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the GSN succeeded in maintaining a trading profit of about £100,000 a year, but the recent expansion of the company meant that this was now the minimum to serve dividends, reserves and deprecation. In 1881 the directors announced a reduction in the half year dividend for the first time in many years. From 1881 to 1884 GSN kept up a trading profit of about £100,000 a year. In 1885 a 50% decline in the receipts from cattle transport reduced the trading profit to only £38,000. The GSN then ceased to pay regular dividend, and only paid a reduced dividend on the preference shares. In late 1885 the company's £15 nominal shares had dropped to £7 from an 1880 sell price of £29.
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29:
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This was enabled by a very strong capital base. From the start, the GSN spread its interests over a number of routes, making that survival did not depend on any of them. The large number ships that it owned gave if flexibility in allocating ships. In turn, this enabled the rich GSN to adopt ruthless competitive tactics that smaller companies could not adopt. In 1836 a merchant commented that: '... the moment a boat is attempted to be put on any (GSN) station they immediately put on a boat against it', (i.e. driving it out of business with a better boat at cheaper rates).
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to creative bookkeeping. The turnaround was remarkable, and in 1897 GSN even paid a dividend of 2 per cent on the regular shares. However, as receipts grew from £432,695 in 1892 to £547,162 in 1901, profit remained low. This was caused by the creative accounting of the previous management, which had kept up profits by not properly depreciating the fleet. Now a substantial amount of profit (about £160,000 from 1895 to 1901) had to be used to depreciate the fleet, which meanwhile increased in size. Reducing debt and
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Britain. Meanwhile prices for food fell drastically, also impacting freight rates. For GSN, costs were steadily rising as cargo volumes and freight rates were cyclic. Another problem was that many direct connections from the continent were established. These circumvented the shipment of goods via GSN's profitable lines to London. The railway companies that were prepared to ship goods at a loss in order to feed their railways also continued to be a problem. In these circumstances, GSN's profits started to decline.
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276:. In 1825 however, many existing ships were hastily bought after little prior inspection. In 1826 GSN faced a financial crisis. Only about half of its fleet was actually employed, and not all of these permanently. Many of the second hand ships which had been bought required extensive repairs, and the ships that had been ordered cost a lot of money before they generated revenue.
1340:. The problem with this modernization was in the way that it was carried out. In the 1860s £300,000 had been spent cautiously on relatively inexpensive second hand ships. In the 1870s and 1880s a like sum was spent on larger and ever more expensive new-builds. During these years GSN also spent considerable sums on improving the wharves and the facilities at Deptford.
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After 1829 all new vessels got engines by GSN itself. Hulls for wooden ships were built by local shipyards. Most iron ships were built by
Ditchburn & Mare at Bow. The engineering gave GSN a cost advantage. They also allowed GSN to redress many defects in its early ships. In the 1830s the works assisted in lengthening most of the existing GSN fleet.
1336:. It also led to the replacement of much of the old GSN management. The new management tried to cope with the situation by modernizing the GSN fleet. This led to 24 new steamships in the 1870s, as well as six second-hand ships. One of the ideas behind the modernization was to switch to more efficient larger ships with more efficient
1233:. However, it lacked the capabilities to make effective use of these, and it would be 1883 before the GER Harwich lines started to grow. On the line to Charente and Bordeaux, the GSN got competition from a company from Liverpool. GSN reacted by slashing freight rates and obliged the competitor to withdraw after only a few months.
1381:(Hollandsche Stoomboot Maatschappij), in which a Dutch railway had a major stake. On the Harlingen line, the ships Widgeon and Teal got a cool chamber to transport dairy products. In the Thames tourism market GSN faced though competition from the Victoria Steamboat Association (VSA) for a while. In 1898 GSN added a new
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World War I was an exceptional period for GSN. From its outbreak the fleet was largely under the control of the government. No less than 21 of its 46 ships were used as transports, supply ships and minesweepers. 23 ships were lost while five new ones were added. It was also a time of great profit for
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The new management did prove able to develop business opportunities near home, in south
Yorkshire and East-Anglia. New low-profile lines with small ships were started to Hull, Yarmouth, Grimsby, King's Lynn, and Norwich. GSN also remained committed to tourism. After some changes the fleet on the Kent
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The decline in GSN's fortunes led to serious confrontations with angry shareholders. In 1889 some of these were pressing for a committee of enquiry, and one of them called the management of the
General Steam Navigation Company the 'laughing stock of the City'. What is certain, is that the company had
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In order to pay for the modernization, the company's capital was expanded. In about 1874 this was £300,000 and in 1877 it had grown to almost £750,000, about half of it in preference shares. It meant that the dividend expected by the shareholders rose from £30,000 to £56,000 a year. In the late 1870s
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in
Deptford, where cattle imported from countries at risk from rinderpest had to be landed and slaughtered. This severely affected prices, and thus freight for GSN. Meanwhile the growing economies of France and Germany also began to import live cattle, diminishing their supply. Furthermore, American
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By 1850 the GSN served seven lines to the near continent, seven ports on the
British east coast, and was still strongly placed in the Margate and Ramsgate tourism. Most of these lines profited from collaborating with the competition. This was true for the coastal trade, and for the lines to Antwerp,
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Some shareholders were worried by the continued calls for additional funding, and in March 1827 they reacted by attempting to dissolve the company. This did not succeed, but in the autumn, the three executive directors who had been in charge up till then were replaced by three committees. The change
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and
Normandy Ferries. These became the backbone of what ultimately evolved into P&O Ferries after P&O re-organized its subsidiaries in 1971. In October 1971 the minority shareholders in GSN were bought out, and its activities became part of P&O's European and Air Transport Division. GSN
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Under these difficult business conditions, the new board tried to redress the situation, and succeeded. In 1896 GSN suddenly paid the full dividend on the preference shares, and applied £20,000 to depreciation of the fleet. The turnaround was such that a magazine suggested that it could only be due
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By 1890 GSN was in deep trouble. It was obvious that the cattle trade would not recover, and that the shipping lines to the near-continent would continue to suffer from direct and indirect competition from the railways. The shipment of cargo via GSN's homeport London would also continue to decline.
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The initiative to form the
General Steam Navigation Company came from William J. Hall and Thomas Brocklebank. On 11 June 1824 a contract was signed to found the company. It had a large nominal capital of £2 million in £100 shares, but the first instalment was only two pounds 10 shillings, and would
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The purchase of ships again showed the advantage of being a big company. GSN bought many of these 31 vessels second hand, and at bargain prices. An example of buying second hand was that in 1860 GSN bought four iron screw ships built in 1856 from the "Harburg
English steam Navigation Company", and
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In 1851 the GSN dominated trade into London. It had 67% of the sailings by
British vessels from France, 48% from the Netherlands, and 95% of that from Belgium. Meanwhile competition by the railways had become a serious challenge. In 1850 a passenger could already travel between London and Edinburg
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The GSN was so successful for multiple reasons. It had a shrewd management and a sound investment policy, but this was not a unique feature of the GSN. What did set the GSN apart was the sheer size of its operations and its domination of the near
Continental and some of the coastal steam shipping.
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In 1827 the GSN decided to start its own engineering workshops. These were located at Deptford. By 1836 these employed 100 men. In 1838 they were extended to simultaneously handle two vessels, and got a crane that could lift 66 tons. This was essential for placing engines and boilers in the ships.
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competition, but also led to a new agreement. By 1838 the Margate Company had been bought by GSN, which continued a service to Ramsgate. It left Margate to the "New Margate Company" in exchange for 9d for each Margate passenger in Summer. In 1849 GSN would buy the "New Margate Company"'s vessels.
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The new management took some measures towards vertical integration. The passenger and cargo agencies, brokers, and middlemen were up to then independent companies, but were now brought in-house. It turned GSN from a company that merely owned and managed ships into a transport company, controlling
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The line to Ramsgate and Margate had been Brocklebank's Ramsgate and Broadstairs Steam Packet Company, that was continued by GSN. In order to limit competition GSN made an agreement with the Margate company, in which Sir Robert Banks had an interest. In 1831 the "New Margate Company" reintroduced
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In about 1821, Thomas Brocklebank arrived at Margate on the first steamboat to ply that route. On disembarking the local authorities charged him 2s 6d for himself and 2s 6d for his hand baggage. This was the equivalent of about a week's income for an average salary. Brocklebank immediately saw a
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shareholders exchanged their £10 shares for £8 shares, but as these would now pay 6% instead of 5% they lost only very little. It was a sign of the already improved situation. In November 1902 Richard White became the new chairman, he was himself the largest shareholder with £25,000 in shares.
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In 1902 the work of reducing debt and writing of the fleet to a more realistic book value enabled the board to restructure the company. This came down forming a new legal entity with a capital of only £484,024. Each regular share of £15 could be traded for one new share of £7.5. The preference
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that lasted from 1873 to 1896 was challenging for GSN. While the economy continued to grow, the pace was slower in Britain and faster on the continent. The shipment of dairy products, foodstuff and live cattle continued to boom, but now the continent also began to export industrial products to
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line. This GSN behavior has been called a cost-aware willingness to use cheap second-hand ships. Other reasons might be that GSN's size made her far more likely to have a possible use for any second hand ship. GSN also had the technical expertise to inspect ships, and to fix them if necessary.
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The GSN pioneered the trade in imported livestock, which proved highly lucrative and significant for GSN. The import of life cattle was made possible by the steamship, with its near-guaranteed date of arrival. It also boosted the trade in meats and dairy products. This was further increased by
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for £13,350. Within a few months, St. George's transferred the contract to GSN, and when it had to be renewed two years later, there was only a single offer by GSN for £17,000. It was widely believed that GSN achieved both the transfer and the single offer by paying about £2,000 a year to its
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In 1860 the GSN had 43 vessels, a mix of wooden paddle steamers, iron paddlers, and iron screw ships. From 1860 to 1869 a further 31 were built or bought, most of them iron screw ships. During this decade many old vessels were taken out of service, so only about 50 vessels remained by 1870.
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Overall, the GSN made a remarkable recovery from its 1903 low point to 1913. It extended GSN's activities into cargo handling and forwarding, and increased involvement in Hull, Grimsby and Yarmouth. In spite of increased competition, it was able to do profitable business on the coastal and
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The overview illustrates how the company's operations started. In 1824, Jolliffe, Banks, and Brocklebank brought in their four steam vessels. The board then carefully placed orders for six new ships: four built by Everden at Deptford on land leased from Brocklebank, and two by Wallis at
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overextended itself financially, and that when profits came under serious pressure from 1885, the management did not show caution, and had no plan B. In 1886 the first director with outside shipping experience was appointed. In 1890 the experienced shipper A. Howden was appointed.
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Free trade agreements made that British exports to France and Germany almost doubled in the 1860s. Typical exports that GSN carried to Hamburg were: cotton, tapes, woollens, carpets, silk and beer. On return trips cattle, dairy products and other foodstuff dominated.
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near-continent trade. Apart from that, the company fully paid the preference shareholders during this period, and paid 5% or 6% to the regular shares from 1905. Throughout the period both kind shares nevertheless never achieved a price equal to their nominal value.
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service. In 1893/4 it commissioned three big modern steamers capable of 17.5 kn. GSN was therefore continuously monitoring whether it should continue its services to Amsterdam and Rotterdam. On the connection to Amsterdam it made a pooling arrangement with the
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and Tönning. It was a subsidiary of the Lowestoft Harbour and Railway Company, which provided transport to the London markets. The later North of Europe Steam Packet collapsed in 1858, but another company bought its ships, and continued the Tönning service.
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to Rotterdam, and a line from Manchester to West Africa. These attempts were fruitless, and the failure of the shipping line to the West African coast even seriously aggravated the situation. In February 1893 chairman Tritton resigned. He was replaced by
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In 1870 GSN was still a very important shipping company. It served seven regular destinations on the near-continent and four destinations on the British East coast. It offered regular excursions to Boulogne, Margate and Ramsgate. GSN had cattle lines to
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GSN would operate as a subsidiary of P&O. In 1923 it acquired part of the Great Yarmouth Shipping company, an acquisition which became complete in 1931. In 1935 the Moss Hutchison Line, which traded in the Mediterranean became a subsidiary of GSN.
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After some troubles and failed experiments in the first years, the GSN proved a very successful concern in the 1830s and 1840s. Solid profits allowed it to expand, to build up reserves, and to pay a good annual dividend to the shareholders.
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By the mid 1960s the Thames excursion services were closed down, and the appearance of the container ship and the roll-on/roll-off ferry ended most of GSN's traditional business. GSN became a leading player in two Anglo-European consortia:
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In 1860 the GSN's coastal ships went from London to Hull and Newcastle. In 1867 Yarmouth was added. A new service to Charente on the Bay of Biscay had been added to the continental destinations in December 1859. It was soon extended to
996:(NSM), which was important for tourism. GSN and the "London and Rotterdam Steam Packet Company" soon entered into an agreement about freight rates and services. However, in April 1830 the NSM started to compete by commissioning the big
1302:. It would become an enduring and profitable venture. On the other hand a major strike in 1889 in London led to traffic shifting to outports and to the continent. This also led to the closure of the Boulogne line.
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of captain Smith in July 1822. In August 1822, the "London and Rotterdam Steam Packet Company" started to operate on the same route and immediately came to an agreement on a schedule with the owners of the
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never exceed £15. The company had a wide ranging vision of establishing steam lines across the globe, but also wanted to station steam vessels for towing at multiple places on the British coast.
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of 160 feet. In 1825 the GSN operated 14 steam vessels on lines from London. Many of the ships in this overview can be identified with ships in an 1822 overview of early steam vessels.
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GSN continued to provide pleasure cruises between London and resorts lower down the Thames. The purchase of the New Medway Steam Packet Co. in 1936 gave it a monopoly of this business.
1190:) crossing over to Britain in 1865. In 1867 this led to a prohibition of moving cattle from the landing place by road, making GSN's cattle wharf at Brown's Wharf / Coldharbour useless.
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reductions in customs duties in the 1840 and 1850s. At first cattle was embarked on the regular from Rotterdam and Hamburg. Next a ship was regularly dispatched to collect cattle in
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also left the London to Rotterdam line. At the end of the 1820s GSN started to operate a freight business. The import of live cattle and sheep from Rotterdam became very important.
1309:, acquired in 1877 was an innovation that greatly increased passenger comfort. In this decade GSN also added a tourist service to Great Yarmouth, which would become very important.
1305:
During the 1870s tourism to the Kent and Essex coasts continued to develop. It was quite usual for three vessels to run a daily schedule to the Kent coast. The deck-saloon steamer
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and near London Bridge, with some piers and buildings designed by company architect and surveyor Robert Palmer Browne. In 1867 GSN would become the owner of St Katharine's Wharf.
1025:
The line from Brighton to Dieppe provided a short route from London to Paris at a time that there were no railways from Paris to the coast. It would occasionally start and end at
952:. However, the shareholders were not happy with these lines. In March 1827 they agreed to sell the ships to the executives Banks and Jolliffe at a huge loss. By August 1827 the
1483:, multiple GSN ships participated. Its paddle-steamers were especially effective, as they could carry many passengers and were very fast. Involved were the paddle steamers
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Brocklebank built some more vessels, and formed the Ramsgate and Broadstairs Steam Packet Company. This company had shares dated 29 April 1822. It employed Brocklebank's
155:. At the time both places were already popular tourist destinations. At the time, the brothers Thomas and John Brocklebank, were traders in timber and had a shipyard at
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measured between 500 and 600 tons burthen, and had 130 hp engines. These were a technological success, proving they were able to withstand the storms in the
1037:. After fierce competition, the competitors came to an agreement, and published a common schedule and fare for two GSN ships and one "Brighton and Dieppe" ship.
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and was served by four vessels. The cattle trade thrived, and GSN built three screw ships for this purpose. It was however depresses by the cattle plague (
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When the company was established, it immediately acquired four existing steamers for lines to Hull and Ramsgate. It then ordered six more for lines to
3101:
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After World War I GSN was a prize worth having for larger operators, because it could be used as feeder service for their deep-water trades. In 1920
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1045:
In 1836 GSN entered the coasting trade by acquiring the "London and Edinburgh Steam Packet Company". The London and Edinburgh had begun a London to
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During these years, the management made serious attempts to get into more profitable activities. Amongst these, a line from Manchester via the
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business opportunity and decided to convert one of the barges he had on the stocks to a steamboat. He ordered engines and soon launched her as
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led to tighter procedures and better accounting, and the company becoming profitable. In 1831 Parliament granted limited liability via the
1418:
in 1911. The passenger traffic from London to Scotland and the near-continent peaked at the turn of the century, but was more profitable.
532:
1112:
1029:, i.e. when it was not safe to land at Brighton. The local competitor the "Brighton and Dieppe Steam Packet Company" employed the
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of 1821, also belonged to this company. The data of these ships shows that they were generally bigger than the early GSN ships.
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264:. The tonnage of these ships was about 240, with 40 hp. In 1825 a new line from London to Leith was added, serviced by the
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brought in 279 oxen and cows, 67 calves and 500 sheep. In 1851 the "Northern Steam Packet Company" started to operate between
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line for almost 150 years. It was the oldest shipping company in the world to begin business with seagoing steam vessels.
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2896:"Steam Vessels, an account of the number of voyages, and tonnage, of the steam vessels which entered the port of London"
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in June 1825. In 1831 the Post Office tendered a contract for the mail from London to Hamburg. It was awarded to the
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to Rotterdam, carrying mainly cattle. In 1864 it opened a line to Antwerp. By 1866 the Great Eastern had five ships
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seems to have become a more lasting venture. In 1882 GSN started a service to the Mediterranean, with calls at
1018:
1115:. They also opened up a lot of new destinations for tourists, competing with the Margate and Ramsgate trips.
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245:. Others have that Sir Joseph Banks and Thomas Brocklebank would only later become the managing director.
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2723:, built by Clydeside shipbuilder John Wood and launched on 20 June 1821, acquired by the GSN in 1836.
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2015:
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as chairman. He was a partner of the house bank Barclay, Bevan, Tritton & Co., later known as
241:(1808-1865). (Matthias Attwood should not be confused with his younger brother the MP and banker
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28:
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An Act for granting certain Powers to a Company called "The General Steam Navigation Company."
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for the same route. In 1824 the City of London was built. In May 1824 Brocklebank sold the
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and Canadian cattle and frozen meat began to enter the British market in huge quantities.
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The line to Lisbon, Vigo, Oporto and Gibraltar was part of plans to establish a London -
1266:. In the 1870s GSN management tried to develop new lines to the near-continent, e.g. to
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on the route between London and Ramsgate. In 1822 Brocklebank built the slightly larger
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much faster by train. The railway companies were also getting into shipping, e.g. the
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continued on this line throughout 1823, but then seems to have left. In April 1825 the
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In 1815, the first steam shipping line on the Thames was started. The paddle steamer
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The cattle trade would not develop that well. In 1871 London authorities opened the
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cargo from origin to destination, with offices in all principal continental ports.
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of 647 tons and a speed of 17 kn to the fleet serviced Margate and Ramsgate.
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2982:"'The Most Indefatigable Activity' The General Steam Navigation Company, 1824–50"
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1479:, the GSN had about 45 ships, of which 10 were pleasure vessels. During the 1940
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A Century of Sea Trading 1824-1924: The General Steam Navigation Company Limited
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bought a controlling stake in GSN at £5.10s per £1 ordinary share. During the
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William J. Hall, and the Ramsgate shipping line owner Thomas Brocklebank. Mr.
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Staats und gelehrte zeitung des hamburgischen unpartheyischen correspondenten
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1509:. GSN ships saved around 10% of all those rescued from the French beaches.
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1002:. That same year, the "London and Rotterdam Steam Packet Company" sold the
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of 510 ton burthen and 120 hp was launched in July 1823. The smaller
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The works of Palmer and Forrester are scientific histories of the GSN.
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The Great Eastern Railway was meanwhile busy developing the Harwich to
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The most serious competition again came from the railways. In 1863 the
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Address of Sir John Rennie, President, to the Annual General Meeting
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The General Steam Navigation Company c.1850-1913, a business history
2742:"The Impact of Technological Change, The Early Steamship in Britain"
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The line to Calais had been inherited the line to Calais with the
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shipping line owners William Jolliffe and Sir Edward Banks, the
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The first line from London to Rotterdam had been opened by the
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2796:"Our Ocean Waifs, a trip to Scotland on the G.S.N.C. Penguin"
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Acquisition of the London and Edinburgh Steam Packet Company
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MP was the first chairman. He would be succeeded by his son
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Galignani's Messenger, The Spirit of the English Journals.
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Galignani's Messenger, The Spirit of the English Journals.
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Galignani's Messenger, The Spirit of the English Journals.
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GSN's first board had 18 members. Amongst these were the
3023:"The General Steam Navigation - suspension of dividends"
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GSN, which doubled the nominal capital to £1,000,000.
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Scotts' Shipbuilding and Engineering Company (1906),
2945:"Company Notes, the General Steam Navigation Company"
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2933:"Company Notes, the General Steam Navigation Company"
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2921:"Company Notes, the General Steam Navigation Company"
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In June 1874 the situation led to the appointment of
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First ships of the General Steam Navigation Company
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2958:"Dunkirk and the General Steam Navigation Company"
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1357:The only success were the Mediterranean services.
988:. In 1826 GSN started to compete by employing the
2765:Transport in Britain: From Canal Lock to Gridlock
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1966:, The Clyde Built Ships. Accessed 19 August 2015.
1945:
1711:Scotts' Shipbuilding and Engineering Company 1906
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992:, which connected to the Rhine steamboats of the
392:. c. liii), and incorporation followed in 1834.
163:The Ramsgate and Broadstairs Steam Packet Company
3127:Defunct shipping companies of the United Kingdom
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3015:The London and Leith Smack and Steam Yacht Guide
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1523:then ceased to exist as an independent company.
777:GSN ships off Brunswick Wharf, Blackwall in 1840
176:, where people could disembark without charges.
2909:"Report of the House of Commons on Steam-Boats"
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1393:was in general a high priority for the board.
172:. She was used for a route between London and
2768:, Hambledon and London, London and New York,
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936:line. These obviously required bigger ships.
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2907:A Committee of the House of Commons (1822),
2740:Armstrong, John; Williams, David M. (2011),
1053:of 420 ton burthen. The second ship was the
2793:
2761:
2641:
1939:
1584:
1245:London - Amsterdam cattle and cargo c. 1878
3021:
1868:
1647:
199:
27:
3048:The ships that came to the pool of London
2915:, vol. LX, pp. 113–132, 257–262
2835:
2815:
2635:
2620:
2608:
2596:
2584:
2572:
2560:
2536:
2524:
2512:
2473:
2458:
2443:
2431:
2419:
2407:
2395:
2383:
2371:
2354:
2342:
2330:
2318:
2306:
2294:
2282:
2252:
2240:
2228:
2216:
2204:
2192:
2180:
2165:
2153:
2141:
2126:
2114:
2099:
2087:
2075:
2039:
1543:
1013:The line to Hamburg was started with the
384:General Steam Navigation Company Act 1831
359:General Steam Navigation Company Act 1874
286:General Steam Navigation Company Act 1831
2806:
1672:A Committee of the House of Commons 1822
1609:A Committee of the House of Commons 1822
1597:A Committee of the House of Commons 1822
1463:
1248:
1240:
1133:
1122:
1049:service in 1821. Its first ship was the
772:
764:
208:
3122:Transport companies established in 1824
3029:, vol. XLIV, p. 341-342, 1885
2878:
1567:
1067:
760:
112:Cargo services, Thames pleasure cruises
3109:
3044:
3033:
2979:
2913:The Philosophical Magazine and Journal
2802:, no. 189, Colin Venton, Melksham
2671:
2649:"The General Steam Navigation Company"
2063:
2051:
2002:
1990:
1927:
1862:
1790:
1778:
1725:
1698:
1686:
1623:
1439:
781:In 1826 GSN had eight shipping lines:
3137:British companies established in 1824
2789:, vol. XI, p. 778-780, 1851
2762:Bagwell, Philip; Lyth, Peter (2002),
1410:services existed of the very popular
372:Text of statute as originally enacted
147:, serviced a line between London and
3011:
2955:
2702:
1975:
1951:
1084:Conclusions about the GSN up to 1850
994:Nederlandsche Stoomboot Maatschappij
2811:, London: A&C Black Ltd, London
2008:
1435:Subsidiary of P&O (1920 - 1972)
1118:
13:
1883:"General Steam Navigation Company"
1101:
681:2 * 30 hp Boulton & Watt
14:
3148:
3076:
2836:Forrester, Robert Edward (2006),
2783:"Death of Matthias Attwood, Esq."
2016:"Southern Blackwall: Coldharbour"
1253:An 1890s cattle ship from America
122:(GSN), incorporated in 1824, was
3102:General Steam Navigation Company
3095:
3071:, Offices of Engineering, London
3040:, Institution of Civil Engineers
2986:The Journal of Transport History
297:
120:General Steam Navigation Company
22:General Steam Navigation Company
3051:, Amberley Publishing Limited,
2894:Harbor Master's Office (1826),
2819:The Story of the Paddle Steamer
2730:
2713:
2258:
1957:
1900:
1838:
1820:
1459:
1127:Cattle from Rotterdam on board
1636:Death of Matthias Attwood 1851
1425:
1396:
1352:1890 - 1902 Nadir and recovery
1236:
1096:
1019:St George Steam Packet Company
1:
3117:Shipping companies of England
3068:Two Centuries of Shipbuilding
2964:, vol. X, archived from
2882:Greenwich as it used to be...
1556:Armstrong & Williams 2011
1526:
133:
16:London based shipping company
2962:Greenwich Industrial History
2902:, vol. XXI, p. 118
2748:, St. John's, Newfoundland,
2746:Research in Maritime History
1531:
1163:
1033:, and had better use of the
1006:to GSN. In August 1831, the
516:Brocklebank's Ramsgate line
492:Brocklebank's Ramsgate line
7:
2879:Gearing, Albert W. (2016),
2816:Dumpleton, Bernard (1973),
1660:Harbor Master's Office 1826
705:80 hp Scott, Greenock
582:Ritchie & Co., Belfast
10:
3153:
2998:10.1177/002252668200300201
2822:, Colin Venton, Melksham,
2807:Cornford, L. Cope (1924),
2266:"General Steam Navigation"
435:Jolliffe, Banks & Co.
279:United Kingdom legislation
239:Matthias Wolverley Attwood
205:Foundation and first years
138:
1817:, p. 31 August 1827.
1512:
1379:Holland Steamship Company
972:. Its first ship was the
412:
409:
400:
370:
363:
353:
348:
338:
333:
320:
310:
296:
291:
284:
108:
97:
87:
73:
58:
50:
40:
26:
3083:General Steam Navigation
1446:P&O Steam Navigation
1278:, but only a service to
1173:kept two of them on the
1107:Rotterdam and Hamburg.
1076:GSN operated wharves in
1004:Queen of the Netherlands
982:Queen of the Netherlands
606:Wood & Co., Glasgow
486:2 * 40 hp Butterly
438:2 * 40 hp Butterly
406:
403:
1940:Bagwell & Lyth 2002
1805:, p. 9 March 1827.
1769:, p. 29 July 1826.
1757:, p. 24 July 1826.
1740:, p. 26 July 1826.
1008:King of the Netherlands
986:King of the Netherlands
974:King of the Netherlands
200:Early years (1825-1850)
2980:Palmer, Sarah (1982),
2900:Estimates and Accounts
2549:Investor's Review 1896
2501:Investor's Review 1897
2486:Investor's Review 1894
2020:British History Online
1472:
1338:compound steam engines
1330:Joseph Herbert Tritton
1254:
1246:
1143:
1131:
960:had indeed been sold.
917:, so it could use the
778:
770:
657:2 * 30 hp Napier
609:2 * 30 hp Napier
585:2 * 35 hp Napier
561:2 * 35 hp Napier
537:2 * 35 hp Napier
483:Brocklebank, Deptford
218:
3104:at Wikimedia Commons
3045:Robins, Nick (2017),
3034:Rennie, John (1846),
2787:The Banker's Magazine
2679:"Moss Hutchison Line"
1850:Rotterdamsche courant
1832:Rotterdamsche courant
1467:
1367:Sir James Lyle Mackay
1362:Manchester Ship Canal
1314:Foreign Cattle Market
1252:
1244:
1199:Great Eastern Railway
1137:
1126:
913:. It then bought the
776:
769:The old Brighton Pier
768:
654:Cornwallis, Greenock
633:2 * 30 hp, Cook
558:Cornwallis, Greenock
540:Liverpool - Greenock
467:Jolliffe & Banks
444:Jolliffe & Banks
212:
181:Thames paddle steamer
2800:St. Stephen's Review
2794:Blinkhoolie (1886),
1728:, p. chapter 8.
1068:Facilities in London
761:Early shipping lines
2968:on 23 December 2012
2272:. 22 February 1890.
1908:"Dampf-Packetfahrt"
1440:The Interwar period
1201:opened a line from
678:Brent, Rotherhithe
660:London - Rotterdam
588:Liverpool - Dublin
564:Liverpool - Dublin
397:
23:
2956:Mogg, Tom (2006),
2659:on 29 October 2015
1481:Dunkirk evacuation
1473:
1255:
1247:
1144:
1132:
921:for a new line to
779:
771:
489:London - Ramsgate
395:
219:
128:short sea shipping
21:
3100:Media related to
3091:List of GSN ships
3012:Reid, W. (1824),
2949:Investor's Review
2937:Investor's Review
2925:Investor's Review
2755:978-0-9864973-7-7
1852:. 20 August 1822.
1815:Galignani's 1827b
1803:Galignani's 1827a
1520:North Sea Ferries
1051:City of Edinburgh
919:Earl of Liverpool
911:Earl of Liverpool
851:Earl of Liverpool
758:
757:
684:London - Margate
450:Earl of Liverpool
390:1 & 2 Will. 4
377:
376:
349:Other legislation
327:1 & 2 Will. 4
292:Act of Parliament
116:
115:
3144:
3099:
3085:at Grace's Guide
3072:
3061:
3041:
3030:
3027:The Railway News
3018:
3008:
2976:
2975:
2973:
2952:
2940:
2928:
2916:
2903:
2890:
2885:, archived from
2875:
2865:
2855:
2845:
2844:
2832:
2812:
2803:
2790:
2778:
2758:
2724:
2717:
2706:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2691:
2689:
2683:P&O Heritage
2675:
2669:
2668:
2666:
2664:
2655:. Archived from
2645:
2639:
2633:
2624:
2618:
2612:
2606:
2600:
2594:
2588:
2582:
2576:
2570:
2564:
2558:
2552:
2546:
2540:
2534:
2528:
2522:
2516:
2510:
2504:
2498:
2489:
2483:
2477:
2471:
2462:
2456:
2447:
2441:
2435:
2429:
2423:
2417:
2411:
2405:
2399:
2393:
2387:
2381:
2375:
2369:
2358:
2352:
2346:
2340:
2334:
2328:
2322:
2316:
2310:
2304:
2298:
2292:
2286:
2280:
2274:
2273:
2262:
2256:
2250:
2244:
2238:
2232:
2226:
2220:
2214:
2208:
2202:
2196:
2190:
2184:
2178:
2169:
2163:
2157:
2151:
2145:
2139:
2130:
2124:
2118:
2112:
2103:
2097:
2091:
2085:
2079:
2073:
2067:
2061:
2055:
2049:
2043:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2012:
2006:
2000:
1994:
1988:
1979:
1973:
1967:
1961:
1955:
1949:
1943:
1937:
1931:
1925:
1916:
1915:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1887:P&O Heritage
1879:
1866:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1846:"Advertisements"
1842:
1836:
1835:
1828:"Advertisements"
1824:
1818:
1812:
1806:
1800:
1794:
1788:
1782:
1776:
1770:
1767:Galignani's 1826
1764:
1758:
1755:Galignani's 1826
1752:
1741:
1738:Galignani's 1826
1735:
1729:
1723:
1714:
1708:
1702:
1696:
1690:
1684:
1675:
1669:
1663:
1657:
1651:
1645:
1639:
1633:
1627:
1621:
1612:
1606:
1600:
1594:
1588:
1585:Blinkhoolie 1886
1582:
1571:
1565:
1559:
1553:
1547:
1541:
1475:At the start of
1119:The cattle trade
934:Saint Petersburg
875:Sir Edward Banks
636:London - Calais
630:Scotts, Glasgow
612:London - Calais
441:London - Calais
398:
394:
386:
385:
365:Status: Repealed
301:
300:
287:
282:
281:
235:Matthias Attwood
69:
67:
31:
24:
20:
3152:
3151:
3147:
3146:
3145:
3143:
3142:
3141:
3132:Ship management
3107:
3106:
3079:
3059:
2971:
2969:
2889:on 3 March 2016
2842:
2830:
2776:
2756:
2733:
2728:
2727:
2718:
2714:
2709:
2701:
2697:
2687:
2685:
2677:
2676:
2672:
2662:
2660:
2647:
2646:
2642:
2634:
2627:
2619:
2615:
2607:
2603:
2595:
2591:
2583:
2579:
2571:
2567:
2559:
2555:
2547:
2543:
2535:
2531:
2523:
2519:
2511:
2507:
2499:
2492:
2484:
2480:
2472:
2465:
2457:
2450:
2442:
2438:
2430:
2426:
2418:
2414:
2406:
2402:
2394:
2390:
2382:
2378:
2370:
2361:
2353:
2349:
2341:
2337:
2329:
2325:
2317:
2313:
2305:
2301:
2293:
2289:
2281:
2277:
2264:
2263:
2259:
2251:
2247:
2239:
2235:
2227:
2223:
2215:
2211:
2203:
2199:
2191:
2187:
2179:
2172:
2164:
2160:
2152:
2148:
2140:
2133:
2125:
2121:
2113:
2106:
2098:
2094:
2086:
2082:
2074:
2070:
2062:
2058:
2050:
2046:
2038:
2034:
2024:
2022:
2014:
2013:
2009:
2001:
1997:
1989:
1982:
1974:
1970:
1964:P.S. James Watt
1962:
1958:
1950:
1946:
1938:
1934:
1926:
1919:
1914:. 11 June 1825.
1906:
1905:
1901:
1891:
1889:
1881:
1880:
1869:
1861:
1857:
1844:
1843:
1839:
1826:
1825:
1821:
1813:
1809:
1801:
1797:
1789:
1785:
1777:
1773:
1765:
1761:
1753:
1744:
1736:
1732:
1724:
1717:
1709:
1705:
1697:
1693:
1685:
1678:
1670:
1666:
1658:
1654:
1648:suspension 1885
1646:
1642:
1634:
1630:
1622:
1615:
1607:
1603:
1595:
1591:
1583:
1574:
1566:
1562:
1554:
1550:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1529:
1515:
1506:Queen of Thanet
1462:
1450:Interwar period
1442:
1437:
1428:
1399:
1374:Hook of Holland
1354:
1322:Long Depression
1239:
1166:
1121:
1104:
1102:The GSN in 1850
1099:
1086:
1070:
1043:
1031:Quentin Durward
1015:Hylton Jolliffe
932:and a London -
879:Hylton Jolliffe
763:
473:Royal Sovereign
383:
382:
366:
306:
298:
285:
280:
207:
202:
190:Royal Sovereign
165:
141:
136:
65:
63:
36:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3150:
3140:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3093:
3092:
3089:The Ships List
3086:
3078:
3077:External links
3075:
3074:
3073:
3062:
3057:
3042:
3031:
3019:
3009:
2977:
2953:
2941:
2929:
2917:
2904:
2891:
2876:
2866:
2856:
2846:
2833:
2828:
2813:
2804:
2791:
2779:
2774:
2759:
2754:
2732:
2729:
2726:
2725:
2711:
2710:
2708:
2707:
2695:
2670:
2640:
2638:, p. 217.
2636:Forrester 2006
2625:
2623:, p. 208.
2621:Forrester 2006
2613:
2611:, p. 196.
2609:Forrester 2006
2601:
2599:, p. 191.
2597:Forrester 2006
2589:
2587:, p. 189.
2585:Forrester 2006
2577:
2575:, p. 187.
2573:Forrester 2006
2565:
2563:, p. 180.
2561:Forrester 2006
2553:
2551:, p. 308.
2541:
2539:, p. 168.
2537:Forrester 2006
2529:
2527:, p. 171.
2525:Forrester 2006
2517:
2515:, p. 167.
2513:Forrester 2006
2505:
2503:, p. 244.
2490:
2488:, p. 245.
2478:
2476:, p. 185.
2474:Forrester 2006
2463:
2459:Forrester 2006
2448:
2444:Forrester 2006
2436:
2432:Forrester 2006
2424:
2422:, p. 109.
2420:Forrester 2006
2412:
2410:, p. 108.
2408:Forrester 2006
2400:
2396:Forrester 2006
2388:
2384:Forrester 2006
2376:
2374:, p. 110.
2372:Forrester 2006
2359:
2357:, p. 101.
2355:Forrester 2006
2347:
2343:Forrester 2006
2335:
2331:Forrester 2006
2323:
2319:Forrester 2006
2311:
2307:Forrester 2006
2299:
2297:, p. 124.
2295:Forrester 2006
2287:
2285:, p. 121.
2283:Forrester 2006
2275:
2257:
2255:, p. 113.
2253:Forrester 2006
2245:
2241:Forrester 2006
2233:
2229:Forrester 2006
2221:
2217:Forrester 2006
2209:
2205:Forrester 2006
2197:
2193:Forrester 2006
2185:
2181:Forrester 2006
2170:
2166:Forrester 2006
2158:
2154:Forrester 2006
2146:
2142:Forrester 2006
2131:
2127:Forrester 2006
2119:
2115:Forrester 2006
2104:
2100:Forrester 2006
2092:
2088:Forrester 2006
2080:
2076:Forrester 2006
2068:
2056:
2044:
2040:Forrester 2006
2032:
2007:
1995:
1980:
1968:
1956:
1944:
1932:
1917:
1899:
1867:
1855:
1837:
1834:. 9 July 1822.
1819:
1807:
1795:
1783:
1771:
1759:
1742:
1730:
1715:
1703:
1691:
1676:
1674:, p. 258.
1664:
1662:, p. 118.
1652:
1650:, p. 342.
1640:
1638:, p. 778.
1628:
1613:
1611:, p. 262.
1601:
1599:, p. 261.
1589:
1572:
1560:
1548:
1544:Dumpleton 1973
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1514:
1511:
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751:
749:
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742:
736:
735:
733:
731:
729:
727:
724:
722:
716:
715:
709:
706:
703:
700:
697:
694:
692:Hylton Joliffe
688:
687:
685:
682:
679:
676:
673:
670:
664:
663:
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658:
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652:
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498:City of London
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344:23 August 1831
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266:United Kingdom
243:Thomas Attwood
206:
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38:
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15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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3058:9781445664620
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2918:
2914:
2910:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2883:
2877:
2873:
2872:
2867:
2863:
2862:
2857:
2853:
2852:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2834:
2831:
2829:9781841508634
2825:
2821:
2820:
2814:
2810:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2777:
2775:9781852855901
2771:
2767:
2766:
2760:
2757:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2738:
2737:
2736:
2722:
2716:
2712:
2704:
2699:
2684:
2680:
2674:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2644:
2637:
2632:
2630:
2622:
2617:
2610:
2605:
2598:
2593:
2586:
2581:
2574:
2569:
2562:
2557:
2550:
2545:
2538:
2533:
2526:
2521:
2514:
2509:
2502:
2497:
2495:
2487:
2482:
2475:
2470:
2468:
2461:, p. 97.
2460:
2455:
2453:
2446:, p. 96.
2445:
2440:
2434:, p. 99.
2433:
2428:
2421:
2416:
2409:
2404:
2398:, p. 95.
2397:
2392:
2386:, p. 94.
2385:
2380:
2373:
2368:
2366:
2364:
2356:
2351:
2345:, p. 89.
2344:
2339:
2333:, p. 87.
2332:
2327:
2321:, p. 85.
2320:
2315:
2309:, p. 84.
2308:
2303:
2296:
2291:
2284:
2279:
2271:
2270:The Economist
2267:
2261:
2254:
2249:
2243:, p. 75.
2242:
2237:
2231:, p. 74.
2230:
2225:
2219:, p. 73.
2218:
2213:
2207:, p. 71.
2206:
2201:
2195:, p. 39.
2194:
2189:
2183:, p. 69.
2182:
2177:
2175:
2168:, p. 65.
2167:
2162:
2156:, p. 64.
2155:
2150:
2144:, p. 44.
2143:
2138:
2136:
2129:, p. 14.
2128:
2123:
2117:, p. 15.
2116:
2111:
2109:
2102:, p. 38.
2101:
2096:
2090:, p. 13.
2089:
2084:
2078:, p. 11.
2077:
2072:
2066:, p. 19.
2065:
2060:
2054:, p. 17.
2053:
2048:
2042:, p. 76.
2041:
2036:
2021:
2017:
2011:
2005:, p. 14.
2004:
1999:
1993:, p. 13.
1992:
1987:
1985:
1978:, p. XI.
1977:
1972:
1965:
1960:
1953:
1948:
1942:, p. 26.
1941:
1936:
1930:, p. 12.
1929:
1924:
1922:
1913:
1909:
1903:
1888:
1884:
1878:
1876:
1874:
1872:
1865:, p. 11.
1864:
1859:
1851:
1847:
1841:
1833:
1829:
1823:
1816:
1811:
1804:
1799:
1793:, p. 76.
1792:
1787:
1780:
1775:
1768:
1763:
1756:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1739:
1734:
1727:
1722:
1720:
1713:, p. 21.
1712:
1707:
1700:
1695:
1688:
1683:
1681:
1673:
1668:
1661:
1656:
1649:
1644:
1637:
1632:
1625:
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1618:
1610:
1605:
1598:
1593:
1587:, p. 13.
1586:
1581:
1579:
1577:
1569:
1564:
1558:, p. 98.
1557:
1552:
1546:, p. 51.
1545:
1540:
1536:
1524:
1521:
1510:
1508:
1507:
1502:
1501:
1500:Crested Eagle
1496:
1495:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1471:
1466:
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1038:
1036:
1035:Brighton Pier
1032:
1028:
1023:
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1016:
1011:
1009:
1005:
1001:
1000:
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987:
983:
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946:Bay of Biscay
943:
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920:
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912:
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907:Lord Melville
903:
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805:Lord Melville
802:
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425:Lord Melville
423:
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3067:
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3026:
3014:
2989:
2985:
2970:, retrieved
2966:the original
2961:
2948:
2936:
2924:
2912:
2899:
2887:the original
2881:
2870:
2860:
2850:
2838:
2818:
2808:
2799:
2786:
2764:
2745:
2734:
2731:Bibliography
2720:
2715:
2698:
2686:. Retrieved
2682:
2673:
2661:. Retrieved
2657:the original
2652:
2643:
2616:
2604:
2592:
2580:
2568:
2556:
2544:
2532:
2520:
2508:
2481:
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2427:
2415:
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2379:
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2269:
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2083:
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2019:
2010:
1998:
1971:
1959:
1954:, p. X.
1947:
1935:
1911:
1902:
1890:. Retrieved
1886:
1858:
1849:
1840:
1831:
1822:
1810:
1798:
1786:
1781:, p. 9.
1774:
1762:
1733:
1706:
1701:, p. 6.
1694:
1689:, p. 3.
1667:
1655:
1643:
1631:
1626:, p. 2.
1604:
1592:
1568:Gearing 2016
1563:
1551:
1539:
1516:
1505:
1499:
1494:Medway Queen
1493:
1489:Golden Eagle
1488:
1484:
1477:World War II
1474:
1470:Medway Queen
1469:
1460:World War II
1455:
1443:
1429:
1420:
1415:
1412:Golden Eagle
1411:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1387:
1382:
1371:
1359:
1355:
1346:
1342:
1327:
1319:
1311:
1306:
1304:
1274:, Bordeaux,
1256:
1229:
1223:
1218:
1213:
1207:
1196:
1192:
1180:
1171:
1167:
1152:
1145:
1140:Cosmopolitan
1139:
1128:
1109:
1105:
1091:
1087:
1075:
1071:
1061:
1057:
1054:
1050:
1044:
1030:
1024:
1022:competitor.
1014:
1012:
1007:
1003:
998:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
964:
962:
958:Duke of York
957:
953:
942:Duke of York
941:
937:
927:
918:
914:
910:
906:
904:
900:
894:
892:Brocklebank,
891:
887:
878:
874:
864:
854:
850:
840:
831:Duke of York
830:
826:
804:
800:
780:
739:
719:
712:
691:
667:
643:
619:
595:
571:
547:
521:
497:
472:
449:
424:
381:
378:
340:Royal assent
270:
265:
247:
224:
220:
214:
193:
189:
184:
178:
170:Eagle Packet
169:
166:
144:
142:
126:'s foremost
119:
117:
98:Headquarters
18:
2992:(2): 1–22,
2064:Palmer 1982
2052:Palmer 1982
2003:Palmer 1982
1991:Palmer 1982
1928:Palmer 1982
1863:Palmer 1982
1791:Rennie 1846
1779:Palmer 1982
1726:Robins 2017
1699:Palmer 1982
1687:Palmer 1982
1624:Palmer 1982
1485:Royal Eagle
1426:World War I
1397:1902 - 1920
1264:Geestemünde
1237:1870 - 1890
1142:, of London
1097:1850 - 1939
1078:Coldharbour
999:De Batavier
984:joined the
886:to Dieppe:
855:Mountaineer
720:Brocklebank
548:Mountaineer
355:Repealed by
3111:Categories
2972:5 December
2721:James Watt
2688:4 November
2653:PortCities
2025:25 October
1527:References
1391:debentures
1188:rinderpest
1055:James Watt
950:Baltic Sea
869:London to
859:London to
845:London to
835:London to
809:London to
795:London to
785:London to
699:174 / 300
627:134 / 210
579:132 / 190
555:118 / 190
529:155 / 246
480:135 / 220
432:136 / 220
312:Long title
304:Parliament
231:wharfinger
134:Foundation
88:Successors
34:House flag
3006:116750813
2703:Mogg 2006
2663:18 August
1976:Reid 1824
1952:Reid 1824
1892:18 August
1532:Citations
1276:Groningen
1268:Terneuzen
1260:Harlingen
1164:The 1860s
1157:Lowestoft
954:George IV
938:George IV
861:Rotterdam
827:George IV
823:Gibraltar
713:Trinacria
675:87 / 190
651:84 / 140
603:77 / 156
508:Deptford
410:Shipyard
329:. c. liii
274:Blackwall
149:Gravesend
104:, England
45:Transport
1487:(1932),
1334:Barclays
1184:Bordeaux
1129:Batavier
1027:Newhaven
948:and the
909:and the
884:Brighton
837:Boulogne
787:Ramsgate
620:Waterloo
416:In 1822
413:Engines
407:Tonnage
322:Citation
258:Brighton
250:Yarmouth
174:Ramsgate
159:Creek.
157:Deptford
109:Products
78:Acquired
41:Industry
1307:Hoboken
1300:Palermo
1296:Messina
1288:Livorno
1230:Zealous
1219:Pacific
1214:Ipswich
1203:Harwich
1175:Harburg
1153:Giraffe
1149:Tönning
1062:Tourist
990:Belfast
888:Eclipse
871:Hamburg
865:Belfast
801:Attwood
791:Margate
740:Attwood
702:Scotts
668:Eclipse
572:Belfast
217:in 1825
153:Margate
145:Marjory
139:Context
92:P&O
82:P&O
64: (
59:Defunct
51:Founded
3055:
3004:
2951:, 1897
2939:, 1896
2927:, 1894
2874:, 1827
2864:, 1827
2854:, 1825
2826:
2772:
2752:
1513:Demise
1503:, and
1292:Naples
1227:, and
1208:Avalon
976:. The
923:Ostend
895:Talbot
847:Ostend
819:Oporto
811:Lisbon
797:Calais
596:Talbot
533:Scotts
522:Superb
404:Built
262:Dieppe
254:Ostend
227:Calais
215:Superb
124:London
102:London
3002:S2CID
2843:(PDF)
1416:Eagle
1383:Eagle
1284:Genoa
1280:Porto
1272:Ghent
1224:Stour
1138:S.S.
1113:LBSCR
1047:Leith
978:Rapid
970:Rapid
965:Rapid
930:Cádiz
915:Rapid
841:Rapid
696:1825
672:1819
648:1822
644:Rapid
624:1819
600:1819
576:1820
552:1821
526:1820
502:1824
477:1822
454:1823
429:1822
419:Note
401:Ship
334:Dates
194:Eagle
185:Eagle
3053:ISBN
2974:2021
2824:ISBN
2770:ISBN
2750:ISBN
2719:The
2690:2022
2665:2015
2027:2015
1894:2015
1414:and
1320:The
1298:and
1270:and
1262:and
1058:Soho
956:and
940:and
821:and
815:Vigo
789:and
746:143
726:111
708:N/a
513:N/a
505:146
464:N/a
457:131
260:and
118:The
74:Fate
66:1972
62:1972
54:1824
2994:doi
2990:III
1468:PS
925:.
711:ex-
213:SS
80:by
3113::
3025:,
3000:,
2988:,
2984:,
2960:,
2947:,
2935:,
2923:,
2911:,
2898:,
2798:,
2785:,
2744:,
2681:.
2651:.
2628:^
2493:^
2466:^
2451:^
2362:^
2268:.
2173:^
2134:^
2107:^
2018:.
1983:^
1920:^
1910:.
1885:.
1870:^
1848:.
1830:.
1745:^
1718:^
1679:^
1616:^
1575:^
1497:,
1491:,
1369:.
1294:,
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1221:,
1217:,
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890:,
877:,
873::
863::
853:,
849::
839::
829:,
825::
817:,
813:.
803:,
799::
256:,
252:,
196:.
2996::
2705:.
2692:.
2667:.
2029:.
1896:.
1570:.
897:.
388:(
68:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
