Genome - Knowledge

618: 870: 60: 830:, however, some bacterial species have linear or multiple chromosomes. If the DNA is replicated faster than the bacterial cells divide, multiple copies of the chromosome can be present in a single cell, and if the cells divide faster than the DNA can be replicated, multiple replication of the chromosome is initiated before the division occurs, allowing daughter cells to inherit complete genomes and already partially replicated chromosomes. Most prokaryotes have very little repetitive DNA in their genomes. However, some 9349: 1123: 386: 227: 9361: 8455: 8064: 341: 583:, meaning that there are two of each chromosome in the nucleus but the 'genome' refers to only one copy of each chromosome. Some eukaryotes have distinctive sex chromosomes, such as the X and Y chromosomes of mammals, so the technical definition of the genome must include both copies of the sex chromosomes. For example, the standard reference genome of humans consists of one copy of each of the 22 autosomes plus one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. 1016:, a neurodegenerative disease. Twenty human disorders are known to result from similar tandem repeat expansions in various genes. The mechanism by which proteins with expanded polygulatamine tracts cause death of neurons is not fully understood. One possibility is that the proteins fail to fold properly and avoid degradation, instead accumulating in aggregates that also sequester important transcription factors, thereby altering gene expression. 9325: 8443: 9337: 2678:

program, known as "In-Valids" suffer discrimination and are relegated to menial occupations. The protagonist of the film is an In-Valid who works to defy the supposed genetic odds and achieve his dream of working as a space navigator. The film warns against a future where genomic information fuels prejudice and extreme class differences between those who can and cannot afford genetically engineered children.

1186: 9313: 1052:, but are transcribed into RNA for transposition, then the RNA transcript is copied back to DNA formation with the help of a specific enzyme called reverse transcriptase. A retrotransposon that carries reverse transcriptase in its sequence can trigger its own transposition but retrotransposons that lack a reverse transcriptase must use reverse transcriptase synthesized by another retrotransposon. 1028:

human genome, there are three important classes of TEs that make up more than 45% of the human DNA; these classes are The long interspersed nuclear elements (LINEs), The interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs), and endogenous retroviruses. These elements have a big potential to modify the genetic control in a host organism.

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theorist is asked to give his expert opinion on the safety of engineering an ecosystem with the dinosaurs, and he repeatedly warns that the outcomes of the project will be unpredictable and ultimately uncontrollable. These warnings about the perils of using genomic information are a major theme of the book.

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In humans, the nuclear genome comprises approximately 3.1 billion nucleotides of DNA, divided into 24 linear molecules, the shortest 45 000 000 nucleotides in length and the longest 248 000 000 nucleotides, each contained in a different chromosome. There is no clear and consistent correlation between

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Unlike prokaryotes where exon-intron organization of protein coding genes exists but is rather exceptional, eukaryotes generally have these features in their genes and their genomes contain variable amounts of repetitive DNA. In mammals and plants, the majority of the genome is composed of repetitive

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is set in a futurist society where genomes of children are engineered to contain the most ideal combination of their parents' traits, and metrics such as risk of heart disease and predicted life expectancy are documented for each person based on their genome. People conceived outside of the eugenics

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encode a transposase enzyme between inverted terminal repeats. When expressed, the transposase recognizes the terminal inverted repeats that flank the transposon and catalyzes its excision and reinsertion in a new site. This cut-and-paste mechanism typically reinserts transposons near their original

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There are many enormous differences in size in genomes, specially mentioned before in the multicellular eukaryotic genomes. Much of this is due to the differing abundances of transposable elements, which evolve by creating new copies of themselves in the chromosomes. Eukaryote genomes often contain

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genome. Genome size varies widely across species. Invertebrates have small genomes, this is also correlated to a small number of transposable elements. Fish and Amphibians have intermediate-size genomes, and birds have relatively small genomes but it has been suggested that birds lost a substantial

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are derived from ancient retroviral infections, so they encode proteins related to retroviral proteins including gag (structural proteins of the virus), pol (reverse transcriptase and integrase), pro (protease), and in some cases env (envelope) genes. These genes are flanked by long repeats at both

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Transposable elements (TEs) are sequences of DNA with a defined structure that are able to change their location in the genome. TEs are categorized as either as a mechanism that replicates by copy-and-paste or as a mechanism that can be excised from the genome and inserted at a new location. In the

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All the cells of an organism originate from a single cell, so they are expected to have identical genomes; however, in some cases, differences arise. Both the process of copying DNA during cell division and exposure to environmental mutagens can result in mutations in somatic cells. In some cases,

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DNA sequences that carry the instructions to make proteins are referred to as coding sequences. The proportion of the genome occupied by coding sequences varies widely. A larger genome does not necessarily contain more genes, and the proportion of non-repetitive DNA decreases along with increasing

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It's very difficult to come up with a precise definition of "genome." It usually refers to the DNA (or sometimes RNA) molecules that carry the genetic information in an organism but sometimes it is difficult to decide which molecules to include in the definition; for example, bacteria usually have

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High-throughput technology makes sequencing to assemble new genomes accessible to everyone. Sequence polymorphisms are typically discovered by comparing resequenced isolates to a reference, whereas analyses of coverage depth and mapping topology can provide details regarding structural variations

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that has 720 pairs. It is surprising the amount of DNA that eukaryotic genomes contain compared to other genomes. The amount is even more than what is necessary for DNA protein-coding and noncoding genes due to the fact that eukaryotic genomes show as much as 64,000-fold variation in their sizes.

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Since genomes are very complex, one research strategy is to reduce the number of genes in a genome to the bare minimum and still have the organism in question survive. There is experimental work being done on minimal genomes for single cell organisms as well as minimal genomes for multi-cellular

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tell the story of a billionaire who creates a theme park of cloned dinosaurs on a remote island, with disastrous outcomes. A geneticist extracts dinosaur DNA from the blood of ancient mosquitoes and fills in the gaps with DNA from modern species to create several species of dinosaurs. A chaos

818:, and may contain one or more separate RNA molecules (segments: monopartit or multipartit genome). DNA viruses can have either single-stranded or double-stranded genomes. Most DNA virus genomes are composed of a single, linear molecule of DNA, but some are made up of a circular DNA molecule. 570:

DNA. Most textbooks make a distinction between the nuclear genome and the organelle (mitochondria and chloroplast) genomes so when they speak of, say, the human genome, they are only referring to the genetic material in the nucleus. This is the most common use of 'genome' in the scientific

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Fiers W, Contreras R, Duerinck F, Haegeman G, Iserentant D, Merregaert J, Min Jou W, Molemans F, Raeymaekers A, Van den Berghe A, Volckaert G, Ysebaert M (April 1976). "Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene".

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Schneiker, Susanne; Perlova, Olena; Kaiser, Olaf; Gerth, Klaus; Alici, Aysel; Altmeyer, Matthias O; Bartels, Daniela; Bekel, Thomas; Beyer, Stefan; Bode, Edna; Bode, Helge B; Bolten, Christoph J; Choudhuri, Jomuna V; Doss, Sabrina; Elnakady, Yasser A (November 2007).

5889:, comments: "The measurement for Amoeba dubia and other protozoa which have been reported to have very large genomes were made in the 1960s using a rough biochemical approach which is now considered to be an unreliable method for accurate genome size determinations." 467:

With advancements in technology that could handle sequencing of the many repetitive sequences found in human DNA that were not fully uncovered by the original Human Genome Project study, scientists reported the first end-to-end human genome sequence in March 2022.

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The movement of TEs is a driving force of genome evolution in eukaryotes because their insertion can disrupt gene functions, homologous recombination between TEs can produce duplications, and TE can shuffle exons and regulatory sequences to new locations.

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to determine what mechanisms could have produced the great variety of genomes that exist today (for recent overviews, see Brown 2002; Saccone and Pesole 2003; Benfey and Protopapas 2004; Gibson and Muse 2004; Reese 2004; Gregory 2005).

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Anderson S, Bankier AT, Barrell BG, de Bruijn MH, Coulson AR, Drouin J, Eperon IC, Nierlich DP, Roe BA, Sanger F, Schreier PH, Smith AJ, Staden R, Young IG (April 1981). "Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome".

3009: 1001:. Microsatellites consisting of 2–5 basepair repeats, while minisatellite repeats are 30–35 bp. Tandem repeats make up about 4% of the human genome and 9% of the fruit fly genome. Tandem repeats can be functional. For example, 6705:

Shao, Changwei; Sun, Shuai; Liu, Kaiqiang; Wang, Jiahao; Li, Shuo; Liu, Qun; Deagle, Bruce E.; Seim, Inge; Biscontin, Alberto; Wang, Qian; Liu, Xin; Kawaguchi, So; Liu, Yalin; Jarman, Simon; Wang, Yue (16 March 2023).

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is invoked to explain how there is often an extreme similarity between small portions of the genomes of two organisms that are otherwise very distantly related. Horizontal gene transfer seems to be common among many

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Long interspersed elements (LINEs) encode genes for reverse transcriptase and endonuclease, making them autonomous transposable elements. The human genome has around 500,000 LINEs, taking around 17% of the genome.

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genomes to their nuclear chromosomes. Recent empirical data suggest an important role of viruses and sub-viral RNA-networks to represent a main driving role to generate genetic novelty and natural genome editing.

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Whereas a genome sequence lists the order of every DNA base in a genome, a genome map identifies the landmarks. A genome map is less detailed than a genome sequence and aids in navigating around the genome. The

2531:, diploid cells divide twice to produce haploid germ cells. During this process, recombination results in a reshuffling of the genetic material from homologous chromosomes so each gamete has a unique genome. 5569:

Fleischmann RD, Adams MD, White O, Clayton RA, Kirkness EF, Kerlavage AR, Bult CJ, Tomb JF, Dougherty BA, Merrick JM (July 1995). "Whole-genome random sequencing and assembly of Haemophilus influenzae Rd".

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are found mostly in eukaryotes but not found in prokaryotes. Retrotransposons form a large portion of the genomes of many eukaryotes. A retrotransposon is a transposable element that transposes through an

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of an individual or a species. Within a species, the vast majority of nucleotides are identical between individuals, but sequencing multiple individuals is necessary to understand the genetic diversity.

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molecules that carry important genetic information. The definition of 'genome' that's commonly used in the scientific literature is usually restricted to the large chromosomal DNA molecules in bacteria.

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Kelley, Joanna L.; Peyton, Justin T.; Fiston-Lavier, Anna-Sophie; Teets, Nicholas M.; Yee, Muh-Ching; Johnston, J. Spencer; Bustamante, Carlos D.; Lee, Richard E.; Denlinger, David L. (12 August 2014).

3540: 3001: 1012:. For example, the human gene huntingtin (Htt) typically contains 6–29 tandem repeats of the nucleotides CAG (encoding a polyglutamine tract). An expansion to over 36 repeats results in 985:, sequences for non-coding RNAs, regulatory regions, and repetitive DNA. Noncoding sequences make up 98% of the human genome. There are two categories of repetitive DNA in the genome: 3032: 5984:

Greilhuber J, Borsch T, Müller K, Worberg A, Porembski S, Barthlott W (November 2006). "Smallest angiosperm genomes found in lentibulariaceae, with chromosomes of bacterial size".

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Meeks JC, Elhai J, Thiel T, Potts M, Larimer F, Lamerdin J, Predki P, Atlas R (2001). "An overview of the genome of Nostoc punctiforme, a multicellular, symbiotic cyanobacterium".

923:, such as ova, sperm, spores, and pollen, are haploid, meaning they carry only one copy of each chromosome. In addition to the chromosomes in the nucleus, organelles such as the 5063:

Thomason L, Court DL, Bubunenko M, Costantino N, Wilson H, Datta S, Oppenheim A (April 2007). "Recombineering: Genetic Engineering in Bacteria Using Homologous Recombination".

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many thousands of copies of these elements, most of which have acquired mutations that make them defective. Here is a table of some significant or representative genomes. See

8493: 7500: 3364: 5901:"Evolution of genome size and chromosome number in the carnivorous plant genus Genlisea (Lentibulariaceae), with a new estimate of the minimum genome size in angiosperms" 4990:

Sanger F, Air GM, Barrell BG, Brown NL, Coulson AR, Fiddes CA, Hutchison CA, Slocombe PM, Smith M (February 1977). "Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA".

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Short interspersed elements (SINEs) are usually less than 500 base pairs and are non-autonomous, so they rely on the proteins encoded by LINEs for transposition. The

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The development of new technologies has made genome sequencing dramatically cheaper and easier, and the number of complete genome sequences is growing rapidly. The

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sequences and maps continue to be updated, removing errors and clarifying regions of high allelic complexity. The decreasing cost of genomic mapping has permitted

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such mutations lead to cancer because they cause cells to divide more quickly and invade surrounding tissues. In certain lymphocytes in the human immune system,

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Roest Crollius H, Jaillon O, Dasilva C, Ozouf-Costaz C, Fizames C, Fischer C, Bouneau L, Billault A, Quetier F, Saurin W, Bernot A, Weissenbach J (July 2000).

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5' and 3' ends. It has been reported that LTRs consist of the largest fraction in most plant genome and might account for the huge variation in genome size.

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portion of their genomes during the phase of transition to flight. Before this loss, DNA methylation allows the adequate expansion of the genome.

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maintains one of several comprehensive databases of genomic information. Among the thousands of completed genome sequencing projects include those for

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Eukaryotic genomes are even more difficult to define because almost all eukaryotic species contain nuclear chromosomes plus extra DNA molecules in the

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Philippe N, Legendre M, Doutre G, Couté Y, Poirot O, Lescot M, Arslan D, Seltzer V, Bertaux L, Bruley C, Garin J, Claverie JM, Abergel C (July 2013).

8486: 3075: 421:). The nuclear genome includes protein-coding genes and non-coding genes, other functional regions of the genome such as regulatory sequences (see 7239: 7110: 4680: 3186: 1108:

location (within 100 kb). DNA transposons are found in bacteria and make up 3% of the human genome and 12% of the genome of the roundworm

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is the most common SINE found in primates. It is about 350 base pairs and occupies about 11% of the human genome with around 1,500,000 copies.

8479: 2693: 8373: 7605: 7230:"Scientists Find the Largest Known Genome Inside a Small Plant - A fern from a Pacific island carries 50 times as much DNA as humans do" 7927: 4935:

Fiers W, Contreras R, Haegemann G, Rogiers R, Van de Voorde A, Van Heuverswyn H, Van Herreweghe J, Volckaert G, Ysebaert M (May 1978).

780: 372: 617: 5707:"Biological consequences of ancient gene acquisition and duplication in the large genome of Candidatus Solibacter usitatus Ellin6076" 3857:

Land M, Hauser L, Jun SR, Nookaew I, Leuze MR, Ahn TH, Karpinets T, Lund O, Kora G, Wassenaar T, Poudel S, Ussery DW (March 2015).

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Ellis LL, Huang W, Quinn AM, Ahuja A, Alfrejd B, Gomez FE, Hjelmen CE, Moore KL, Mackay TF, Johnston JS, Tarone AM (July 2014).

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in April 2003, although the initial "finished" sequence was missing 8% of the genome consisting mostly of repetitive sequences.

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Gregory TR, Nicol JA, Tamm H, Kullman B, Kullman K, Leitch IJ, Murray BG, Kapraun DF, Greilhuber J, Bennett MD (January 2007).

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are composed of the tandem repeat TTAGGG in mammals, and they play an important role in protecting the ends of the chromosome.

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in 1995. A few months later, the first eukaryotic genome was completed, with sequences of the 16 chromosomes of budding yeast

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Lang D, Zimmer AD, Rensing SA, Reski R (October 2008). "Exploring plant biodiversity: the Physcomitrella genome and beyond".

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Han JS, Boeke JD (August 2005). "LINE-1 retrotransposons: modulators of quantity and quality of mammalian gene expression?".

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can be transcribed into RNA, which are then duplicated at another site into the genome. Retrotransposons can be divided into

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and studied without reference to the details of any particular genes and their products. Researchers compare traits such as

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Sequencing Consortium (December 1998). "Genome sequence of the nematode C. elegans: a platform for investigating biology".

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The International Silkworm Genome (December 2008). "The genome of a lepidopteran model insect, the silkworm Bombyx mori".

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An image of the 46 chromosomes making up the diploid genome of a human male (the mitochondrial chromosomes are not shown).

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Sanger F, Coulson AR, Hong GF, Hill DF, Petersen GB (December 1982). "Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage lambda DNA".

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Glass JI, Assad-Garcia N, Alperovich N, Yooseph S, Lewis MR, Maruf M, Hutchison CA, Smith HO, Venter JC (January 2006).

8100: 7922: 7716: 3033:"The Human Genome Project pieced together only 92% of the DNA – now scientists have finally filled in the remaining 8%" 2723: 1078: 650: 5899:

Fleischmann A, Michael TP, Rivadavia F, Sousa A, Wang W, Temsch EM, Greilhuber J, Müller KF, Heubl G (December 2014).

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Eukaryotic genomes are composed of one or more linear DNA chromosomes. The number of chromosomes varies widely from

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However, this special characteristic is caused by the presence of repetitive DNA, and transposable elements (TEs).

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Deininger PL, Moran JV, Batzer MA, Kazazian HH (December 2003). "Mobile elements and mammalian genome evolution".

8447: 8393: 7599: 6773: 2743: 2738: 17: 7014:"Characterization and repeat analysis of the compact genome of the freshwater pufferfish Tetraodon nigroviridis" 2922: 9147: 8742: 365: 5806: 5512:"Genome sequence of the cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus marinus SS120, a nearly minimal oxyphototrophic genome" 245: 9283: 8421: 6957:"Sequence and comparative analysis of the chicken genome provide unique perspectives on vertebrate evolution" 2713: 1019:

Tandem repeats are usually caused by slippage during replication, unequal crossing-over and gene conversion.

1009: 746: 493: 7229: 7063:"Genome duplication in the teleost fish Tetraodon nigroviridis reveals the early vertebrate proto-karyotype" 6807: 1085:, there is another DIRS-like elements belong to Non-LTRs. Non-LTRs are widely spread in eukaryotic genomes. 8931: 8612: 8008: 6830:

Church DM, Goodstadt L, Hillier LW, Zody MC, Goldstein S, She X, et al. (May 2009). Roberts RJ (ed.).

882: 8617: 6708:"The enormous repetitive Antarctic krill genome reveals environmental adaptations and population insights" 5357:"Small, smaller, smallest: the origins and evolution of ancient dual symbioses in a Phloem-feeding insect" 3079: 2524:

generates different genomic sequences such that each cell produces a unique antibody or T cell receptors.

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published as the result of a European-led effort begun in the mid-1980s. The first genome sequence for an

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have their own DNA. Mitochondria are sometimes said to have their own genome often referred to as the "

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Challacombe JF, Eichorst SA, Hauser L, Land M, Xie G, Kuske CR (15 September 2011). Steinke D (ed.).

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Dufresne A, Salanoubat M, Partensky F, Artiguenave F, Axmann IM, Barbe V, et al. (August 2003).

4623: 3108: 2618:, to duplication of a cluster of genes, and all the way to duplication of entire chromosomes or even 1450: 939:". Like the bacteria they originated from, mitochondria and chloroplasts have a circular chromosome. 811: 725:

have also opened up the prospect of personal genome sequencing as a diagnostic tool, as pioneered by

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Tuskan GA, Difazio S, Jansson S, Bohlmann J, Grigoriev I, Hellsten U, et al. (September 2006).

840:) have reduced genomes and a high fraction of pseudogenes: only ~40% of their DNA encodes proteins. 549:) that contain all of the essential genetic material but they also contain smaller extrachromosomal 9381: 8999: 8900: 8817: 8383: 8228: 8160: 7917: 7736: 3201: 2625: 2279: 1967: 665: 655: 152: 31: 6368: 5966: 3518: 9026: 8802: 8368: 8240: 7658: 7061:

Jaillon O, Aury JM, Brunet F, Petit JL, Stange-Thomann N, Mauceli E, et al. (October 2004).

5246: 3906: 3601: 3146: 3113: 2803: 2564: 2467: 2095: 1157:. Genome size is largely a function of the expansion and contraction of repetitive DNA elements. 1013: 592: 453: 35: 5247:"Pandoraviruses: amoeba viruses with genomes up to 2.5 Mb reaching that of parasitic eukaryotes" 4092:

Padeken J, Zeller P, Gasser SM (April 2015). "Repeat DNA in genome organization and stability".

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Blattner FR, Plunkett G, Bloch CA, Perna NT, Burland V, Riley M, et al. (September 1997).

4181:"Microsatellites: genomic distribution, putative functions and mutational mechanisms: a review" 2768: 2441: 2043: 1601: 1109: 784: 646: 7653: 7175: 6152:"Decoding the massive genome of loblolly pine using haploid DNA and novel assembly strategies" 3386:

Prüfer K, Racimo F, Patterson N, Jay F, Sankararaman S, Sawyer S, et al. (January 2014).

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Some bacteria have auxiliary genetic material, also part of their genome, which is carried in

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Martincorena I, Campbell PJ (September 2015). "Somatic mutation in cancer and normal cells".

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Leroy S, Bouamer S, Morand S, Fargette M (2007). "Genome size of plant-parasitic nematodes".

6293:"Sequencing of Aspergillus nidulans and comparative analysis with A. fumigatus and A. oryzae" 5453:

Rocap G, Larimer FW, Lamerdin J, Malfatti S, Chain P, Ahlgren NA, et al. (August 2003).

5042:"Virology – Human Immunodeficiency Virus And Aids, Structure: The Genome And Proteins of HIV" 4132:"The biological effects of simple tandem repeats: lessons from the repeat expansion diseases" 3444: 3121: 2783: 2688: 2658: 2254: 1934: 1876: 1162: 1150: 633:(Belgium) was the first to establish the complete nucleotide sequence of a viral RNA-genome ( 489: 325: 305: 270: 182: 177: 8590: 6808:

Ecological factors and parity mode correlate with genome size variation in squamate reptiles

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Galagan JE, Calvo SE, Cuomo C, Ma LJ, Wortman JR, Batzoglou S, et al. (December 2005).

3352: 8958: 8953: 8829: 8148: 8133: 7943: 7761: 7382: 7325: 7314:"Genome-wide reprogramming in the mouse germ line entails the base excision repair pathway" 7270: 7074: 6968: 6919: 6659: 6567: 6451: 6395: 6304: 6051: 5993: 5718: 5579: 5523: 5466: 5417: 5313: 5261: 4999: 4948: 4936: 4893: 4759: 4638: 4316: 4252: 4192: 3978: 3814:

McCutcheon JP, Moran NA (November 2011). "Extreme genome reduction in symbiotic bacteria".

3399: 2934: 2664: 2615: 2556: 2493: 2229: 2018: 1993: 1791: 1706: 1399: 1057: 932: 869: 742: 686: 457: 438: 5455:"Genome divergence in two Prochlorococcus ecotypes reflects oceanic niche differentiation" 3286: 2084:

Smallest insect genome sequenced thus far, likely an adaptation to an extreme environment

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Werner E (December 2003). "In silico multicellular systems biology and minimal genomes".

7371:"Germline DNA demethylation dynamics and imprint erasure through 5-hydroxymethylcytosine" 7369:

Hackett JA, Sengupta R, Zylicz JJ, Murakami K, Lee C, Down TA, Surani MA (January 2013).

6778: 6440:"Compact genome of the Antarctic midge is likely an adaptation to an extreme environment" 3495: 2778: 2698: 2654:

Works of science fiction illustrate concerns about the availability of genome sequences.

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In other cases, expansions in the number of tandem repeats in exons or introns can cause

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Wurm Y, Wang J, Riba-Grognuz O, Corona M, Nygaard S, Hunt BG, et al. (April 2011).

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Kirchberger PC, Schmidt ML, and Ochman H (2020). "The ingenuity of bacterial genomes".

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Kidwell MG, Lisch DR (March 2000). "Transposable elements and host genome evolution".

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Smallest known cyanobacterium genome. One of the primary photosynthesizers on Earth.

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Prokaryotes and eukaryotes have DNA genomes. Archaea and most bacteria have a single

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Zhou, Wanding; Liang, Gangning; Molloy, Peter L.; Jones, Peter A. (11 August 2020).

3629:(4th ed.). Galveston, TX: The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. 3541:"How do your 20,000 genes determine so many wildly different traits? They multitask" 9317: 8975: 8869: 8502: 8287: 8282: 8028: 8003: 7567: 7398: 7390: 7341: 7333: 7278: 7149: 7082: 7033: 7025: 6976: 6927: 6853: 6843: 6796: 6729: 6719: 6677: 6667: 6620: 6583: 6575: 6526: 6516: 6475: 6459: 6403: 6349: 6312: 6243: 6214: 6173: 6163: 6122: 6114: 6087: 6059: 6001: 5920: 5912: 5852: 5844: 5807:"Largest known bacterial genome size - Bacteria Sorangium cellulosum - BNID 104469" 5778: 5736: 5726: 5691: 5671: 5634: 5587: 5541: 5531: 5496: 5474: 5425: 5406:"Genome sequence of the endocellular bacterial symbiont of aphids Buchnera sp. APS" 5376: 5368: 5341: 5321: 5269: 5217: 5209: 5170: 5133: 5125: 5068: 5027: 5007: 4976: 4956: 4921: 4901: 4826: 4818: 4777: 4767: 4718: 4710: 4654: 4646: 4585: 4548: 4540: 4499: 4491: 4452: 4417: 4344: 4324: 4270: 4260: 4200: 4151: 4143: 4101: 4004: 3986: 3940: 3878: 3870: 3843: 3823: 3786: 3778: 3716: 3679: 3671: 3574: 3415: 3407: 3227: 2962: 2942: 2853: 2837: 2708: 2611: 2600: 1732: 1626: 1126: 768: 758: 695: 237: 7669: 6954: 6407: 6247: 5639: 5622: 5098: 3755: 3102: 775:

sites to offer it as a service, to the extent that one may submit one's genome to

9232: 8926: 8905: 8834: 8637: 8302: 8292: 8277: 8213: 7888: 6848: 6521: 5886: 5731: 5072: 2887: 2703: 2622:. Such duplications are probably fundamental to the creation of genetic novelty. 2614:

play a major role in shaping the genome. Duplication may range from extension of

2560: 2204: 1777: 1574: 1053: 1040: 896: 878: 792: 757:. A fundamental step in the project was the release of a detailed genomic map by 734: 442: 6118: 4358: 3931:

Khandelwal S (March 1990). "Chromosome evolution in the genus Ophioglossum L.".

3709:"Replication of Linear Bacterial Chromosomes: No Longer Going Around in Circles" 2563:(5mC) in primordial germ cells. The erasure of 5mC occurs via its conversion to 385: 9365: 9329: 9222: 9109: 8980: 8839: 8822: 8627: 8557: 8459: 8297: 8200: 8143: 8018: 7958: 7858: 6906:, Adams MD, Myers EW, Li PW, Mural RJ, Sutton GG, et al. (February 2001). 6724: 6707: 6652: