurisdictional (such as a city), purpose, or application requirements. Generally, a GIS implementation may be custom-designed for an organization. Hence, a GIS deployment developed for an application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or purpose may not be

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Data restructuring can be performed by a GIS to convert data into different formats. For example, a GIS may be used to convert a satellite image map to a vector structure by generating lines around all cells with the same classification, while determining the cell spatial relationships, such as

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After entering data into a GIS, the data usually requires editing, to remove errors, or further processing. For vector data it must be made "topologically correct" before it can be used for some advanced analysis. For example, in a road network, lines must connect with nodes at an intersection.

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First, it produces graphics on the screen or on paper that convey the results of analysis to the people who make decisions about resources. Wall maps and other graphics can be generated, allowing the viewer to visualize and thereby understand the results of analyses or simulations of potential

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in the form of mobile GIS. This has been enhanced by the availability of low-cost mapping-grade GPS units with decimeter accuracy in real time. This eliminates the need to post process, import, and update the data in the office after fieldwork has been collected. This includes the ability to

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is the design and production of maps, or visual representations of spatial data. The vast majority of modern cartography is done with the help of computers, usually using GIS but production of quality cartography is also achieved by importing layers into a design program to refine it. Most

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The earth can be represented by various models, each of which may provide a different set of coordinates (e.g., latitude, longitude, elevation) for any given point on the Earth's surface. The simplest model is to assume the earth is a perfect sphere. As more measurements of the earth have

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In addition to the integration of time in environmental studies, GIS is also being explored for its ability to track and model the progress of humans throughout their daily routines. A concrete example of progress in this area is the recent release of time-specific population data by the

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To determine the statistical relevance of the analysis, an average is determined so that points (gradients) outside of any immediate measurement can be included to determine their predicted behavior. This is due to the limitations of the applied statistic and data collection methods, and

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between spatial objects is an especially important aspect of consistency. For example, if all of the lines in a street network were accidentally moved 10 meters to the East, they would be inaccurate but still consistent, because they would still properly connect at each intersection, and

2542:. This fault line is between the blue/green contour lines and the purple/red/yellow contour lines. The thin red circular contour line in the middle of the map indicates the top of the oil reservoir. Because gas floats above oil, the thin red contour line marks the gas/oil contact zone. 2339:, which allows GPS-enabled mobile devices to display their location in relation to fixed objects (nearest restaurant, gas station, fire hydrant) or mobile objects (friends, children, police car), or to relay their position back to a central server for display or other processing. 3032:

because it allows for analysis based on real geographic data and also helps raise research questions from teachers and students in the classroom. It also contributes to improvement in learning by developing spatial and geographical thinking and, in many cases, student motivation.

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in another more roughly classified dataset can help a GIS automatically merge the two datasets under the more general land cover classification. Tentative ontologies have been developed in areas related to GIS applications, for example the hydrology ontology developed by the

4638: 2244:). That said, one of the powerful capabilities of GIS and the spatial perspective of geography is their integrative ability to compare disparate topics, and many applications are concerned with multiple domains. Examples of integrated human-natural application domains include 746:, respectively. These GIS coordinates may represent other quantified systems of temporo-spatial reference (for example, film frame number, stream gage station, highway mile-marker, surveyor benchmark, building address, street intersection, entrance gate, water depth sounding, 2688:, its study using GIS is especially practical. Whereas previous GIS systems were mostly static in their geospatial representation of hydrologic features, GIS platforms are becoming increasingly dynamic, narrowing the gap between historical data and current hydrologic reality. 1597:

relationships allow complex spatial modelling and analysis to be performed. Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something is to something else).

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are a key component of this semantic approach as they allow a formal, machine-readable specification of the concepts and relationships in a given domain. This in turn allows a GIS to focus on the intended meaning of data rather than its syntax or structure. For example,

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printing plates for each color. While the use of layers much later became one of the typical features of a contemporary GIS, the photographic process just described is not considered a GIS in itself – as the maps were just images with no database to link them to.

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A general acknowledgement of the presence of error and imprecision in geographic data. That is, it is a degree of general doubt, given that it is difficult to know exactly how much error is present in a data set, although some form of estimate may be attempted (a

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is the application of data mining methods to spatial data. Data mining, which is the partially automated search for hidden patterns in large databases, offers great potential benefits for applied GIS-based decision making. Typical applications include

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of the same area are produced, processed, and analyzed. Tomlin used raster layers, but the overlay method (see below) can be used more generally. Operations on map layers can be combined into algorithms, and eventually into simulation or optimization models.

233:). All Earth-based, spatial–temporal, location and extent references should be relatable to one another, and ultimately, to a "real" physical location or extent. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry and studies. 3044:

GIS is proven as an organization-wide, enterprise and enduring technology that continues to change how local government operates. Government agencies have adopted GIS technology as a method to better manage the following areas of government organization:

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is closely related to precision in maps, as it dictates a desirable level of spatial precision, but is problematic in GIS, where a data set can be shown at a variety of display scales (including scales that would not be appropriate for the quality of the

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in mathematics and computer science. Just like graphs, networks can have weight and flow assigned to its edges, which can be used to represent various interconnected features more accurately. Geometric networks are often used to model road networks and

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of a segment that starts with address 1 and ends with 100, the returned value will be somewhere near 50. Note that reverse geocoding does not return actual addresses, only estimates of what should be there based on the predetermined range.

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was "about 2.3 million," this statement would be imprecise, but likely accurate because the correct value (and many incorrect values) are included. As with accuracy, representations of location, property, and time can all be more or less precise.

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The most recent point in time at which a data set claims to be an accurate representation of reality. This is a concern for the majority of GIS applications, which attempt to represent the world "at present," in which case older data is of lower

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are software products that comply to OGC's OpenGIS Specifications. When a product has been tested and certified as compliant through the OGC Testing Program, the product is automatically registered as "compliant" on this site.

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When data is captured, the user should consider if the data should be captured with either a relative accuracy or absolute accuracy, since this could not only influence how information will be interpreted but also the cost of data capture.

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Interpolation is a justified measurement because of a spatial autocorrelation principle that recognizes that data collected at any position will have a great similarity to, or influence of those locations within its immediate vicinity.

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GIS data represents phenomena that exist in the real world, such as roads, land use, elevation, trees, waterways, and states. The most common types of phenomena that are represented in data can be divided into two conceptualizations:

3025:, but there is not enough bibliography or statistical data to show the concrete scope of the use of GIS in education around the world, although the expansion has been faster in those countries where the curriculum mentions them. 1615:

are linear networks of objects that can be used to represent interconnected features, and to perform special spatial analysis on them. A geometric network is composed of edges, which are connected at junction points, similar to

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Recent research results in this area can be seen in the International Conference on Geospatial Semantics and the Terra Cognita – Directions to the Geospatial Semantic Web workshop at the International Semantic Web Conference.

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or radio waves that were sent out from an active sensor such as radar. Remote sensing collects raster data that can be further processed using different bands to identify objects and classes of interest, such as land cover.

2418:. The combination of GIS and archaeology has been considered a perfect match, since archaeology often involves the study of the spatial dimension of human behavior over time, and all archaeology carries a spatial component. 2000:

in a GIS can make relationships among map elements visible, heightening one's ability to extract and analyze information. For example, two types of data were combined in a GIS to produce a perspective view of a portion of

2684:. Climate change and greater demands on water resources require a more knowledgeable disposition of arguably one of our most vital resources. Because water in its occurrence varies spatially and temporally throughout the 2094:(API) that enable users to create custom applications. These toolkits commonly offer street maps, aerial/satellite imagery, geocoding, searches, and routing functionality. Web mapping has also uncovered the potential of 553:

that is intended to be used in many individual geographic information systems in a variety of application domains. Starting in the late 1970s, many software packages have been created specifically for GIS applications.

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is a common operation used in many ways in GIS; because it generates estimates of values between known measurements, the results will always be more precise, but less certain (as each estimate has an unknown amount of

5026:"Off the Map | From Architectural Record and Greensource | Originally published in the March 2012 issues of Architectural Record and Greensource | McGraw-Hill Construction - Continuing Education Center" 2318:

applications have greatly increased, as geospatial technology was merged into broader enterprise applications, sharing IT infrastructure, databases, and software, often using enterprise integration platforms such as

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Any variable that can be located spatially, and increasingly also temporally, can be referenced using a GIS. Locations or extents in Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and x, y, and z

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in that they express environmental and spiritual relationships among real and conceptual entities. This toolset focuses on cultural preservation, land rights disputes, natural resource management, and economic

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Traditional maps are abstractions of the real world, a sampling of important elements portrayed on a sheet of paper with symbols to represent physical objects. People who use maps must interpret these symbols.

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An archeochrome is a new way of displaying spatial data. It is a thematic on a 3D map that is applied to a specific building or a part of a building. It is suited to the visual display of heat-loss data.

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Thematic Mapper image shows a false-color infrared image looking down at the same area in 30-meter pixels, or picture elements, for the same coordinate points, pixel by pixel, as the elevation

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from one structure to another. In so doing, the implicit assumptions behind different ontologies and classifications require analysis. Object ontologies have gained increasing prominence as a consequence of

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By the end of the 20th century, the rapid growth in various systems had been consolidated and standardized on relatively few platforms and users were beginning to explore viewing GIS data over the

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GIS technology and the availability of digital data on regional and global scales enable such analyses. The satellite sensor output used to generate a vegetation graphic is produced for example by the

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sites. GIS is used to monitor the sites for metal contaminants in the soil, and based on the GIS analysis, highest risk sites are identified in which majority of the remediation and monitoring takes place.

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When phenomena are measured, the observation methods dictate the accuracy of any subsequent analysis. Due to the nature of the data (e.g. traffic patterns in an urban environment; weather patterns over the

1432:(TIN). A variety of tools are available in most GIS software for analyzing terrain, often by creating derivative datasets that represent a specific aspect of the surface. Some of the most common include: 1368:, performs an operation on that dataset, and returns the result of the operation as an output dataset. Common geoprocessing operations include geographic feature overlay, feature selection and analysis, 4408: 1754:

is a branch of statistics that deals with field data, spatial data with a continuous index. It provides methods to model spatial correlation, and predict values at arbitrary locations (interpolation).

5430:"USA 3rd International Conference on Public Participation GIS (2004) - Track on International Perspectives: Summary Proceedings, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 18–20 July 2004, Madison, Wisconsin" 2652:(also written as historical GIS or HGIS) is a geographic information system that may display, store and analyze data of past geographies and track changes in time. It can be regarded as a tool for 1581:, and other elevation products. Watersheds can be easily defined for any given reach, by computing all of the areas contiguous and uphill from any given point of interest. Similarly, an expected 1196:

The degree to which an aspect (location, property, or time) of a phenomenon is inherently imprecise, rather than the imprecision being in a measured value. For example, the spatial extent of the

163:; however, this is not essential to meet the definition of a GIS. In a broader sense, one may consider such a system also to include human users and support staff, procedures and workflows, the 1266:

The quality of a dataset is very dependent upon its sources, and the methods used to create it. Land surveyors have been able to provide a high level of positional accuracy utilizing high-end

1358:, based on GIS spatial analysis, has also become a key element for security. GIS as a whole can be described as conversion to a vectorial representation or to any other digitisation process. 889:, the copying of existing GIS data from external sources such as government agencies and private companies. All of these methods can consume significant time, finances, and other resources. 593:. These and other desktop GIS applications include a full suite of capabilities for entering, managing, analyzing, and visualizing geographic data, and are designed to be used on their own. 758:), but all Earth-based spatial–temporal location and extent references should, ideally, be relatable to one another and ultimately to a "real" physical location or extent in space–time. 543:, which is a single installation of software and data for a particular use, along with associated hardware, staff, and institutions (e.g., the GIS for a particular city government); and 1558:

measurements may be overlaid and analyzed with any other map in a GIS covering the same area. This GIS derived map can then provide additional information - such as the viability of

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GIS provides the capability to relate previously unrelated information, through the use of location as the "key index variable". Locations and extents that are found in the Earth's

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K. Calvert, J. M. Pearce, W.E. Mabee, "Toward renewable energy geo-information infrastructures: Applications of GIScience and remote sensing that can build institutional capacity"

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Second, other database information can be generated for further analysis or use. An example would be a list of all addresses within one mile (1.6 km) of a toxic spill.

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run on a range of operating systems and can be customized to perform specific tasks. The major trend of the 21st Century has been the integration of GIS capabilities with other

164: 714:. Collecting and managing these data usually constitutes the bulk of the time and financial resources of a project, far more than other aspects such as analysis and mapping. 2995:

geographic information are largely related with the social context and has the potential to increase citizen trust in government. Other related topics include discussion on

1762:), a constant or dynamic degree of precision is always lost in the measurement. This loss of precision is determined from the scale and distribution of the data collection. 2968:

and others to support ontology creation and reasoning using well-understood OGC literals (GML, WKT), topological relationships (Simple Features, RCC8, DE-9IM), RDF and the

2965: 2451:, GIS is as "a computer system for handling geographic information in a digital form". In recent years it has played an integral role in participatory, collaborative and 1902:. A characteristic of such applications is that spatial correlation between data measurements require the use of specialized algorithms for more efficient data analysis. 916:

with the ability to edit live data using wireless connections or disconnected editing sessions. The current trend is to utilize applications available on smartphones and

604:, providing another mechanism for providing GIS capabilities. This was facilitated by standalone software installed on a server, similar to other server software such as 5695: 2444:(FEMA) Administrator W. Craig Fugate speaking at a Red Cross seminar on using social media during natural disasters. GIS has an integral role to play in such agendas. 974:

of digital photographs. These systems allow data to be captured in two and three dimensions, with elevations measured directly from a stereo pair using principles of

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Marwick, Ben; Hiscock, Peter; Sullivan, Marjorie; Hughes, Philip (July 2017). "Landform boundary effects on Holocene forager landscape use in arid South Australia".

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At the end of the 20th century, GIS began to be recognized as tools that could be used in the classroom. The benefits of GIS in education seem focused on developing

4146: 1737:. This function may weigh some inputs more than others through use of an "index model" that reflects the influence of various factors upon a geographic phenomenon. 5391: 3111: 2119: 2824:

GIS products are broken down by the OGC into two categories, based on how completely and accurately the software follows the OGC specifications.

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While no digital model can be a perfect representation of the real world, it is important that GIS data be of a high quality. In keeping with the principle of

851:). The current trend for geographical information system (GIS) is that accurate mapping and data analysis are completed while in the field. Depicted hardware ( 3081:

much more. The push for open data within government organizations is driving the growth in local government GIS technology spending, and database management.

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Public safety operations such as emergency operations centers, fire prevention, police and sheriff mobile technology and dispatch, and mapping weather risks.

2777:(GIS) is a toolset of systems that uses data, techniques, and technologies designed to document and utilize local knowledge in communities around the world. 1466:(DEM) involves calculation of slope and aspect, DEMs are very useful for hydrological analysis. Slope and aspect can then be used to determine direction of 6383:

Maguire, D.J., Goodchild M.F., Rhind D.W. (1997). "Geographic Information Systems: principles, and applications" Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow.

4092: 2314:, using specialized GIS software, specialized hardware, specialized data, and specialized professionals. Although these remain common to the present day, 1012:

map or survey plan is transferred into a digital medium through the use of a CAD program, and geo-referencing capabilities. With the wide availability of

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Longley, P. A.; Goodchild, M. F.; McGuire, D. J.; Rhind, D. W. (2005). "Analysis of errors of derived slope and aspect related to DEM data properties".

3059:

Public works and utilities, tracking water and stormwater drainage, electrical assets, engineering projects, and public transportation assets and trends

1047:

Errors such as undershoots and overshoots must also be removed. For scanned maps, blemishes on the source map may need to be removed from the resulting

985:

provides another important source of spatial data. Here satellites use different sensor packages to passively measure the reflectance from parts of the

925:. New technologies also allow users to create maps as well as analysis directly in the field, making projects more efficient and mapping more accurate. 336:, Snow's map was unique due to his use of cartographic methods, not only to depict, but also to analyze clusters of geographically dependent phenomena. 6016:

Análisis de la práctica educativa con SIG en la enseñanza de la Geografía de la educación secundaria: un estudio de caso en Baden-Württemberg, Alemania

5429: 3076:

initiative is pushing local government to take advantage of technology such as GIS technology, as it encompasses the requirements to fit the open data/

612:, enabling clients to have access to GIS data and processing tools without having to install specialized desktop software. These networks are known as 2952:. Also, simpler ontologies and semantic metadata standards are being proposed by the W3C Geo Incubator Group to represent geospatial data on the web. 2514: 2106:

projects have been proven to provide a high level of value and benefit to end users outside that possible through traditional geographic information.

328:

one of the earliest successful uses of a geographic methodology in pinpointing the source of an outbreak in epidemiology. While the basic elements of

178:. The academic discipline that studies these systems and their underlying geographic principles, may also be abbreviated as GIS, but the unambiguous 6092: 5129: 1299:. Since digital data is collected and stored in various ways, the two data sources may not be entirely compatible. So a GIS must be able to convert 5025: 245:

first coined the phrase "geographic information system", many of the geographic concepts and methods that GIS automates date back decades earlier.

931:

data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of sensors attached to a platform. Sensors include cameras, digital scanners and

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and the private sector to provide contrast enhancement, false color rendering and a variety of other techniques including use of two dimensional

3990: 1706:) creates a new output vector dataset, visually similar to stacking several maps of the same region. These overlays are similar to mathematical 49: 1935:

facilitate distribution of generated maps through web browsers using various implementations of web-based application programming interfaces (

5596: 5418:

Abbot, J. et al. 1998. Participatory Learning & Action PLA Notes (IIED, Sustainable Agriculture & Rural Livelihoods), PLA 33, 27-34.

2874: 978:. Analog aerial photos must be scanned before being entered into a soft-copy system, for high-quality digital cameras this step is skipped. 174:, also abbreviated GIS, is the most common term for the industry and profession concerned with these systems. It is roughly synonymous with 96: 863:

GIS data acquisition includes several methods for gathering spatial data into a GIS database, which can be grouped into three categories:

68: 5748:

Haque, Akhlaque (2003). "Information technology, GIS and democraticvalues: Ethical implications for IT professionals in public service".

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Jo Abbot; Robert Chambers; Christine Dunn; Trevor Harris; Emmanuel de Merode; Gina Porter; Janet Townsend; Daniel Weiner (October 1998).

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An example of use of layers in a GIS application. In this example, the forest-cover layer (light green) forms the bottom layer, with the

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can provide a spatial element that other hydrological models lack, with the analysis of variables such as slope, aspect and watershed or

1086: 433:-based system in support of federal and provincial resource planning and management. Its strength was continent-wide analysis of complex 5358: 5051: 6508: 2447:

Geographic information system (GIS) is a commonly used tool for environmental management, modelling and planning. As simply defined by

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and time of day of the display, to properly render the shadows created by the sun's rays at that latitude, longitude, and time of day.

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The degree to which a data set represents all of the actual features that it purports to include. For example, if a layer of "roads in

1203:

is vague, as there are places on the outskirts of the city that are less connected to the central city (measured by activities such as

1729:

In raster data analysis, the overlay of datasets is accomplished through a process known as "local operation on multiple rasters" or "

1490:

is a depiction of the surface as if it were a three dimensional model lit from a given direction, which is very commonly used in maps.

1376:

processing, and data conversion. Geoprocessing allows for definition, management, and analysis of information used to form decisions.

7147: 6065: 2017:, consisting of surface elevations recorded on a 30-meter horizontal grid, shows high elevations as white and low elevation as black. 416:

CGIS was an improvement over "computer mapping" applications as it provided capabilities for data storage, overlay, measurement, and

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Parks and recreation departments and their functions in asset inventory, land conservation, land management, and cemetery management

1829:

Geocoding is interpolating spatial locations (X,Y coordinates) from street addresses or any other spatially referenced data such as

1484:

predicts the impact that terrain has on the visibility between locations, which is especially important for wireless communications.

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Kocman, D., & Horvat, M. (2011). Non-point source mercury emission from the Idrija Hg-mine region: GIS mercury emission model.

3879: 2870: 2855: 2649: 2642: 2436: 754:

drawing origin/units). Units applied to recorded temporal-spatial data can vary widely (even when using exactly the same data, see

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of where surface water would want to travel in intermittent and permanent streams can be computed from elevation data in the GIS.

827:. GIS thematic maps then are becoming more and more realistically visually descriptive of what they set out to show or determine. 7231: 5631: 1236:

The degree to which the representations of the many phenomena in a data set correctly correspond with each other. Consistency in

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Maliene V, Grigonis V, Palevičius V, Griffiths S (2011). "Geographic information system: Old principles with new capabilities".

5328:

Jasminka, A., & Robert, S. (2011). Distribution of chemical elements in an old metallurgical area, Zenica. Geoderma, 71–85.

4696:"Evaluating a concept design of a crowd-sourced 'mashup' providing ease-of-access information for people with limited mobility" 4164: 2660:

The use of digital maps generated by GIS has also influenced the development of an academic field known as spatial humanities.

1351: 545: 534: 145: 82: 6439: 6398: 6331: 6314: 5699: 5532: 5090: 4986:

Chouhan, Avinash Kumar; Harsh, Anuranjan; Mishra, Abhishek Kumar; Kumar, Vikram; Kumar, Rakesh; Kumar, Satyam (August 2024).

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being such an estimate of uncertainty). This is sometimes used as a collective term for all or most aspects of data quality.

900:

data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on survey instruments using a technique called

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on April 1, 2020 was 2,304,580; if it was actually 2,310,674, this would be an error and thus a lack of attribute accuracy.

667:) that extend programming languages to enable the incorporation of GIS data and processing into custom software, including 394: 6042:"New Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Certificate Now Offered to USD Undergraduate Students - University of San Diego" 4150: 912:

can also be collected and then imported into a GIS. A current trend in data collection gives users the ability to utilize

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Traditionally, there are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS for both kinds of abstractions mapping references:

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Using models to project the data held by a GIS forward in time have enabled planners to test policy decisions using

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interpolation is required to predict the behavior of particles, points, and locations that are not directly measurable.

1066:

accumulated, the models of the earth have become more sophisticated and more accurate. In fact, there are models called

6458: 6297: 5858: 5833: 4639:"User Centred Design of Neogeography: The Impact of Volunteered Geographic Information on Trust of Online Map 'Mashups" 3318: 3171: 2480: 2474: 1471: 793:(e.g., rainfall amount or population density). Other types of geographic phenomena, such as events (e.g., location of 643:

software, which defines a geometry datatype so that spatial data can be stored in relational tables, and extensions to

455: 320: 270: 4275: 4257: 1462:. Terrain analysis is fundamental to hydrology, since water always flows down a slope. As basic terrain analysis of a 198:

applications are at the foundation of location-enabled services, which rely on geographic analysis and visualization.

6345: 6249: 5979: 5934: 5887: 5246: 4870:"Assessment of the geothermal potential zone of India utilizing GIS-based multi-criteria decision analysis technique" 4436: 3800: 3674: 3642: 2091: 1139:

is the amount of difference between them. In GIS data, there is concern for accuracy in representations of location (

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A new hybrid method of storing data is that of identifying point clouds, which combine three-dimensional points with

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can be defined as the direction in which a unit of terrain faces. Aspect is usually expressed in degrees from north.

7142: 7106: 5223:

Conolly J and Lake M (2006) Geographical Information Systems in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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or compatible with a GIS that has been developed for some other application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or purpose.

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be ranked or prioritised. GIS MCDA may reduce costs and time involved in identifying potential restoration sites.

7209: 5649: 4988:"Delineation of groundwater vulnerable zone for sustainable development in the southwestern part of Bihar, India" 2957: 2889: 2597: 2103: 2063:

In recent years there has been a proliferation of free-to-use and easily accessible mapping software such as the

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A GIS can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These

805:

in an area) are represented less commonly or indirectly, or are modeled in analysis procedures rather than data.

156: 3050:

location decisions can use the tools to choose communities and sites that best match their criteria for success.

2912:

problems in information systems. Correspondingly, such technologies have been proposed as a means to facilitate

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since the early 1990s. Indeed, archaeologists were early adopters, users, and developers of GIS and GIScience,

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tools. Commercial GIS systems are very powerful and have touched many applications and industries, including

1439:

is the steepness or gradient of a unit of terrain, usually measured as an angle in degrees or as a percentage.

879:, the extraction of information from existing sources that are not in a GIS form, such as paper maps, through 5960:

Geospatial technologies and geography education in a changing world: geospatial practices and lessons learned

2076: 2030: 1986: 1024: 364: 5436: 4487: 1722:

overlay defines an output area that includes the total area of both inputs except for the overlapping area.

7127: 6888: 3559: 2387: 1617: 1101: 489:

platform. This began the process of moving GIS from the research department into the business environment.

89: 3007:. A more optimistic social approach to GIS adoption is to use it as a tool for public participation. 1714:

overlay combines the geographic features and attribute tables of both inputs into a single new output. An

1081:

The latitude and longitude on a map made against a local datum may not be the same as one obtained from a

481:

In 1986, Mapping Display and Analysis System (MIDAS), the first desktop GIS product, was released for the

6546: 6531: 5137: 3096: 2919: 2523: 1305: 5280: 5029: 2492:

As a result, environmental agencies are placed in charge in remediating, monitoring, and mitigating the

1354:" which, when openly delivered via intranet, democratizes access to geographic and social network data. 363:

and its map overlay method and the introduction of a street network into the U.S. Census Bureau's DIME (

7197: 4325:"A comparison of techniques for calculating gradient and aspect from a gridded digital elevation model" 3101: 2810: 2804: 2553: 1800: 1607: 1529: 1248: 1242: 917: 640: 631:

An alternative approach is the integration of some or all of these capabilities into other software or

440:

In 1964, Howard T. Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis at the

413:

and land use at a scale of 1:50,000. A rating classification factor was also added to permit analysis.

4288:

Jones, K.H. (1998). "A comparison of algorithms used to compute hill slope as a property of the DEM".

7003: 6494: 6231: 4829:"Normalizing the pandemic: exploring the cartographic issues in state government COVID-19 dashboards" 3994: 3838: 3829: 3341:"Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le département de la Seine. Année 1832" 2949: 2901: 2774: 2768: 2717: 1718:

overlay defines the area where both inputs overlap and retains a set of attribute fields for each. A

1715: 1364:

is a GIS operation used to manipulate spatial data. A typical geoprocessing operation takes an input

909: 872: 5268: 4515: 382:

research led to more widespread general-purpose computer "mapping" applications by the early 1960s.

6169:"Capturing Volunteered Information for Inclusive Service Design: Potential Benefits and Challenges" 5580: 3955: 3146: 2989: 2961: 2561: 2545: 2518:

Screenshot of a structure map generated by geological mapping software for an 8500 ft deep gas and

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as well as other federal and state agencies are utilizing GIS to aid in their conservation efforts.

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networks, such as electric, gas, and water networks. Network modeling is also commonly employed in

1449: 1417: 1324: 1060: 986: 885: 297: 5607: 7111: 7076: 7018: 6541: 6369: 6282: 6019: 5549: 5293:

Demers, M. N. (2003). Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Greene, R.; Devillers, R.; Luther, J.E.; Eddy, B.G. (2011). "GIS-based multi-criteria analysis".

3719:

Ablimit Aji; Hoang Vo; Qiaoling Liu; Fusheng Wang; Joel Saltz; Rubao Lee; Xiaodong Zhang (2013).

3156: 2589: 2357: 2290:

uses. The latter has become increasingly prominent with the rise of location-enabled smartphones.

2257: 2014: 1796: 1780: 1626: 1574: 1463: 1425: 1389: 1355: 945: 42: 420:/scanning. It supported a national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as 6931: 6898: 6646: 6576: 5575: 4510: 4147:"Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards Part 3: National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy" 3161: 3141: 2336: 2197: 1680: 1525: 1154: 1130: 1094: 1090: 960: 672: 632: 502: 5204: 5164: 2676:

Geographic information systems (GISs) have become a useful and important tool in the field of

2552:

are observed, analyzed, and recorded in the field and displayed in real-time on a computer or

1577:, isopleth lines representing elevation contours can be generated, along with slope analysis, 370:

The first publication detailing the use of computers to facilitate cartography was written by

7053: 6893: 6865: 6746: 6596: 5713:

Haque, Akhlaque (1 May 2001). "GIS, Public Service, and the Issue of Democratic Governance".

5570:

Fonseca, Frederico; Egenhofer, Max (1999). "Ontology-Driven Geographic Information Systems".

5055: 2778: 2750: 2731: 2621: 2604: 2557: 2488: 1347: 1135:

The degree of similarity between a represented measurement and the actual value; conversely,

1075: 816:. Points, lines, and polygons represent vector data of mapped location attribute references. 751: 743: 621: 518: 467: 398: 308:

color gradients, to provide a visual representation for the number of reported deaths due to

256: 226: 195: 3065:

School analytical and demographic data, asset management, and improvement/expansion planning

485:

operating system. This was renamed in 1990 to MapInfo for Windows when it was ported to the

7071: 7043: 6944: 6880: 6780: 6651: 6641: 6611: 6581: 6551: 6536: 6520: 5496:

Monmonier, Mark (1990). "Strategies For The Visualization Of Geographic Time-Series Data".

4999: 4881: 4840: 4744: 4707: 4502: 4488:"Distributed Clustering-Based Aggregation Algorithm for Spatial Correlated Sensor Networks" 4297: 4203: 4029: 3441: 3394: 3151: 2709: 2653: 2383: 2342:

GIS is also used in digital marketing and SEO for audience segmentation based on location.

2064: 1808: 1734: 1719: 1513: 1105: 967: 905: 786: 574: 550: 401:, an effort to determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping information about 276:

One of the first known instances in which spatial analysis was used came from the field of

20: 6142: 3340: 2608:

GEOINT and national security related problems from anywhere in the world. There are many

970:

of aerial photographs. Soft-copy workstations are used to digitize features directly from

600:, as computer network technology progressed, GIS infrastructure and data began to move to 8: 7152: 7137: 6832: 6737: 6678: 6661: 6636: 6586: 6373: 3385:

Broome, Frederick R.; Meixler, David B. (January 1990). "The TIGER Data Base Structure".

3166: 2818: 2519: 2253: 2185: 2165: 2138: 1963: 1911: 1676: 1237: 1185: 901: 711: 510: 187: 153: 6041: 5498:

Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization

5003: 4885: 4844: 4748: 4711: 4506: 4388: 4301: 4207: 4033: 3894: 3509: 3445: 3398: 3276: 1448:

Cut and fill is a computation of the difference between the surface before and after an

1257:

methods and other processing tools derives from the quality of input data. For example,

1100:

In popular GIS software, data projected in latitude/longitude is often represented as a

205:

are able to be recorded through the date and time of occurrence, along with x, y, and z

7173: 7033: 6983: 6822: 6693: 6656: 6631: 6621: 6616: 6601: 6591: 6188: 5993: 5806: 5765: 5256: 4968: 4907:

Longley, Paul; Goodchild, Michael F.; Maguire, David J.; Rhind, David W., eds. (1999).

4804: 4779: 4760: 4669: 4619: 4578: 4528: 4227: 4018:"A Primer of GIS: Fundamental Geographic and Cartographic Concepts - By Francis Harvey" 3973: 3936: 3789: 3733: 3457: 3300: 3121: 2916:

and data reuse among GIS applications and also to enable new analysis mechanisms.

2549: 2493: 2407: 2401: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2181: 1711: 1612: 1507: 1455: 1442: 1424:. Thus, terrain data is often a core dataset in a GIS, usually in the form of a raster 1296: 1162: 703:. A GIS database may be stored in a variety of forms, such as a collection of separate 660: 601: 430: 5851:

Surveillance, Transparency and Democracy: Public Administration in the Information Age

5635: 4780:"The disguised pandemic: The importance of data normalization in COVID-19 web mapping" 4309: 1924:

GIS software gives the user substantial control over the appearance of the data.

7180: 6903: 6723: 6683: 6454: 6435: 6394: 6341: 6327: 6319: 6310: 6302: 6293: 6192: 6184: 5997: 5985: 5975: 5940: 5930: 5893: 5883: 5854: 5829: 5730: 5528: 5366: 5339: 5242: 5238: 5160: 5086: 4972: 4912: 4809: 4764: 4661: 4623: 4570: 4472: 4432: 4425: 4219: 4126: 4047: 4042: 4017: 3977: 3963: 3940: 3860: 3850: 3806: 3796: 3791:

Internet GIS: Distributed Information Services for the Internet and Wireless Networks

3769:

Longley, Paul A.; Goodchilde, Michael F.; Maguire, David J.; Rhind, David W. (2015).

3738: 3699: 3670: 3648: 3638: 3590: 3487: 3410: 3367: 3304: 3234: 3209: 3022: 2705: 2699: 2670: 2593: 2448: 2261: 2102:, which is a collaborative project to create a free editable map of the world. These 2038: 1851: 1788: 1516:. Thus, a wide variety of analysis tools have analyze distance in some form, such as 1481: 1475: 1200: 1051:. For example, a fleck of dirt might connect two lines that should not be connected. 1039:

a map results in raster data that could be further processed to produce vector data.

922: 844: 790: 486: 375: 6066:"Minor in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) | University of New England in Maine" 5769: 5113:

Longley, Paul A.; Goodchild, Michael F.; Maguire, David J.; Rhind, David W. (2011).

4673: 4582: 4231: 4168: 389:, Canada, by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development. Developed by 293: 7185: 6998: 6870: 6755: 6673: 6606: 6180: 6023: 5967: 5922: 5912: 5796: 5757: 5722: 5505: 5234: 5007: 4960: 4889: 4848: 4799: 4791: 4752: 4715: 4653: 4609: 4562: 4532: 4520: 4468: 4336: 4305: 4211: 4037: 3928: 3842: 3728: 3725:

Proceedings of the VLDB Endowment International Conference on Very Large Data Bases

3449: 3402: 3292: 3263: 2913: 2909: 2713: 2685: 2527: 2463:

agendas to the forefront of public policy, the global media and the private sector.

2329: 2034: 2002: 1940: 1812: 1792: 1567: 1563: 1403: 1340: 1288: 1254: 1208: 940: 856: 779: 775: 708: 704: 636: 522: 497:, requiring data format and transfer standards. More recently, a growing number of 340: 160: 149: 5427: 5389: 4853: 4828: 3846: 1494:

Most of these are generated using algorithms that are discrete simplifications of

283:

Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le département de la

6966: 6759: 6666: 6568: 6425: 5963: 5918: 5914:

International perspectives on teaching and learning with GIS in secondary schools

4893: 4657: 4566: 3956:"Mobile GIS in Archaeology – Current Possibilities, Future Needs. Position Paper" 3932: 3116: 3077: 2937: 2814: 2681: 2539: 2375: 2177: 1978: 1915: 1521: 1517: 1495: 1373: 1300: 1167: 1067: 1048: 1032: 1017: 913: 848: 813: 798: 617: 613: 514: 390: 386: 242: 5509: 5159:

Kumar, Deepak; Das, Bhumika (23 May 2015). "Recent Trends in GIS Applications".

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Public administration for election data, property records, and zoning/management

2041:, using the Thematic Mapper image pixels, but shaded using the elevation of the 1968: 1660:

under the streams, so that a stream line can be seen overlying one of the ponds.

7028: 7023: 6988: 6908: 6850: 6711: 6386: 6272:

GIS Fundamentals: A first text on Geographic Information Systems, Sixth Edition

5801: 5784: 4795: 4756: 4191: 3721:"Hadoop GIS: a high performance spatial data warehousing system over mapreduce" 3406: 2941: 2859: 2827: 2754: 2568: 2364: 2265: 2249: 2205: 1932: 1857: 1693: 1634: 1622: 1467: 1397: 1070:

that apply to different areas of the earth to provide increased accuracy, like

982: 975: 928: 868: 755: 648: 475: 379: 175: 5971: 5926: 5761: 5233:

Goodchild, Michael F. (July 2009). "GIScience and Systems". pp. 526–538.

5011: 4720: 4695: 4524: 4340: 3991:"Aeryon Announces Version 5 of the Aeryon Scout System | Aeryon Labs Inc" 3652: 2596:. These technologies allow a user to efficiently manage, analyze, and produce 7225: 6993: 6956: 6785: 6732: 5989: 5944: 5734: 5370: 5302:

Longley, P. A., Goodchild, M. F., Maguire, D. J., & Rhind, D. W. (2005).

4614: 4597: 4223: 4051: 3864: 3414: 3371: 3181: 2877:(MODIS) are only two of many sensor systems used for Earth surface analysis. 2790: 2746: 2617: 2217: 2213: 2176:: the domains in which GIS is applied largely fall into those concerned with 2099: 2095: 2080: 1769: 1759: 1751: 1746: 1578: 1487: 1436: 1258: 1191: 1036: 1035:

data as an operator traces points, lines, and polygon boundaries from a map.

952: 809: 747: 590: 421: 397:(CGIS) and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the 252: 5897: 5726: 5474: 4964: 4827:

Adams, Aaron M.; Chen, Xiang; Li, Weidong; Chuanrong, Zhang (27 July 2023).

4215: 3810: 2274:: GIS has been implemented in a variety of different kinds of institutions: 1512:

Distance is a key part of solving many geographic tasks, usually due to the

7132: 6971: 6808: 6727: 6716: 6701: 6626: 6365: 4868:

Chouhan, Avinash Kumar; Kumar, Rakesh; Mishra, Abhishek Kumar (June 2024).

4813: 4665: 4574: 4246: 4068: 3742: 3718: 3268: 3255: 2985: 2905: 2613: 2564: 2535: 2237: 2233: 1982: 1707: 1671:

in his PhD dissertation (1983); he later used it in the title of his book,

1554: 1421: 1123: 1117: 1082: 956: 880: 794: 625: 371: 348: 277: 4948: 4192:"The Certainty of Uncertainty: GIS and the Limits of Geographic Knowledge" 2708:(PGIS) or public participation geographic information system (PPGIS) is a 624:(SAAS). The use of the Internet to facilitate distributed GIS is known as 616:. This strategy has been extended through the Internet and development of 7061: 7013: 7008: 6949: 6939: 6751: 6741: 6419:

Integrated Geospatial Technologies: A Guide to GPS, GIS, and Data Logging

4909:

Geographical Information Systems, V.2: Management Issues and Applications

4431:. Prentice Hall series in geographic information science. Prentice Hall. 4420: 2882: 2411: 2241: 2209: 2201: 2068: 2058: 2046: 1944: 1920: 1894: 1730: 1697: 1664: 1646: 1594: 1559: 1328: 1320: 1231: 1178: 1147:), and time. For example, the US 2020 Census says that the population of 971: 824: 763: 668: 605: 333: 319:, an epidemiologist and physician, was able to determine the source of a 290: 6168: 6027: 5962:. Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences. Tōkyō; New York: 5810: 5667: 4550: 3296: 2588:

Geographic information systems (GIS) play a constantly evolving role in

462:) were in development, and by the early 1980s, M&S Computing (later 7066: 6816: 6794: 6769: 6764: 6431:

Thinking about GIS: Geographic Information System Planning for Managers

6412:

Ground Truth: The Social Implications of Geographic Information Systems

5958:

Solari, Osvaldo Muñiz; Demirci, Ali; Schee, Joop van der, eds. (2015).

5879: 4694:

May, Andrew; Parker, Christopher J.; Taylor, Neil; Ross, Tracy (2014).

3004: 2110:

state government COVID-19 dashboards did not follow these conventions.

2087: 2006: 1656: 1013: 1005: 999: 731: 723: 676: 562: 463: 417: 356: 329: 206: 5653: 5079:

Principles of Geographic Information Systems: An introductory textbook

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that contains representations of geographic phenomena, modeling their

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Time-integrative GIS. Management and analysis of Spatio-temporal data

5322: 5309: 5296: 5028:. Continuingeducation.construction.com. 11 March 2011. Archived from 4778:

Adams, Aaron; Xiang, Chen; Weidong, Li; Zhang, Chuanrong (May 2020).

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software in mapping out the contaminants in soil and water using the

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is a commonly used expression of positional precision, especially in

1028: 1009: 936: 897: 852: 735: 582: 459: 406: 316: 210: 202: 183: 179: 2132:: the purpose of an application can be broadly classified as either 1054: 569:, currently dominates the GIS market. Other examples of GIS include 31: 6812: 6486: 5604:

Proc. ACM International Symposium on Geographic Information Systems

5572:

Proc. ACM International Symposium on Geographic Information Systems

3453: 3131: 2742: 2245: 2143: 2042: 1997: 1862: 1834: 1830: 1703: 1550: 1545: 1541: 1369: 835: 739: 688: 651:. Another example is the proliferation of geospatial libraries and 597: 586: 570: 506: 494: 448: 434: 425: 410: 305: 248: 218: 167:

of relevant concepts and methods, and institutional organizations.

6353:

A Primer of GIS, Fundamental geographic and cartographic concepts.

3282: 2741:(GIScience) combine computer-mapping capabilities with additional 355:

Two additional developments are notable in the early days of GIS:

6976: 6845: 6789: 6773: 6706: 5911:

Milson, Andrew J.; Demirci, Ali; Kerski, Joseph J., eds. (2012).

5359:"Digital Maps Are Giving Scholars the Historical Lay of the Land" 3136: 3000: 2786: 2782: 2021: 1993: 1804: 1582: 1409: 1365: 1218: 1197: 1148: 385:

In 1963, the world's first true operational GIS was developed in

344: 309: 263: 182:

is more common. GIScience is often considered a subdiscipline of

5696:"Terra Cognita 2006 – Directions to the Geospatial Semantic Web" 5205:"How To Use Geofencing for Targeted Digital Marketing Campaigns" 3696:

GIS Fundamentals: A First Text on Geographic Information Systems

3563: 2931:

in one dataset is a specialization or subset of land cover type

2781:

is information that encompasses the experiences of a particular

2455:

philosophies. Social and technological evolutions have elevated

2410:

or Geographic Information Systems has been an important tool in

1733:", through a function that combines the values of each raster's 951:

Recently aerial data collection has become more accessible with

6475: 5853:. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. pp. 70–73. 5331: 4735:

Plewe, Brandon (2007). "Web Cartography in the United States".

2969: 2628: 1702:

The combination of several spatial datasets (points, lines, or

1323:

tools provide the data processing functionality of traditional

1104:. For example, data in latitude/longitude if the datum is the ' 566: 558: 324: 267: 4549:

Parker, Christopher J.; May, Andrew J.; Mitchell, Val (2013).

3960:

CAA: Digital Archaeologies, Material Worlds (Past and Present)

3723:. The 39th International Conference on Very Large Data Bases. 1570:

resources to find the best geographic potential for a region.

1085:. Converting coordinates from one datum to another requires a 5597:"Analyzing Theme, Space and Time: an Ontology-based Approach" 5180:"Location Data: How GIS is Used in Digital Marketing and SEO" 4637:

Parker, Christopher J.; May, Andrew J.; Mitchel, Val (2014).

3768: 3510:"History of GIS | Early History and the Future of GIS – Esri" 3062:

Fiber network management for interdepartmental network assets

3036:

Courses in GIS are also offered by educational institutions.

1245:

tools such as shortest path would still give correct results.

1071: 932: 904:(COGO). Positions from a global navigation satellite system ( 664: 301: 284: 5112: 4906: 3918: 2966:

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation

2368:

ArcGIS Server website depicting submersed aquatic vegetation

1815:

are all mathematical methods to produce interpolative data.

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Additionally, from a series of three-dimensional points, or

6307:

Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems, 4th Edition

6093:"Strategic GIS Planning and Management in Local Government" 5428:

Giacomo Rambaldi and Daniel Weiner (Track Leaders) (2004).

2945: 2625: 2600: 2045:. The GIS display depends on the viewing point of the 1936: 1856:

Reverse geocoding is the process of returning an estimated

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GIS operations in ways that are difficult to predict.

939:. In England in the mid 1990s, hybrid kite/balloons called 802: 656: 578: 555: 445: 402: 347:. This work was initially drawn on glass plates, but later 260: 6290:

Introduction to Geographic Information System, 4th Edition

6117: 5876:

Understanding place: GIS and mapping across the curriculum

4551:"The role of VGI and PGI in supporting outdoor activities" 2152:: Management applications have been further classified as 1207:) than places that are closer. Mathematical tools such as 470: platform, Environmental Systems Research Institute ( 128: 6417:

Thurston, J., Poiker, T.K. and J. Patrick Moore. (2003).

6167:

Parker, C.J.; May, A.; Mitchell, V.; Burrows, A. (2013).

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International Journal of Geographical Information Science

2484: 2320: 2029:

A GIS was used to register and combine the two images to

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are commonly used to manage vagueness in geographic data.

1031:

or scanned to produce digital data. A digitizer produces

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Perry, Matthew; Hakimpour, Farshad; Sheth, Amit (2006).

4427:

Geographic information systems and cartographic modeling

1837:

and address locations. A reference theme is required to

1673:

Geographic Information Systems and Cartographic Modeling

620:

GIS platforms such as ArcGIS Online and GIS-specialized

429:

land resource database in Canada. It was developed as a

339:

The early 20th century saw the development of

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Bringing geographical information systems into business

4254:

Natural Kinds and Classification in Scientific Practice

3880:"GIS versus CAD versus DBMS: What Are the Differences?" 3635:

GIS for Environmental Applications A practical approach

3112:

Dialogue-Assisted Visual Environment for Geoinformation

2798: 2120:

Category:Applications of geographic information systems

867:, the direct measurement phenomena in the field (e.g., 6265:

Beyond Mapping: Concepts, Algorithms and Issues in GIS

5874:

Sinton, Diana Stuart; Lund, Jennifer J., eds. (2007).

5650:"Semantic Web for Earth and Environmental Terminology" 5344:

Digital Mapping Techniques '00 -- Workshop Proceedings

4777: 4358: 1474:. Other applications of hydrological modeling include 1392:

of the Valestra area in the northern Apennines (Italy)

1384: 266:

outbreak showing the clusters of cholera cases in the

16:

System to capture, manage, and present geographic data

4949:"Deep mapping for environmental communication design" 4700:

Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies

596:

Starting in the late 1990s with the emergence of the

4826: 3475: 2775:

Traditional knowledge Geographic Information Systems

1566:

source. Similarly, GIS can be used to compare other

6360:

An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems

6358:Heywood, I., Cornelius, S., and Carver, S. (2006). 5910: 5682:"International Conferences on Geospatial Semantics" 5594: 5340:"Digital Mapping Systems for Field Data Collection" 4693: 4361:

An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems

1869: 1221:" is missing some actual streets, it is incomplete. 56:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 5957: 5828:. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 5523:Zhang, Chuanrong; Zhao, Tian; Li, Weidong (2015). 5346:. U.S. Geological Survey. Open-File Report 00-325. 4867: 4424: 3828: 3788: 2567:that can be utilized and updated while conducting 1291:, a technique developed in the late 1960s by 1253:The degree to which the quality of the results of 1108:of 1983' is denoted by 'GCS North American 1983'. 966:The majority of digital data currently comes from 963:of 1 inch (2.54 cm) in only 12 minutes. 935:, while platforms usually consist of aircraft and 466:) along with Bentley Systems Incorporated for the 5052:"Arctic Sea Ice Extent is Third Lowest on Record" 4548: 4393:. West Sussex, England: John Wiley and Sons: 328. 3028:GIS seems to provide many advantages in teaching 2789:. Traditional knowledge GIS differ from ordinary 2278:(at all levels from municipal to international), 1412:, the shape of the surface of the earth, such as 1055:Projections, coordinate systems, and registration 454:By the late 1970s two public domain GIS systems ( 7223: 5569: 4636: 4376:Introduction to Geographical Information Systems 3727:. Vol. 6, no. 11. pp. 1009–1020. 2956:is a standard developed by the Ordnance Survey, 539:The distinction must be made between a singular 6424: 4485: 4116: 4114: 2849: 1278: 241:While digital GIS dates to the mid-1960s, when 144:) consists of integrated computer hardware and 6448: 6279:Principles of geographical information systems 5085:. Enschede, The Netherlands: ITC. p. 44. 4936:. Cambridge, UK: GeoInformation International. 4737:Cartography and Geographic Information Science 4486:Ma, Y.; Guo, Y.; Tian, X.; Ghanem, M. (2011). 4363:(3rd ed.). Essex, England: Prentice Hall. 4069:"Digitizing - GIS Wiki | The GIS Encyclopedia" 3887:Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 3764: 3762: 3760: 3758: 3756: 3754: 3752: 3613:"Open Source GIS History – OSGeo Wiki Editors" 3605: 3387:Cartography and Geographic Information Systems 3231:Introduction to Geographic Information Systems 3206:Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems 2612:used in GEOINT and national security, such as 2467: 1927:Cartographic work serves two major functions: 1905: 7097:Geographic data and information organizations 6502: 6277:Burrough, P. A. and McDonnell, R. A. (1998). 6013: 5917:(Submitted manuscript). Dordrecht; New York: 5460:Peat, F. David. "I Have a Map in my Head." 5392:"Participatory GIS: opportunity or oxymoron?" 4947:Butts, Shannon; Jones, Madison (2021-05-20). 4544: 4542: 3954:Buławka, Nazarij; Chyla, Julia Maria (2020), 3384: 3256:"Twenty years of progress: GIScience in 2010" 2875:moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer 2534:. The left-to-right gap, near the top of the 1287:More advanced data processing can occur with 717: 682: 437:. The CGIS was never available commercially. 5547: 5115:Geographic Information Systems & Science 5075: 4925: 4373: 4322: 4316: 4245:Winther, Rasmus G. (2014). C. Kendig (ed.). 4120: 4111: 4095:. Government of Ireland 1999. Archived from 3953: 3771:Geographic Information Systems & Science 3208:(4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, inc. 2761: 2310:: Traditionally, most GIS applications were 1972:A traditional topographic map rendered in 3D 281: 6407:, Berlin / Heidelberg / New York: Springer. 6143:"GIS for Local Government| Open Government" 5522: 5106: 4382: 4287: 4123:Introductory Geographic Information Systems 3787:Peng, Zhong-Ren; Tsou, Ming-Hsiang (2003). 3749: 3107:Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography 2422: 1679:refers to a process where several thematic 1004:The most common method of data creation is 959:was used to map a 50-acre area with a 6509: 6495: 6378:Geographic Information Systems and Science 5873: 5304:Geographic Information Systems and Science 4946: 4539: 4391:Geographic Information Systems and Science 4354: 4352: 4350: 3921:Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 3822: 3820: 3689: 3687: 3685: 3683: 2737:Geographic information systems (GISs) and 2575: 2296:: GIS implementations may be focused on a 1992:Today, graphic display techniques such as 1093:, although in certain situations a simple 944:used over roads, railways and towns where 236: 19:"GIS" redirects here. For other uses, see 7148:National Council for Geographic Education 6250:Learn how and when to remove this message 5823: 5800: 5782: 5579: 5495: 5232: 5130:"Integrating GIS with SAP—The Imperative" 4852: 4803: 4719: 4613: 4514: 4359:Heywood I, Cornelius S, Carver S (2006). 4281: 4189: 4121:Jensen, John R.; Jensen, Ryan R. (2013). 4041: 3993:. Aeryon.com. 6 July 2011. Archived from 3833:. In Shekhar, Shashi; Xiong, Hui (eds.). 3782: 3780: 3732: 3584: 3560:"GIS Hall of Fame – Roger Tomlinson" 3552: 3536:. UCGIS. 21 February 2014. Archived from 3267: 3253: 3199: 3197: 2900:Tools and technologies emerging from the 2831:OGC standards help GIS tools communicate. 993: 116:Learn how and when to remove this message 6449:Worboys, Michael; Duckham, Matt (2004). 6414:, New York and London: Guilford, 248 pp. 6009: 6007: 5548:Fonseca, Frederico; Sheth, Amit (2002). 5158: 4931: 4405:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 4015: 3786: 3233:(9th ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 1. 3222: 2979: 2871:advanced very-high-resolution radiometer 2856:Historical geographic information system 2826: 2757:, agricultural applications, and others. 2650:historical geographic information system 2643:Historical geographic information system 2603:, to combine GEOINT with other forms of 2513: 2435: 2363: 1967: 1650: 1640: 1383: 921:incorporate positions collected using a 834: 647:for spatial analysis operations such as 247: 127: 5202: 5177: 5069: 4992:Groundwater for Sustainable Development 4900: 4589: 4347: 4244: 3962:, Tübingen: Tübingen University Press, 3817: 3693: 3680: 3361: 1726:the spatial extent of another dataset. 1588: 892: 823:information at each point, returning a 762:previously had not been systematically 312:per every 1,000 inhabitants. 7224: 5337: 5127: 5076:Huisman, Otto; de By, Rolf A. (2009). 4820: 4771: 4728: 4595: 4452: 4419: 4247:"Mapping Kinds in GIS and Cartography" 3826: 3777: 3578: 3481: 3427: 3260:Journal of Spatial Information Science 3203: 3194: 3039: 2944:and the SWEET ontologies developed by 610:relational database management systems 535:Geographic information system software 159:. Much of this often happens within a 6490: 6087: 6085: 6004: 5848: 5747: 5712: 5527:. Springer International Publishing. 5356: 4734: 4378:. New York: McGraw Hill. p. 184. 4367: 4085: 4063: 4061: 3877: 3228: 2927:that a land cover type classified as 2374:(GIS) has become an integral part of 1601: 1501: 1476:groundwater and surface water mapping 797:battles), processes (e.g., extent of 405:, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, 7192: 6516: 6338:Web GIS: Principles and Applications 6267:. Fort Collins, CO: GIS World Books. 6206: 3795:. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons. 3667:Web GIS: Principles and Applications 3632: 3589:. Harvard University. Archived from 2799:Open Geospatial Consortium standards 2692: 2556:(PDA). The primary function of this 1981:show the shape of land surface with 1957: 1845: 1818: 1472:environmental contamination research 395:Canada Geographic Information System 54:adding citations to reliable sources 25: 7204: 6393:. The University of Chicago Press, 5317:Journal of Environmental Management 5117:(3rd ed.). Wiley. p. 434. 4167:. Njgin.state.nj.us. Archived from 2500: 2442:Federal Emergency Management Agency 2086:Some of them, like Google Maps and 1876:Multiple-criteria decision analysis 1379: 1334: 830: 13: 6202: 6082: 4058: 3526: 2481:GIS in environmental contamination 2475:GIS in environmental contamination 2350: 1888: 1408:Many geographic tasks involve the 1023:Existing data printed on paper or 653:application programming interfaces 14: 7243: 6468: 6403:Ott, T. and Swiaczny, F. (2001) . 6380:. Chichester: Wiley. 2nd edition. 5750:Ethics and Information Technology 4093:"Making maps compatible with GPS" 2092:application programming interface 839:Example of hardware for mapping ( 577:and open-source programs such as 442:Harvard Graduate School of Design 7203: 7191: 7179: 7168: 7167: 7143:International Geography Olympiad 6474: 6211: 6185:10.2752/175630613x13584367984947 6160: 6135: 5668:"W3C Geospatial Incubator Group" 5401:. pp. 27–34. Archived from 5239:10.1016/B978-008044910-4.00029-8 5102:from the original on 2018-05-14. 4683:from the original on 2017-08-30. 4473:10.1111/j.1749-8198.2011.00431.x 4263:from the original on 2014-08-08. 4043:10.1111/j.1745-5871.2009.00577.x 3177:Tobler's second law of geography 2890:spatial decision support systems 2767:This section is an excerpt from 2730:This section is an excerpt from 2724: 2698:This section is an excerpt from 2669:This section is an excerpt from 2641:This section is an excerpt from 2581:This section is an excerpt from 2506:This section is an excerpt from 2473:This section is an excerpt from 2430:GIS and environmental governance 2428:This section is an excerpt from 2400:This section is an excerpt from 2356:This section is an excerpt from 1882:multi-criteria decision analysis 1870:Multi-criteria decision analysis 1740: 1535: 769: 635:architectures. One example is a 332:and theme existed previously in 30: 6110: 6058: 6034: 6014:Nieto Barbero, Gustavo (2016). 5951: 5904: 5867: 5842: 5817: 5776: 5741: 5706: 5688: 5674: 5660: 5642: 5624: 5588: 5563: 5541: 5516: 5489: 5467: 5454: 5421: 5383: 5350: 5287: 5226: 5217: 5196: 5171: 5152: 5121: 5044: 5018: 4979: 4940: 4861: 4687: 4630: 4479: 4413: 4397: 4267: 4238: 4190:Couclelis, Helen (March 2003). 4183: 4165:"NJGIN's Information Warehouse" 4157: 4139: 4009: 3983: 3947: 3912: 3893:(11): 1551–1555. Archived from 3871: 3837:. New York: Springer. pp. 3712: 3659: 3626: 3502: 3172:Tobler's first law of geography 3010: 2958:United States Geological Survey 2113: 1785:triangulated irregular networks 1388:Hillshade model derived from a 1111: 1074:for U.S. measurements, and the 855:technology) is used mainly for 695:(location and shape) and their 528: 65:"Geographic information system" 41:needs additional citations for 7232:Geographic information systems 6856:Geographic information science 6481:Geographic information systems 5357:Cohen, Patricia (2011-07-26). 5178:Haywood, Leeann (2023-03-15). 4953:Communication Design Quarterly 3421: 3378: 3355: 3333: 3311: 3247: 3017:Esri Education User Conference 2739:geographic information science 2583:GIS in geospatial intelligence 2416:Geographic Information Science 2394: 2372:Geographic Information Systems 2052: 1687: 1430:Triangulated irregular network 1315: 1271:be of widely varying quality. 801:), and masses (e.g., types of 499:free, open-source GIS packages 289:(1832). French geographer and 172:geographic information systems 1: 6962:Geographic information system 6421:. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. 6362:. Prentice Hall. 3rd edition. 6234:and help improve the section. 5550:"The Geospatial Semantic Web" 5128:Benner, Steve (Spring 2009). 4854:10.1080/17445647.2023.2235385 4310:10.1016/S0098-3004(98)00032-6 4273:Wade, T. and Sommer, S. eds. 4016:Puotinen, Marji (June 2009). 3847:10.1007/978-0-387-35973-1_648 3319:"The 50th Anniversary of GIS" 3254:Goodchild, Michael F (2010). 3188: 2164:, a common classification in 1478:, as well as flood risk maps. 955:and drones. For example, the 541:geographic information system 365:Dual Independent Map Encoding 138:geographic information system 6889:Environmental social science 6451:GIS: a computing perspective 6340:. ESRI Press. Redlands, CA. 6274:. Ann Arbor: XanEdu, 764 pp. 5715:Public Administration Review 5632:"Ordnance Survey Ontologies" 5306:. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 4894:10.1016/j.renene.2024.120552 4658:10.1080/00140139.2014.909950 4602:Dialogues in Human Geography 4567:10.1016/j.apergo.2012.04.013 3933:10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.07.004 3669:. ESRI Press. Redlands, CA. 3430:"Automation and Cartography" 2895: 2850:Adding the dimension of time 2716:and spatial information and 2680:to study and manage Earth's 2663: 2388:US Fish and Wildlife Service 2286:(even churches), as well as 2224:), and those concerned with 1522:Voronoi or Thiessen polygons 1279:Raster-to-vector translation 1102:Geographic coordinate system 1078:for worldwide measurements. 1072:North American Datum of 1983 789:(e.g., a house, a road) and 296:created a map outlining the 7: 6336:Fu, P., and J. Sun (2010). 6018:(Ph.D. thesis). Barcelona: 5510:10.3138/U558-H737-6577-8U31 5475:"OGC Members | OGC(R)" 5435:. iapad.org. Archived from 5203:Liaquat, Ali (2021-08-01). 3097:Climate Information Service 3084: 2592:(GEOINT) and United States 2468:Environmental contamination 2335:GIS is also diverging into 1906:Data output and cartography 1787:, edge-finding algorithms, 1306:object-oriented programming 10: 7248: 6355:The Guilford Press, 31 pp. 5802:10.1214/088342305000000241 5464:18.3 (1996) : 11-17. 4796:10.1016/j.puhe.2020.04.034 4757:10.1559/152304007781002235 3665:Fu, P., and J. Sun. 2010. 3407:10.1559/152304090784005859 3285:Urban Design International 3229:Chang, Kang-tsung (2016). 3102:Comparison of GIS software 3014: 2983: 2972:database query protocols. 2929:deciduous needleleaf trees 2853: 2811:Open Geospatial Consortium 2805:Open Geospatial Consortium 2802: 2766: 2729: 2697: 2668: 2640: 2635: 2580: 2554:personal digital assistant 2505: 2472: 2427: 2399: 2355: 2282:(of all types and sizes), 2117: 2056: 1961: 1909: 1873: 1849: 1822: 1801:inverse distance weighting 1797:(weighted) moving averages 1744: 1691: 1644: 1608:Transport network analysis 1605: 1540:It is difficult to relate 1505: 1452:project to estimate costs. 1401: 1395: 1338: 1249:Propagation of uncertainty 1115: 1058: 997: 773: 722:GIS uses spatio-temporal ( 718:Aspects of geographic data 683:Geospatial data management 641:Object-relational database 532: 298:forty-eight districts 18: 7163: 7120: 7089: 7052: 7004:Global Positioning System 6930: 6921: 6879: 6831: 6692: 6567: 6560: 6527: 6453:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 6410:Pickles, J., ed., (1994) 5972:10.1007/978-4-431-55519-3 5927:10.1007/978-94-007-2120-3 5606:: 147–154. Archived from 5012:10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101240 4721:10.1016/j.trc.2014.10.007 4596:Everts, Jonathan (2020). 4525:10.1109/JSEN.2010.2056916 4341:10.1080/02693798908941519 4290:Computers and Geosciences 3366:. Natural History Press. 2950:Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2902:World Wide Web Consortium 2769:Traditional knowledge GIS 2762:Traditional knowledge GIS 2718:communications management 2345: 2098:geodata in projects like 1238:topological relationships 910:Global Positioning System 873:global positioning system 859:, monitoring and mapping. 687:The core of any GIS is a 6351:Harvey, Francis (2008). 6175:(Submitted manuscript). 5849:Haque, Akhlaque (2015). 5824:Monmonier, Mark (1991). 5783:Monmonier, Mark (2005). 4615:10.1177/2043820620935355 4598:"The dashboard pandemic" 4407:18, pp. 416–429 (2013). 3698:(6th ed.). XanEdu. 3362:MacHarg, Ian L. (1971). 3204:DeMers, Michael (2009). 3147:List of GIS data sources 2990:Public participation GIS 2962:Natural Resources Canada 2548:is the process by which 2546:Digital geologic mapping 2508:Digital geologic mapping 2423:Environmental governance 2284:non-profit organizations 1900:environmental monitoring 1781:Digital elevation models 1325:extract, transform, load 1284:adjacency or inclusion. 1061:Spatial reference system 987:electromagnetic spectrum 946:unmanned aerial vehicles 565:and the legacy software 509:infrastructure, such as 259:'s 1855 map of the 7112:National mapping agency 7077:Survey (human research) 7019:Participant observation 6283:Oxford University Press 6020:University of Barcelona 5762:10.1023/A:1024986003350 5727:10.1111/0033-3352.00028 5525:Geospatial Semantic Web 4965:10.1145/3437000.3437001 4932:Grimshaw, D.J. (1994). 4911:(2nd ed.). Wiley. 4216:10.1111/1467-9671.00138 3562:. URISA. Archived from 3157:Map database management 2908:are proving useful for 2846:and verify each entry. 2590:geospatial intelligence 2576:Geospatial intelligence 2358:GIS and aquatic science 2337:location-based services 2258:sustainable development 2015:digital elevation model 1627:transportation planning 1575:digital elevation model 1464:digital elevation model 1426:Digital elevation model 1390:digital elevation model 1356:Geospatial intelligence 1014:ortho-rectified imagery 847:) and data collection ( 673:location-based services 424:having a true embedded 378:development spurred by 237:History and development 7102:Geographical societies 6899:Landscape architecture 6324:GIS modeling in raster 3827:Moretz, David (2008). 3773:(4th ed.). Wiley. 3694:Bolstad, Paul (2019). 3585:Lovison-Golob, Lucia. 3484:"Map Printing Methods" 3482:Fitzgerald, Joseph H. 3428:Tobler, Waldo (1959). 3269:10.5311/JOSIS.2010.1.2 3162:Quantitative geography 3142:Integrated Geo Systems 2832: 2543: 2445: 2369: 2198:landscape architecture 2033:the three-dimensional 1973: 1813:trend surface analysis 1661: 1526:Cost distance analysis 1393: 1308:and sustained work by 1192:Vagueness or fuzziness 1091:Helmert transformation 994:Secondary data capture 961:ground sample distance 877:secondary data capture 860: 633:information technology 503:Information technology 282: 273: 170:The uncounted plural, 133: 6894:Environmental studies 6866:Statistical geography 6747:Environmental science 6263:Berry, J. K. (1993). 5338:Kramer, John (2000). 4374:Chang, K. T. (2008). 4323:Chang, K. T. (1989). 4022:Geographical Research 3878:Cowen, David (1988). 2980:Societal implications 2843:Implementing products 2830: 2779:Traditional knowledge 2751:environmental science 2732:GIS and public health 2622:GeoNetwork opensource 2610:types of GIS software 2517: 2489:spatial interpolation 2439: 2367: 2003:San Mateo County 1971: 1677:Cartographic modeling 1669:cartographic modeling 1654: 1641:Cartographic modeling 1456:Hydrological modeling 1387: 1348:business intelligence 1339:Further information: 1116:Further information: 1076:World Geodetic System 998:Further information: 838: 622:software as a service 519:software as a service 399:Canada Land Inventory 255:'s version (1958) of 251: 196:location intelligence 186:within the branch of 131: 7107:Geoscience societies 7072:Interview (research) 7044:Land change modeling 6945:Computer cartography 6923:Techniques and tools 6781:Earth system science 6483:at Wikimedia Commons 6391:How to Lie With Maps 6372:, Maguire, D.J. and 6270:Bolstad, P. (2019). 5826:How to Lie with Maps 5477:. Opengeospatial.org 4495:IEEE Sensors Journal 3152:List of GIS software 2654:historical geography 2562:spatially referenced 2522:in the Erath field, 2384:US Geological Survey 2077:free and open-source 1720:symmetric difference 1589:Topological modeling 1514:friction of distance 1352:spatial intelligence 1106:North American Datum 1087:datum transformation 968:photo interpretation 893:Primary data capture 865:primary data capture 575:MapInfo Professional 549:, a general-purpose 511:relational databases 451:, released in 1983. 393:, it was called the 152:, edit, output, and 148:that store, manage, 50:improve this article 21:GIS (disambiguation) 7153:Spatial citizenship 7138:Geographers on Film 7128:Geography education 6738:Atmospheric science 5789:Statistical Science 5004:2024GSusD..2601240C 4886:2024REne..22720552C 4845:2023JMaps..19Q...1A 4749:2007CGISc..34..133P 4712:2014TRPC...49..103M 4507:2011ISenJ..11..641M 4302:1998CG.....24..315J 4208:2003TrGIS...7..165C 4196:Transactions in GIS 4153:on 6 November 2018. 4034:2009GeoRs..47..219P 3835:Encyclopedia of GIS 3593:on 13 December 2007 3540:on 17 December 2015 3446:1959GeoRv..49..526T 3434:Geographical Review 3399:1990CGISy..17...39B 3297:10.1057/udi.2010.25 3167:Technical geography 3040:In local government 2819:Web Feature Service 2558:emerging technology 2550:geological features 2254:wildlife management 2166:business management 2139:resource management 2134:scientific research 1964:Terrain cartography 1912:Cartographic design 1186:confidence interval 1141:positional accuracy 1097:may be sufficient. 948:(UAVs) are banned. 902:coordinate geometry 712:relational database 551:application program 188:technical geography 7034:Statistical survey 6984:Geologic modelling 6823:Quaternary science 6288:Chang, K. (2007). 6173:The Design Journal 5363:The New York Times 5140:on 22 October 2009 4555:Applied Ergonomics 4171:on 10 October 2011 3633:Xuan, Zhu (2016). 3587:"Howard T. Fisher" 3364:Design with nature 3122:Geodatabase (Esri) 2836:Compliant products 2833: 2544: 2494:soil contamination 2446: 2402:GIS in archaeology 2370: 1974: 1880:Coupled with GIS, 1662: 1613:Geometric networks 1602:Geometric networks 1508:Proximity analysis 1502:Proximity analysis 1394: 1297:Fourier transforms 1145:attribute accuracy 861: 857:forest inventories 361:Design with Nature 274: 134: 7219: 7218: 7085: 7084: 6917: 6916: 6904:Landscape ecology 6724:Coastal geography 6479:Media related to 6441:978-1-58948-158-9 6399:978-0-226-43592-3 6332:978-0-471-31965-8 6315:978-0-470-12906-7 6285:, Oxford, 327 pp. 6260: 6259: 6252: 6118:"Home - SafeCity" 5785:"Lying with Maps" 5557:UCGIS White Paper 5534:978-3-319-17801-1 5275:Missing or empty 5184:Hennessey Digital 5092:978-90-6164-269-5 4461:Geography Compass 4132:978-0-13-614776-3 3969:978-3-947-25115-5 3856:978-0-387-35973-1 3705:978-1-59399-552-2 3534:"Roger Tomlinson" 3240:978-1-259-92964-9 3215:978-0-470-12906-7 3023:spatial cognition 2706:Participatory GIS 2700:Participatory GIS 2693:Participatory GIS 2671:GIS and hydrology 2594:national security 2449:Michael Goodchild 2262:natural resources 2226:the natural world 2142:. The purpose of 2075:, as well as the 2067:web applications 2039:San Andreas Fault 2037:looking down the 2020:The accompanying 1958:Terrain depiction 1852:Reverse geocoding 1846:Reverse geocoding 1819:Address geocoding 1789:Thiessen polygons 1482:Viewshed analysis 1201:metropolitan area 1018:digitizing tablet 923:laser rangefinder 845:laser rangefinder 791:continuous fields 709:spatially-enabled 637:spatial extension 561:, which includes 487:Microsoft Windows 376:computer hardware 374:in 1959. Further 165:body of knowledge 132:Basic GIS concept 126: 125: 118: 100: 7239: 7207: 7206: 7195: 7194: 7183: 7171: 7170: 6999:Geovisualization 6928: 6927: 6871:Spatial analysis 6756:Paleoclimatology 6565: 6564: 6511: 6504: 6497: 6488: 6487: 6478: 6464: 6445: 6255: 6248: 6244: 6241: 6235: 6230:Please read the 6226:may need cleanup 6215: 6214: 6207: 6197: 6196: 6164: 6158: 6157: 6155: 6153: 6139: 6133: 6132: 6130: 6128: 6114: 6108: 6107: 6105: 6103: 6089: 6080: 6079: 6077: 6076: 6062: 6056: 6055: 6053: 6052: 6046:www.sandiego.edu 6038: 6032: 6031: 6011: 6002: 6001: 5955: 5949: 5948: 5908: 5902: 5901: 5878:. Redlands, CA: 5871: 5865: 5864: 5846: 5840: 5839: 5821: 5815: 5814: 5804: 5780: 5774: 5773: 5745: 5739: 5738: 5710: 5704: 5703: 5698:. Archived from 5692: 5686: 5685: 5678: 5672: 5671: 5664: 5658: 5657: 5652:. Archived from 5646: 5640: 5639: 5634:. Archived from 5628: 5622: 5621: 5619: 5618: 5612: 5601: 5592: 5586: 5585: 5583: 5567: 5561: 5560: 5554: 5545: 5539: 5538: 5520: 5514: 5513: 5493: 5487: 5486: 5484: 5482: 5471: 5465: 5458: 5452: 5451: 5449: 5447: 5441: 5434: 5425: 5419: 5417: 5415: 5413: 5407: 5396: 5387: 5381: 5380: 5378: 5377: 5354: 5348: 5347: 5335: 5329: 5326: 5320: 5313: 5307: 5300: 5294: 5291: 5285: 5284: 5278: 5272: 5266: 5262: 5260: 5252: 5230: 5224: 5221: 5215: 5214: 5212: 5211: 5200: 5194: 5193: 5191: 5190: 5175: 5169: 5168: 5156: 5150: 5149: 5147: 5145: 5136:. Archived from 5125: 5119: 5118: 5110: 5104: 5103: 5101: 5084: 5073: 5067: 5066: 5064: 5063: 5054:. 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Archived from 4143: 4137: 4136: 4118: 4109: 4108: 4106: 4104: 4089: 4083: 4082: 4080: 4079: 4065: 4056: 4055: 4045: 4013: 4007: 4006: 4004: 4002: 3987: 3981: 3980: 3951: 3945: 3944: 3916: 3910: 3909: 3907: 3905: 3900:on 24 April 2011 3899: 3884: 3875: 3869: 3868: 3832: 3824: 3815: 3814: 3794: 3784: 3775: 3774: 3766: 3747: 3746: 3736: 3716: 3710: 3709: 3691: 3678: 3663: 3657: 3656: 3630: 3624: 3623: 3621: 3619: 3609: 3603: 3602: 3600: 3598: 3582: 3576: 3575: 3573: 3571: 3556: 3550: 3549: 3547: 3545: 3530: 3524: 3523: 3521: 3520: 3506: 3500: 3499: 3497: 3495: 3486:. Archived from 3479: 3473: 3472: 3470: 3468: 3425: 3419: 3418: 3382: 3376: 3375: 3359: 3353: 3352: 3350: 3348: 3337: 3331: 3330: 3328: 3326: 3315: 3309: 3308: 3280: 3274: 3273: 3271: 3251: 3245: 3244: 3226: 3220: 3219: 3201: 2914:interoperability 2910:data integration 2883:U.S. Census 2714:spatial planning 2686:hydrologic cycle 2524:Vermilion Parish 2501:Geologic mapping 2222:national defense 2069:Google Maps 2035:perspective view 1979:Topographic maps 1793:Fourier analysis 1667:coined the term 1568:renewable energy 1564:renewable energy 1530:network analysis 1404:Surface gradient 1380:Terrain analysis 1341:Spatial analysis 1335:Spatial analysis 1312:and co-workers. 1289:image processing 1255:Spatial analysis 1243:network analysis 1209:fuzzy set theory 831:Data acquisition 787:discrete objects 780:GIS file formats 776:Data model (GIS) 523:mobile computing 341:photozincography 321:cholera outbreak 288: 271:epidemic of 1854 209:; representing, 194:reason, GIS and 161:spatial database 121: 114: 110: 107: 101: 99: 58: 34: 26: 7247: 7246: 7242: 7241: 7240: 7238: 7237: 7236: 7222: 7221: 7220: 7215: 7159: 7116: 7081: 7048: 6967:Distributed GIS 6913: 6875: 6827: 6760:Palaeogeography 6688: 6556: 6523: 6515: 6471: 6461: 6442: 6426:Roger Tomlinson 6370:Goodchild, M.F. 6292:. McGraw Hill, 6256: 6245: 6239: 6236: 6229: 6222:Further reading 6216: 6212: 6205: 6203:Further reading 6200: 6165: 6161: 6151: 6149: 6141: 6140: 6136: 6126: 6124: 6116: 6115: 6111: 6101: 6099: 6091: 6090: 6083: 6074: 6072: 6064: 6063: 6059: 6050: 6048: 6040: 6039: 6035: 6012: 6005: 5982: 5964:Springer-Verlag 5956: 5952: 5937: 5919:Springer-Verlag 5909: 5905: 5890: 5872: 5868: 5861: 5847: 5843: 5836: 5822: 5818: 5781: 5777: 5746: 5742: 5711: 5707: 5702:on 18 May 2007. 5694: 5693: 5689: 5680: 5679: 5675: 5666: 5665: 5661: 5656:on 29 May 2007. 5648: 5647: 5643: 5638:on 21 May 2007. 5630: 5629: 5625: 5616: 5614: 5610: 5599: 5593: 5589: 5568: 5564: 5552: 5546: 5542: 5535: 5521: 5517: 5494: 5490: 5480: 5478: 5473: 5472: 5468: 5459: 5455: 5445: 5443: 5442:on 16 July 2011 5439: 5432: 5426: 5422: 5411: 5409: 5408:on 16 July 2011 5405: 5394: 5388: 5384: 5375: 5373: 5355: 5351: 5336: 5332: 5327: 5323: 5314: 5310: 5301: 5297: 5292: 5288: 5276: 5274: 5264: 5263: 5254: 5253: 5249: 5231: 5227: 5222: 5218: 5209: 5207: 5201: 5197: 5188: 5186: 5176: 5172: 5157: 5153: 5143: 5141: 5126: 5122: 5111: 5107: 5099: 5093: 5082: 5074: 5070: 5061: 5059: 5050: 5049: 5045: 5035: 5033: 5032:on 8 March 2012 5024: 5023: 5019: 4984: 4980: 4945: 4941: 4930: 4926: 4919: 4905: 4901: 4866: 4862: 4833:Journal of Maps 4825: 4821: 4776: 4772: 4733: 4729: 4692: 4688: 4680: 4641: 4635: 4631: 4594: 4590: 4547: 4540: 4516:10.1.1.724.1158 4490: 4484: 4480: 4457: 4453: 4443: 4441: 4439: 4421:Tomlin, C. Dana 4418: 4414: 4402: 4398: 4387: 4383: 4372: 4368: 4357: 4348: 4321: 4317: 4286: 4282: 4272: 4268: 4260: 4249: 4243: 4239: 4188: 4184: 4174: 4172: 4163: 4162: 4158: 4145: 4144: 4140: 4133: 4119: 4112: 4102: 4100: 4099:on 21 July 2011 4091: 4090: 4086: 4077: 4075: 4067: 4066: 4059: 4014: 4010: 4000: 3998: 3997:on 10 June 2020 3989: 3988: 3984: 3970: 3952: 3948: 3917: 3913: 3903: 3901: 3897: 3882: 3876: 3872: 3857: 3825: 3818: 3803: 3785: 3778: 3767: 3750: 3717: 3713: 3706: 3692: 3681: 3664: 3660: 3645: 3631: 3627: 3617: 3615: 3611: 3610: 3606: 3596: 3594: 3583: 3579: 3569: 3567: 3566:on 14 July 2007 3558: 3557: 3553: 3543: 3541: 3532: 3531: 3527: 3518: 3516: 3508: 3507: 3503: 3493: 3491: 3480: 3476: 3466: 3464: 3426: 3422: 3383: 3379: 3360: 3356: 3346: 3344: 3339: 3338: 3334: 3324: 3322: 3317: 3316: 3312: 3281: 3277: 3252: 3248: 3241: 3227: 3223: 3216: 3202: 3195: 3191: 3186: 3117:Distributed GIS 3087: 3078:open government 3042: 3019: 3013: 2992: 2984:Main articles: 2982: 2938:Ordnance Survey 2898: 2862: 2852: 2815:Web Map Service 2807: 2801: 2796: 2795: 2772: 2764: 2759: 2758: 2745:management and 2735: 2727: 2722: 2721: 2703: 2695: 2690: 2689: 2682:water resources 2674: 2666: 2658: 2657: 2646: 2638: 2633: 2632: 2586: 2578: 2573: 2572: 2511: 2503: 2498: 2497: 2478: 2470: 2465: 2464: 2433: 2425: 2420: 2419: 2405: 2397: 2392: 2391: 2376:aquatic science 2361: 2353: 2351:Aquatic science 2348: 2178:the human world 2122: 2116: 2061: 2055: 1966: 1960: 1933:Web Map Servers 1918: 1916:Digital mapping 1910:Main articles: 1908: 1893:GIS or spatial 1891: 1889:GIS data mining 1878: 1872: 1854: 1848: 1827: 1821: 1749: 1743: 1700: 1692:Main articles: 1690: 1649: 1643: 1610: 1604: 1591: 1562:potential as a 1538: 1510: 1504: 1496:vector calculus 1406: 1400: 1382: 1343: 1337: 1318: 1301:geographic data 1281: 1120: 1114: 1063: 1057: 1002: 996: 929:Remotely sensed 914:field computers 895: 849:rugged computer 833: 799:suburbanization 782: 774:Main articles: 772: 756:map projections 720: 685: 614:distributed GIS 537: 531: 515:cloud computing 391:Roger Tomlinson 387:Ottawa, Ontario 359:'s publication 243:Roger Tomlinson 239: 157:geographic data 122: 111: 105: 102: 59: 57: 47: 35: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7245: 7235: 7234: 7217: 7216: 7214: 7213: 7201: 7189: 7177: 7164: 7161: 7160: 7158: 7157: 7156: 7155: 7150: 7145: 7140: 7135: 7124: 7122: 7118: 7117: 7115: 7114: 7109: 7104: 7099: 7093: 7091: 7087: 7086: 7083: 7082: 7080: 7079: 7074: 7069: 7064: 7058: 7056: 7050: 7049: 7047: 7046: 7041: 7036: 7031: 7029:Remote sensing 7026: 7024:Photogrammetry 7021: 7016: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6991: 6989:Geomathematics 6986: 6981: 6980: 6979: 6974: 6969: 6959: 6954: 6953: 6952: 6947: 6936: 6934: 6925: 6919: 6918: 6915: 6914: 6912: 6911: 6909:Time geography 6906: 6901: 6896: 6891: 6885: 6883: 6877: 6876: 6874: 6873: 6868: 6863: 6858: 6853: 6851:Geoinformatics 6848: 6843: 6837: 6835: 6829: 6828: 6826: 6825: 6820: 6806: 6797: 6792: 6783: 6778: 6777: 6776: 6767: 6762: 6749: 6744: 6730: 6721: 6720: 6719: 6714: 6712:Phytogeography 6709: 6698: 6696: 6690: 6689: 6687: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6670: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6649: 6644: 6639: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6594: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6573: 6571: 6562: 6558: 6557: 6555: 6554: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6528: 6525: 6524: 6514: 6513: 6506: 6499: 6491: 6485: 6484: 6470: 6469:External links 6467: 6466: 6465: 6460:978-0415283755 6459: 6446: 6440: 6422: 6415: 6408: 6401: 6384: 6381: 6363: 6356: 6349: 6334: 6317: 6300: 6298:978-0071267588 6286: 6275: 6268: 6258: 6257: 6219: 6217: 6210: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6198: 6179:(2): 197–218. 6159: 6134: 6109: 6081: 6057: 6033: 6003: 5980: 5950: 5935: 5903: 5888: 5866: 5860:978-0817318772 5859: 5841: 5835:978-0226534213 5834: 5816: 5795:(3): 215–222. 5775: 5740: 5721:(3): 259–265. 5705: 5687: 5673: 5659: 5641: 5623: 5587: 5581:10.1.1.99.5206 5562: 5540: 5533: 5515: 5488: 5466: 5453: 5420: 5382: 5349: 5330: 5321: 5308: 5295: 5286: 5265:|journal= 5247: 5225: 5216: 5195: 5170: 5151: 5120: 5105: 5091: 5068: 5043: 5017: 4978: 4939: 4924: 4917: 4899: 4860: 4819: 4770: 4743:(2): 133–136. 4727: 4686: 4652:(7): 987–997. 4629: 4608:(2): 260–264. 4588: 4538: 4478: 4467:(6): 412–432. 4451: 4437: 4412: 4396: 4381: 4366: 4346: 4335:(4): 323–334. 4315: 4296:(4): 315–323. 4280: 4266: 4237: 4202:(2): 165–175. 4182: 4156: 4138: 4131: 4110: 4084: 4057: 4028:(2): 219–221. 4008: 3982: 3968: 3946: 3911: 3870: 3855: 3830:"Internet GIS" 3816: 3801: 3776: 3748: 3711: 3704: 3679: 3658: 3643: 3625: 3604: 3577: 3551: 3525: 3501: 3490:on 4 June 2007 3474: 3454:10.2307/212211 3440:(4): 526–534. 3420: 3377: 3354: 3332: 3310: 3275: 3246: 3239: 3221: 3214: 3192: 3190: 3187: 3185: 3184: 3179: 3174: 3169: 3164: 3159: 3154: 3149: 3144: 3139: 3134: 3129: 3124: 3119: 3114: 3109: 3104: 3099: 3094: 3088: 3086: 3083: 3070: 3069: 3066: 3063: 3060: 3057: 3054: 3051: 3041: 3038: 3012: 3009: 2981: 2978: 2964:, Australia's 2942:United Kingdom 2897: 2894: 2860:Time geography 2851: 2848: 2803:Main article: 2800: 2797: 2791:cognitive maps 2773: 2765: 2763: 2760: 2755:urban planning 2736: 2728: 2726: 2723: 2704: 2696: 2694: 2691: 2675: 2667: 2665: 2662: 2647: 2639: 2637: 2634: 2587: 2579: 2577: 2574: 2560:is to produce 2512: 2504: 2502: 2499: 2483:is the use of 2479: 2471: 2469: 2466: 2434: 2426: 2424: 2421: 2406: 2398: 2396: 2393: 2362: 2354: 2352: 2349: 2347: 2344: 2325: 2324: 2305: 2291: 2269: 2266:climate change 2250:Natural hazard 2206:urban planning 2190:transportation 2171: 2170: 2169: 2150:Decision level 2125:several ways: 2115: 2112: 2073:Bing Maps 2057:Main article: 2054: 2051: 2027: 2026: 2018: 1962:Main article: 1959: 1956: 1907: 1904: 1890: 1887: 1874:Main article: 1871: 1868: 1858:street address 1850:Main article: 1847: 1844: 1831:ZIP Codes 1823:Main article: 1820: 1817: 1745:Main article: 1742: 1739: 1694:Vector overlay 1689: 1686: 1645:Main article: 1642: 1639: 1635:infrastructure 1633:modeling, and 1623:public utility 1606:Main article: 1603: 1600: 1590: 1587: 1537: 1534: 1506:Main article: 1503: 1500: 1492: 1491: 1485: 1479: 1468:surface runoff 1460:catchment area 1453: 1446: 1440: 1437:Slope or grade 1398:Geomorphometry 1396:Main article: 1381: 1378: 1336: 1333: 1317: 1314: 1280: 1277: 1264: 1263: 1251: 1246: 1234: 1229: 1225: 1222: 1215: 1212: 1194: 1189: 1181: 1176: 1157: 1152: 1133: 1113: 1110: 1059:Main article: 1056: 1053: 995: 992: 983:remote sensing 976:photogrammetry 953:miniature UAVs 894: 891: 869:remote sensing 832: 829: 825:3D color image 771: 768: 734:representing, 719: 716: 684: 681: 533:Main article: 530: 527: 380:nuclear weapon 294:Charles Picqué 238: 235: 176:geoinformatics 124: 123: 38: 36: 29: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7244: 7233: 7230: 7229: 7227: 7212: 7211: 7202: 7200: 7199: 7190: 7188: 7187: 7182: 7178: 7176: 7175: 7166: 7165: 7162: 7154: 7151: 7149: 7146: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7130: 7129: 7126: 7125: 7123: 7119: 7113: 7110: 7108: 7105: 7103: 7100: 7098: 7095: 7094: 7092: 7088: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 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ESRI, Inc. 6433: 6432: 6427: 6423: 6420: 6416: 6413: 6409: 6406: 6402: 6400: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6387:Monmonier, M. 6385: 6382: 6379: 6375: 6371: 6367: 6366:Longley, P.A. 6364: 6361: 6357: 6354: 6350: 6347: 6346:1-58948-245-X 6343: 6339: 6335: 6333: 6329: 6325: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6273: 6269: 6266: 6262: 6261: 6254: 6251: 6243: 6233: 6232:editing guide 6227: 6223: 6218: 6209: 6208: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6170: 6163: 6148: 6144: 6138: 6123: 6119: 6113: 6098: 6094: 6088: 6086: 6071: 6067: 6061: 6047: 6043: 6037: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6010: 6008: 5999: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5983: 5981:9784431555186 5977: 5973: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5954: 5946: 5942: 5938: 5936:9789400721197 5932: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5915: 5907: 5899: 5895: 5891: 5889:9781589481497 5885: 5881: 5877: 5870: 5862: 5856: 5852: 5845: 5837: 5831: 5827: 5820: 5812: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5779: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5744: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5709: 5701: 5697: 5691: 5683: 5677: 5669: 5663: 5655: 5651: 5645: 5637: 5633: 5627: 5613:on 2007-06-14 5609: 5605: 5598: 5591: 5582: 5577: 5573: 5566: 5558: 5551: 5544: 5536: 5530: 5526: 5519: 5511: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5492: 5476: 5470: 5463: 5457: 5438: 5431: 5424: 5404: 5400: 5393: 5386: 5372: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5353: 5345: 5341: 5334: 5325: 5318: 5312: 5305: 5299: 5290: 5282: 5270: 5258: 5250: 5248:9780080449104 5244: 5240: 5236: 5229: 5220: 5206: 5199: 5185: 5181: 5174: 5166: 5162: 5155: 5139: 5135: 5131: 5124: 5116: 5109: 5098: 5094: 5088: 5081: 5080: 5072: 5058:on 2017-05-17 5057: 5053: 5047: 5031: 5027: 5021: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4982: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4943: 4935: 4928: 4920: 4914: 4910: 4903: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4864: 4855: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4823: 4815: 4811: 4806: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4784:Public Health 4781: 4774: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4731: 4722: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4690: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4640: 4633: 4625: 4621: 4616: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4592: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4561:(6): 886–94. 4560: 4556: 4552: 4545: 4543: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4517: 4512: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4489: 4482: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4455: 4440: 4438:9780133509274 4434: 4429: 4428: 4422: 4416: 4410: 4406: 4400: 4392: 4385: 4377: 4370: 4362: 4355: 4353: 4351: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4319: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4284: 4278: 4277: 4270: 4259: 4255: 4248: 4241: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4186: 4170: 4166: 4160: 4152: 4148: 4142: 4134: 4128: 4124: 4117: 4115: 4098: 4094: 4088: 4074: 4070: 4064: 4062: 4053: 4049: 4044: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4012: 3996: 3992: 3986: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3950: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3915: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3881: 3874: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3831: 3823: 3821: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3802:0-471-35923-8 3798: 3793: 3792: 3783: 3781: 3772: 3765: 3763: 3761: 3759: 3757: 3755: 3753: 3744: 3740: 3735: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3715: 3707: 3701: 3697: 3690: 3688: 3686: 3684: 3676: 3675:1-58948-245-X 3672: 3668: 3662: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3644:9780415829069 3640: 3637:. Routledge. 3636: 3629: 3614: 3608: 3592: 3588: 3581: 3565: 3561: 3555: 3539: 3535: 3529: 3515: 3511: 3505: 3489: 3485: 3478: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3424: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3381: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3358: 3342: 3336: 3320: 3314: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3279: 3270: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3250: 3242: 3236: 3232: 3225: 3217: 3211: 3207: 3200: 3198: 3193: 3183: 3182:Virtual globe 3180: 3178: 3175: 3173: 3170: 3168: 3165: 3163: 3160: 3158: 3155: 3153: 3150: 3148: 3145: 3143: 3140: 3138: 3135: 3133: 3130: 3128: 3125: 3123: 3120: 3118: 3115: 3113: 3110: 3108: 3105: 3103: 3100: 3098: 3095: 3093: 3090: 3089: 3082: 3079: 3075: 3067: 3064: 3061: 3058: 3055: 3052: 3048: 3047: 3046: 3037: 3034: 3031: 3026: 3024: 3018: 3008: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2991: 2987: 2977: 2973: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2921: 2917: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2893: 2891: 2886: 2884: 2878: 2876: 2872: 2866: 2861: 2857: 2847: 2844: 2840: 2837: 2829: 2825: 2822: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2806: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2770: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2747:data analysis 2744: 2740: 2733: 2725:Public health 2719: 2715: 2711: 2710:participatory 2707: 2701: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2672: 2661: 2655: 2651: 2644: 2630: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2618:ERDAS IMAGINE 2615: 2611: 2606: 2602: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2584: 2570: 2566: 2565:geologic maps 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2520:oil reservoir 2516: 2509: 2495: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2476: 2462: 2461:environmental 2458: 2454: 2450: 2443: 2438: 2431: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2403: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2366: 2359: 2343: 2340: 2338: 2333: 2331: 2330:interoperable 2322: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2306: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2292: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2270: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2218:crime mapping 2215: 2214:public health 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2172: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2148: 2147: 2145: 2141: 2140: 2135: 2131: 2128: 2127: 2126: 2121: 2111: 2107: 2105: 2101: 2100:OpenStreetMap 2097: 2096:crowdsourcing 2093: 2089: 2084: 2082: 2081:OpenStreetMap 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2060: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2023: 2019: 2016: 2012: 2011: 2010: 2008: 2004: 1999: 1995: 1990: 1988: 1987:shaded relief 1984: 1983:contour lines 1980: 1970: 1965: 1955: 1951: 1948: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1928: 1925: 1922: 1917: 1913: 1903: 1901: 1896: 1886: 1883: 1877: 1867: 1864: 1859: 1853: 1843: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1826: 1816: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1771: 1770:Interpolation 1767: 1763: 1761: 1760:Pacific Ocean 1755: 1753: 1752:Geostatistics 1748: 1747:Geostatistics 1741:Geostatistics 1738: 1736: 1732: 1727: 1723: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1699: 1695: 1685: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1658: 1653: 1648: 1638: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1619: 1614: 1609: 1599: 1596: 1586: 1584: 1580: 1579:shaded relief 1576: 1571: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1556: 1555:contour lines 1552: 1547: 1543: 1536:Data analysis 1533: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1509: 1499: 1497: 1489: 1488:Shaded relief 1486: 1483: 1480: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1454: 1451: 1447: 1444: 1441: 1438: 1435: 1434: 1433: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1405: 1399: 1391: 1386: 1377: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1362:Geoprocessing 1359: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1342: 1332: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1313: 1311: 1307: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1285: 1276: 1272: 1269: 1260: 1259:interpolation 1256: 1252: 1250: 1247: 1244: 1239: 1235: 1233: 1230: 1226: 1223: 1220: 1216: 1213: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1199: 1195: 1193: 1190: 1187: 1182: 1180: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1164: 1158: 1156: 1153: 1150: 1146: 1143:), property ( 1142: 1138: 1134: 1132: 1129: 1128: 1127: 1125: 1119: 1109: 1107: 1103: 1098: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1079: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1062: 1052: 1050: 1044: 1040: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1021: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1001: 991: 988: 984: 979: 977: 973: 969: 964: 962: 958: 954: 949: 947: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 924: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 899: 890: 888: 887: 886:data transfer 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 837: 828: 826: 822: 817: 815: 811: 810:raster images 806: 804: 800: 796: 792: 788: 781: 777: 770:Data modeling 767: 765: 759: 757: 753: 749: 745: 741: 737: 733: 727: 725: 715: 713: 710: 706: 702: 698: 694: 690: 680: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 629: 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 607: 603: 599: 594: 592: 588: 584: 580: 576: 572: 568: 564: 560: 557: 552: 548: 547: 542: 536: 526: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 490: 488: 484: 479: 477: 473: 469: 465: 461: 457: 452: 450: 447: 443: 438: 436: 432: 427: 423: 419: 414: 412: 408: 404: 400: 396: 392: 388: 383: 381: 377: 373: 368: 366: 362: 358: 353: 350: 346: 342: 337: 335: 331: 326: 322: 318: 313: 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 292: 287: 286: 279: 272: 269: 265: 262: 258: 254: 253:E. W. Gilbert 250: 246: 244: 234: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 212: 208: 204: 199: 197: 191: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 168: 166: 162: 158: 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 130: 120: 117: 109: 98: 95: 91: 88: 84: 81: 77: 74: 70: 67: – 66: 62: 61:Find sources: 55: 51: 45: 44: 39:This article 37: 33: 28: 27: 22: 7208: 7196: 7184: 7172: 7133:Geo-literacy 7090:Institutions 6972:Internet GIS 6961: 6932:Quantitative 6809:Soil science 6728:Oceanography 6717:Zoogeography 6702:Biogeography 6577:Agricultural 6450: 6430: 6418: 6411: 6404: 6390: 6377: 6359: 6352: 6337: 6323: 6306: 6289: 6278: 6271: 6264: 6246: 6240:January 2022 6237: 6225: 6176: 6172: 6162: 6150:. Retrieved 6147:www.esri.com 6146: 6137: 6125:. Retrieved 6121: 6112: 6100:. Retrieved 6096: 6073:. Retrieved 6069: 6060: 6049:. 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A 1708:Venn diagram 1701: 1672: 1668: 1663: 1611: 1592: 1572: 1539: 1511: 1493: 1422:biogeography 1407: 1372:processing, 1361: 1360: 1344: 1329:spreadsheets 1319: 1286: 1282: 1273: 1265: 1214:Completeness 1161: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1124:homomorphism 1121: 1118:Data quality 1112:Data quality 1099: 1083:GPS receiver 1080: 1064: 1045: 1041: 1027:maps can be 1022: 1006:digitization 1003: 980: 972:stereo pairs 965: 957:Aeryon Scout 950: 927: 896: 884: 881:digitization 876: 864: 862: 818: 807: 795:World War II 783: 760: 728: 721: 707:or a single 700: 696: 692: 686: 630: 626:Internet GIS 606:HTTP servers 595: 546:GIS software 544: 540: 538: 529:GIS software 521:(SAAS), and 491: 480: 453: 439: 415: 384: 372:Waldo Tobler 369: 360: 354: 349:plastic film 338: 314: 291:cartographer 278:epidemiology 275: 240: 230: 222: 214: 200: 192: 171: 169: 141: 137: 135: 112: 103: 93: 86: 79: 72: 60: 48:Please help 43:verification 40: 7210:WikiProject 7062:Ethnography 7054:Qualitative 7014:Map algebra 7009:Hydrography 6950:Web mapping 6940:Cartography 6752:Climatology 6742:Meteorology 6597:Development 6374:Rhind, D.W. 6070:www.une.edu 4959:(1): 4–19. 4706:: 103–113. 4409:open access 4125:. 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