Geographic information system

2526: 2448: 2157:, defined as broadly as possible, is to discover new knowledge; this may be performed by someone who considers herself a scientist, but may also be done by anyone who is trying to learn why the world appears to work the way it does. A study as practical as deciphering why a business location has failed would be research in this sense. Management (sometimes called operational applications), also defined as broadly as possible, is the application of knowledge to make practical decisions on how to employ the resources one has control over to achieve one's goals. These resources could be time, capital, labor, equipment, land, mineral deposits, wildlife, and so on. 2824:(OGC) is an international industry consortium of 384 companies, government agencies, universities, and individuals participating in a consensus process to develop publicly available geoprocessing specifications. Open interfaces and protocols defined by OpenGIS Specifications support interoperable solutions that "geo-enable" the Web, wireless and location-based services, and mainstream IT, and empower technology developers to make complex spatial information and services accessible and useful with all kinds of applications. Open Geospatial Consortium protocols include 1481:, and hence flow accumulation for the formation of streams, rivers and lakes. Areas of divergent flow can also give a clear indication of the boundaries of a catchment. Once a flow direction and accumulation matrix has been created, queries can be performed that show contributing or dispersal areas at a certain point. More detail can be added to the model, such as terrain roughness, vegetation types and soil types, which can influence infiltration and evapotranspiration rates, and hence influencing surface flow. One of the main uses of hydrological modeling is in 1853:

dot approximately where that address belongs along the segment of centerline. For example, an address point of 500 will be at the midpoint of a line segment that starts with address 1 and ends with address 1,000. Geocoding can also be applied against actual parcel data, typically from municipal tax maps. In this case, the result of the geocoding will be an actually positioned space as opposed to an interpolated point. This approach is being increasingly used to provide more precise location information.

1980: 2315:. A Project GIS is focused on accomplishing a single task: data is gathered, analysis is performed, and results are produced separately from any other projects the person may perform, and the implementation is essentially transitory. An Enterprise GIS is intended to be a permanent institution, including a database that is carefully designed to be useful for a variety of projects over many years, and is likely used by many individuals across an enterprise, with some employed full-time just to maintain it. 2376: 1031:(heads-down digitizing). Heads-down digitizing, or manual digitizing, uses a special magnetic pen, or stylus, that feeds information into a computer to create an identical, digital map. Some tablets use a mouse-like tool, called a puck, instead of a stylus. The puck has a small window with cross-hairs which allows for greater precision and pinpointing map features. Though heads-up digitizing is more commonly used, heads-down digitizing is still useful for digitizing maps of poor quality. 455:(LCGSA 1965–1991), where a number of important theoretical concepts in spatial data handling were developed, and which by the 1970s had distributed seminal software code and systems, such as SYMAP, GRID, and ODYSSEY, to universities, research centers and corporations worldwide. These programs were the first examples of general-purpose GIS software that was not developed for a particular installation, and was very influential on future commercial software, such as 7180: 2839: 7192: 43: 847: 260: 1784:

the first consideration should be whether or not the source data will change (exact or approximate). Next is whether the method is subjective, a human interpretation, or objective. Then there is the nature of transitions between points: are they abrupt or gradual. Finally, there is whether a method is global (it uses the entire data set to form the model), or local where an algorithm is repeated for a small section of terrain.

7216: 7204: 6487: 2179:. Strategic tasks are long-term, visionary decisions about what goals one should have, such as whether a business should expand or not. Tactical tasks are medium-term decisions about how to achieve strategic goals, such as a national forest creating a grazing management plan. Operational decisions are concerned with the day-to-day tasks, such as a person finding the shortest route to a pizza restaurant. 489: (Computer Aided Resource Information System), and ERDAS (Earth Resource Data Analysis System) emerged as commercial vendors of GIS software, successfully incorporating many of the CGIS features, combining the first-generation approach to separation of spatial and attribute information with a second-generation approach to organizing attribute data into database structures. 6224: 1357:

non commercial development teams), while in other cases facilities have been developed and are provided by third parties. Furthermore, many products offer software development kits (SDKs), programming languages and language support, scripting facilities and/or special interfaces for developing one's own analytical tools or variants. The increased availability has created a new dimension to

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example, the changes in vegetation vigor through a growing season can be animated to determine when drought was most extensive in a particular region. The resulting graphic represents a rough measure of plant health. Working with two variables over time would then allow researchers to detect regional differences in the lag between a decline in rainfall and its effect on vegetation.

1137:, the data must be close enough to reality so that the results of GIS procedures correctly correspond to the results of real world processes. This means that there is no single standard for data quality, because the necessary degree of quality depends on the scale and purpose of the tasks for which it is to be used. Several elements of data quality are important to GIS data: 1396: 1338: (ETL) software, but with a primary focus on the ability to manage spatial data. They provide GIS users with the ability to translate data between different standards and proprietary formats, whilst geometrically transforming the data en route. These tools can come in the form of add-ins to existing wider-purpose software such as 2393:. Water by its very nature is dynamic. Features associated with water are thus ever-changing. To be able to keep up with these changes, technological advancements have given scientists methods to enhance all aspects of scientific investigation, from satellite tracking of wildlife to computer mapping of habitats. Agencies like the 737:) location as the key index variable for all other information. Just as a relational database containing text or numbers can relate many different tables using common key index variables, GIS can relate otherwise unrelated information by using location as the key index variable. The key is the location and/or extent in space-time. 4688: 1027:(from satellites, aircraft, Helikites and UAVs), heads-up digitizing is becoming the main avenue through which geographic data is extracted. Heads-up digitizing involves the tracing of geographic data directly on top of the aerial imagery instead of by the traditional method of tracing the geographic form on a separate 354:, which allowed maps to be split into layers, for example one layer for vegetation and another for water. This was particularly used for printing contours – drawing these was a labour-intensive task but having them on a separate layer meant they could be worked on without the other layers to confuse the 2896:. In this data set, the populations of cities are shown for daytime and evening hours highlighting the pattern of concentration and dispersion generated by North American commuting patterns. The manipulation and generation of data required to produce this data would not have been possible without GIS. 2884:(AVHRR). This sensor system detects the amounts of energy reflected from the Earth's surface across various bands of the spectrum for surface areas of about 1 km (0.39 sq mi). The satellite sensor produces images of a particular location on the Earth twice a day. AVHRR and more recently the 1509:. Slope, aspect, and surface curvature in terrain analysis are all derived from neighborhood operations using elevation values of a cell's adjacent neighbours. Each of these is strongly affected by the level of detail in the terrain data, such as the resolution of a DEM, which should be chosen carefully. 2502:

tools from GIS. Spatial interpolation allows for more efficient approach to remediation and monitoring of soil and water contaminants. Soil and water contamination by metals and other contaminants have become a major environmental problem after the industrialization across many parts of the world.

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Since its origin in the 1960s, GIS has been used in an ever-increasing range of applications, corroborating the widespread importance of location and aided by the continuing reduction in the barriers to adopting geospatial technology. The perhaps hundreds of different uses of GIS can be classified in

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individual addresses, such as a road centerline file with address ranges. The individual address locations have historically been interpolated, or estimated, by examining address ranges along a road segment. These are usually provided in the form of a table or database. The software will then place a

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equipment, but GPS locations on the average smartphone are much less accurate. Common datasets such as digital terrain and aerial imagery are available in a wide variety of levels of quality, especially spatial precision. Paper maps, which have been digitized for many years as a data source, can also

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through the use of spatial analysis. Snow achieved this through plotting the residence of each casualty on a map of the area, as well as the nearby water sources. Once these points were marked, he was able to identify the water source within the cluster that was responsible for the outbreak. This was

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are software products that implement OpenGIS Specifications but have not yet passed a compliance test. Compliance tests are not available for all specifications. Developers can register their products as implementing draft or approved specifications, though OGC reserves the right to review

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Web mapping is not without its drawbacks. Web mapping allows for the creation and distribution of maps by people without proper cartographic training. This has led to maps that ignore cartographic conventions and are potentially misleading, with one study finding that more than half of United States

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methods support decision-makers in analysing a set of alternative spatial solutions, such as the most likely ecological habitat for restoration, against multiple criteria, such as vegetation cover or roads. MCDA uses decision rules to aggregate the criteria, which allows the alternative solutions to

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is the process by which a surface is created, usually a raster dataset, through the input of data collected at a number of sample points. There are several forms of interpolation, each which treats the data differently, depending on the properties of the data set. In comparing interpolation methods,

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GIS spatial analysis is a rapidly changing field, and GIS packages are increasingly including analytical tools as standard built-in facilities, as optional toolsets, as add-ins or 'analysts'. In many instances these are provided by the original software suppliers (commercial vendors or collaborative

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The degree of refinement in a represented value. In a quantitative property, this is the number of significant digits in the measured value. An imprecise value is vague or ambiguous, including a range of possible values. For example, if one were to say that the population of Houston on April 1, 2020

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and it stored the attribute and locational information in separate files. As a result of this, Tomlinson has become known as the "father of GIS", particularly for his use of overlays in promoting the spatial analysis of convergent geographic data. CGIS lasted into the 1990s and built a large digital

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collection, and to perform highly developed analysis and visual production of geospatial data. Therefore, GIS produces up-to-date and more reliable GEOINT to reduce uncertainty for a decisionmaker. Since GIS programs are Web-enabled, a user can constantly work with a decision maker to solve their

2094:. These services give the public access to huge amounts of geographic data, perceived by many users to be as trustworthy and usable as professional information. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, web maps hosted on dashboards were used to rapidly disseminate case data to the general public. 1871:

number as it relates to a given coordinate. For example, a user can click on a road centerline theme (thus providing a coordinate) and have information returned that reflects the estimated house number. This house number is interpolated from a range assigned to that road segment. If the user clicks

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that indicate differing amounts of rainfall. Such a map can be thought of as a rainfall contour map. Many sophisticated methods can estimate the characteristics of surfaces from a limited number of point measurements. A two-dimensional contour map created from the surface modeling of rainfall point

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Data extraction is a GIS process similar to vector overlay, though it can be used in either vector or raster data analysis. Rather than combining the properties and features of both datasets, data extraction involves using a "clip" or "mask" to extract the features of one data set that fall within

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layer (contour lines) over it. Next up is a standing water layer (pond, lake) and then a flowing water layer (stream, river), followed by the boundary layer and finally the road layer on top. The order is very important in order to properly display the final result. Note that the ponds are layered

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A quantitative analysis of maps brings accuracy issues into focus. The electronic and other equipment used to make measurements for GIS is far more precise than the machines of conventional map analysis. All geographical data are inherently inaccurate, and these inaccuracies will propagate through

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Related by accurate spatial information, an incredible variety of real-world and projected past or future data can be analyzed, interpreted and represented. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry into behaviors and patterns of real-world information that

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model of transparency. With open data, local government organizations can implement citizen engagement applications and online portals, allowing citizens to see land information, report potholes and signage issues, view and sort parks by assets, view real-time crime rates and utility repairs, and

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With the popularization of GIS in decision making, scholars have begun to scrutinize the social and political implications of GIS. GIS can also be misused to distort reality for individual and political gain. It has been argued that the production, distribution, utilization, and representation of

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first pioneered the use of compact airborne digital cameras as airborne geo-information systems. Aircraft measurement software, accurate to 0.4 mm, was used to link the photographs and measure the ground. Helikites are inexpensive and gather more accurate data than aircraft. Helikites can be

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Geographic information systems are utilized in multiple technologies, processes, techniques and methods. They are attached to various operations and numerous applications, that relate to: engineering, planning, management, transport/logistics, insurance, telecommunications, and business. For this

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Economic development departments use interactive GIS mapping tools, aggregated with other data (demographics, labor force, business, industry, talent) along with a database of available commercial sites and buildings in order to attract investment and support existing business. Businesses making

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The condition of the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and subsurface can be examined by feeding satellite data into a GIS. GIS technology gives researchers the ability to examine the variations in Earth processes over days, months, and years through the use of cartographic visualizations. As an

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amounts recorded at different points such as airports, television stations, and schools. A GIS, however, can be used to depict two- and three-dimensional characteristics of the Earth's surface, subsurface, and atmosphere from information points. For example, a GIS can quickly generate a map with

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was introduced, with the advantages of being lighter, using less storage space and being less brittle, among others. When all the layers were finished, they were combined into one image using a large process camera. Once color printing came in, the layers idea was also used for creating separate

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The implementation of a GIS is often driven by jurisdictional (such as a city), purpose, or application requirements. Generally, a GIS implementation may be custom-designed for an organization. Hence, a GIS deployment developed for an application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or purpose may not be

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Data restructuring can be performed by a GIS to convert data into different formats. For example, a GIS may be used to convert a satellite image map to a vector structure by generating lines around all cells with the same classification, while determining the cell spatial relationships, such as

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After entering data into a GIS, the data usually requires editing, to remove errors, or further processing. For vector data it must be made "topologically correct" before it can be used for some advanced analysis. For example, in a road network, lines must connect with nodes at an intersection.

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First, it produces graphics on the screen or on paper that convey the results of analysis to the people who make decisions about resources. Wall maps and other graphics can be generated, allowing the viewer to visualize and thereby understand the results of analyses or simulations of potential

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in the form of mobile GIS. This has been enhanced by the availability of low-cost mapping-grade GPS units with decimeter accuracy in real time. This eliminates the need to post process, import, and update the data in the office after fieldwork has been collected. This includes the ability to

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is the design and production of maps, or visual representations of spatial data. The vast majority of modern cartography is done with the help of computers, usually using GIS but production of quality cartography is also achieved by importing layers into a design program to refine it. Most

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The earth can be represented by various models, each of which may provide a different set of coordinates (e.g., latitude, longitude, elevation) for any given point on the Earth's surface. The simplest model is to assume the earth is a perfect sphere. As more measurements of the earth have

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In addition to the integration of time in environmental studies, GIS is also being explored for its ability to track and model the progress of humans throughout their daily routines. A concrete example of progress in this area is the recent release of time-specific population data by the

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To determine the statistical relevance of the analysis, an average is determined so that points (gradients) outside of any immediate measurement can be included to determine their predicted behavior. This is due to the limitations of the applied statistic and data collection methods, and

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between spatial objects is an especially important aspect of consistency. For example, if all of the lines in a street network were accidentally moved 10 meters to the East, they would be inaccurate but still consistent, because they would still properly connect at each intersection, and

2553:. This fault line is between the blue/green contour lines and the purple/red/yellow contour lines. The thin red circular contour line in the middle of the map indicates the top of the oil reservoir. Because gas floats above oil, the thin red contour line marks the gas/oil contact zone. 2350:, which allows GPS-enabled mobile devices to display their location in relation to fixed objects (nearest restaurant, gas station, fire hydrant) or mobile objects (friends, children, police car), or to relay their position back to a central server for display or other processing. 3043:

because it allows for analysis based on real geographic data and also helps raise research questions from teachers and students in the classroom. It also contributes to improvement in learning by developing spatial and geographical thinking and, in many cases, student motivation.

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in another more roughly classified dataset can help a GIS automatically merge the two datasets under the more general land cover classification. Tentative ontologies have been developed in areas related to GIS applications, for example the hydrology ontology developed by the

4649: 2255:). That said, one of the powerful capabilities of GIS and the spatial perspective of geography is their integrative ability to compare disparate topics, and many applications are concerned with multiple domains. Examples of integrated human-natural application domains include 757:, respectively. These GIS coordinates may represent other quantified systems of temporo-spatial reference (for example, film frame number, stream gage station, highway mile-marker, surveyor benchmark, building address, street intersection, entrance gate, water depth sounding, 2699:, its study using GIS is especially practical. Whereas previous GIS systems were mostly static in their geospatial representation of hydrologic features, GIS platforms are becoming increasingly dynamic, narrowing the gap between historical data and current hydrologic reality. 1608:

relationships allow complex spatial modelling and analysis to be performed. Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something is to something else).

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are a key component of this semantic approach as they allow a formal, machine-readable specification of the concepts and relationships in a given domain. This in turn allows a GIS to focus on the intended meaning of data rather than its syntax or structure. For example,

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printing plates for each color. While the use of layers much later became one of the typical features of a contemporary GIS, the photographic process just described is not considered a GIS in itself – as the maps were just images with no database to link them to.

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A general acknowledgement of the presence of error and imprecision in geographic data. That is, it is a degree of general doubt, given that it is difficult to know exactly how much error is present in a data set, although some form of estimate may be attempted (a

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is the application of data mining methods to spatial data. Data mining, which is the partially automated search for hidden patterns in large databases, offers great potential benefits for applied GIS-based decision making. Typical applications include

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of the same area are produced, processed, and analyzed. Tomlin used raster layers, but the overlay method (see below) can be used more generally. Operations on map layers can be combined into algorithms, and eventually into simulation or optimization models.

244:). All Earth-based, spatial–temporal, location and extent references should be relatable to one another, and ultimately, to a "real" physical location or extent. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry and studies. 3055:

GIS is proven as an organization-wide, enterprise and enduring technology that continues to change how local government operates. Government agencies have adopted GIS technology as a method to better manage the following areas of government organization:

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is closely related to precision in maps, as it dictates a desirable level of spatial precision, but is problematic in GIS, where a data set can be shown at a variety of display scales (including scales that would not be appropriate for the quality of the

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in mathematics and computer science. Just like graphs, networks can have weight and flow assigned to its edges, which can be used to represent various interconnected features more accurately. Geometric networks are often used to model road networks and

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of a segment that starts with address 1 and ends with 100, the returned value will be somewhere near 50. Note that reverse geocoding does not return actual addresses, only estimates of what should be there based on the predetermined range.

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was "about 2.3 million," this statement would be imprecise, but likely accurate because the correct value (and many incorrect values) are included. As with accuracy, representations of location, property, and time can all be more or less precise.

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The most recent point in time at which a data set claims to be an accurate representation of reality. This is a concern for the majority of GIS applications, which attempt to represent the world "at present," in which case older data is of lower

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are software products that comply to OGC's OpenGIS Specifications. When a product has been tested and certified as compliant through the OGC Testing Program, the product is automatically registered as "compliant" on this site.

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When data is captured, the user should consider if the data should be captured with either a relative accuracy or absolute accuracy, since this could not only influence how information will be interpreted but also the cost of data capture.

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Interpolation is a justified measurement because of a spatial autocorrelation principle that recognizes that data collected at any position will have a great similarity to, or influence of those locations within its immediate vicinity.

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GIS data represents phenomena that exist in the real world, such as roads, land use, elevation, trees, waterways, and states. The most common types of phenomena that are represented in data can be divided into two conceptualizations:

3036:, but there is not enough bibliography or statistical data to show the concrete scope of the use of GIS in education around the world, although the expansion has been faster in those countries where the curriculum mentions them. 1626:

are linear networks of objects that can be used to represent interconnected features, and to perform special spatial analysis on them. A geometric network is composed of edges, which are connected at junction points, similar to

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Recent research results in this area can be seen in the International Conference on Geospatial Semantics and the Terra Cognita – Directions to the Geospatial Semantic Web workshop at the International Semantic Web Conference.

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or radio waves that were sent out from an active sensor such as radar. Remote sensing collects raster data that can be further processed using different bands to identify objects and classes of interest, such as land cover.

2429:. The combination of GIS and archaeology has been considered a perfect match, since archaeology often involves the study of the spatial dimension of human behavior over time, and all archaeology carries a spatial component. 2011:

in a GIS can make relationships among map elements visible, heightening one's ability to extract and analyze information. For example, two types of data were combined in a GIS to produce a perspective view of a portion of

2695:. Climate change and greater demands on water resources require a more knowledgeable disposition of arguably one of our most vital resources. Because water in its occurrence varies spatially and temporally throughout the 2105:(API) that enable users to create custom applications. These toolkits commonly offer street maps, aerial/satellite imagery, geocoding, searches, and routing functionality. Web mapping has also uncovered the potential of 564:

that is intended to be used in many individual geographic information systems in a variety of application domains. Starting in the late 1970s, many software packages have been created specifically for GIS applications.

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is a common operation used in many ways in GIS; because it generates estimates of values between known measurements, the results will always be more precise, but less certain (as each estimate has an unknown amount of

5037:"Off the Map | From Architectural Record and Greensource | Originally published in the March 2012 issues of Architectural Record and Greensource | McGraw-Hill Construction - Continuing Education Center" 2329:

applications have greatly increased, as geospatial technology was merged into broader enterprise applications, sharing IT infrastructure, databases, and software, often using enterprise integration platforms such as

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Any variable that can be located spatially, and increasingly also temporally, can be referenced using a GIS. Locations or extents in Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and x, y, and z

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in that they express environmental and spiritual relationships among real and conceptual entities. This toolset focuses on cultural preservation, land rights disputes, natural resource management, and economic

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Traditional maps are abstractions of the real world, a sampling of important elements portrayed on a sheet of paper with symbols to represent physical objects. People who use maps must interpret these symbols.

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An archeochrome is a new way of displaying spatial data. It is a thematic on a 3D map that is applied to a specific building or a part of a building. It is suited to the visual display of heat-loss data.

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Thematic Mapper image shows a false-color infrared image looking down at the same area in 30-meter pixels, or picture elements, for the same coordinate points, pixel by pixel, as the elevation

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from one structure to another. In so doing, the implicit assumptions behind different ontologies and classifications require analysis. Object ontologies have gained increasing prominence as a consequence of

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By the end of the 20th century, the rapid growth in various systems had been consolidated and standardized on relatively few platforms and users were beginning to explore viewing GIS data over the

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GIS technology and the availability of digital data on regional and global scales enable such analyses. The satellite sensor output used to generate a vegetation graphic is produced for example by the

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sites. GIS is used to monitor the sites for metal contaminants in the soil, and based on the GIS analysis, highest risk sites are identified in which majority of the remediation and monitoring takes place.

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When phenomena are measured, the observation methods dictate the accuracy of any subsequent analysis. Due to the nature of the data (e.g. traffic patterns in an urban environment; weather patterns over the

1443:(TIN). A variety of tools are available in most GIS software for analyzing terrain, often by creating derivative datasets that represent a specific aspect of the surface. Some of the most common include: 1379:, performs an operation on that dataset, and returns the result of the operation as an output dataset. Common geoprocessing operations include geographic feature overlay, feature selection and analysis, 4419: 1765:

is a branch of statistics that deals with field data, spatial data with a continuous index. It provides methods to model spatial correlation, and predict values at arbitrary locations (interpolation).

5441:"USA 3rd International Conference on Public Participation GIS (2004) - Track on International Perspectives: Summary Proceedings, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 18–20 July 2004, Madison, Wisconsin" 2663:(also written as historical GIS or HGIS) is a geographic information system that may display, store and analyze data of past geographies and track changes in time. It can be regarded as a tool for 1592:, and other elevation products. Watersheds can be easily defined for any given reach, by computing all of the areas contiguous and uphill from any given point of interest. Similarly, an expected 1207:

The degree to which an aspect (location, property, or time) of a phenomenon is inherently imprecise, rather than the imprecision being in a measured value. For example, the spatial extent of the

174:; however, this is not essential to meet the definition of a GIS. In a broader sense, one may consider such a system also to include human users and support staff, procedures and workflows, the 1277:

The quality of a dataset is very dependent upon its sources, and the methods used to create it. Land surveyors have been able to provide a high level of positional accuracy utilizing high-end

1369:, based on GIS spatial analysis, has also become a key element for security. GIS as a whole can be described as conversion to a vectorial representation or to any other digitisation process. 900:, the copying of existing GIS data from external sources such as government agencies and private companies. All of these methods can consume significant time, finances, and other resources. 604:. These and other desktop GIS applications include a full suite of capabilities for entering, managing, analyzing, and visualizing geographic data, and are designed to be used on their own. 769:), but all Earth-based spatial–temporal location and extent references should, ideally, be relatable to one another and ultimately to a "real" physical location or extent in space–time. 554:, which is a single installation of software and data for a particular use, along with associated hardware, staff, and institutions (e.g., the GIS for a particular city government); and 1569:

measurements may be overlaid and analyzed with any other map in a GIS covering the same area. This GIS derived map can then provide additional information - such as the viability of

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GIS provides the capability to relate previously unrelated information, through the use of location as the "key index variable". Locations and extents that are found in the Earth's

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K. Calvert, J. M. Pearce, W.E. Mabee, "Toward renewable energy geo-information infrastructures: Applications of GIScience and remote sensing that can build institutional capacity"

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Second, other database information can be generated for further analysis or use. An example would be a list of all addresses within one mile (1.6 km) of a toxic spill.

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run on a range of operating systems and can be customized to perform specific tasks. The major trend of the 21st Century has been the integration of GIS capabilities with other

175: 725:. Collecting and managing these data usually constitutes the bulk of the time and financial resources of a project, far more than other aspects such as analysis and mapping. 3006:

geographic information are largely related with the social context and has the potential to increase citizen trust in government. Other related topics include discussion on

1773:), a constant or dynamic degree of precision is always lost in the measurement. This loss of precision is determined from the scale and distribution of the data collection. 2979:

and others to support ontology creation and reasoning using well-understood OGC literals (GML, WKT), topological relationships (Simple Features, RCC8, DE-9IM), RDF and the

2976: 2462:, GIS is as "a computer system for handling geographic information in a digital form". In recent years it has played an integral role in participatory, collaborative and 1913:. A characteristic of such applications is that spatial correlation between data measurements require the use of specialized algorithms for more efficient data analysis. 927:

with the ability to edit live data using wireless connections or disconnected editing sessions. The current trend is to utilize applications available on smartphones and

615:, providing another mechanism for providing GIS capabilities. This was facilitated by standalone software installed on a server, similar to other server software such as 5706: 2455:(FEMA) Administrator W. Craig Fugate speaking at a Red Cross seminar on using social media during natural disasters. GIS has an integral role to play in such agendas. 985:

of digital photographs. These systems allow data to be captured in two and three dimensions, with elevations measured directly from a stereo pair using principles of

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Marwick, Ben; Hiscock, Peter; Sullivan, Marjorie; Hughes, Philip (July 2017). "Landform boundary effects on Holocene forager landscape use in arid South Australia".

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At the end of the 20th century, GIS began to be recognized as tools that could be used in the classroom. The benefits of GIS in education seem focused on developing

4157: 1748:. This function may weigh some inputs more than others through use of an "index model" that reflects the influence of various factors upon a geographic phenomenon. 5402: 3122: 2130: 2835:

GIS products are broken down by the OGC into two categories, based on how completely and accurately the software follows the OGC specifications.

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While no digital model can be a perfect representation of the real world, it is important that GIS data be of a high quality. In keeping with the principle of

862:). The current trend for geographical information system (GIS) is that accurate mapping and data analysis are completed while in the field. Depicted hardware ( 3092:

much more. The push for open data within government organizations is driving the growth in local government GIS technology spending, and database management.

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Public safety operations such as emergency operations centers, fire prevention, police and sheriff mobile technology and dispatch, and mapping weather risks.

2788:(GIS) is a toolset of systems that uses data, techniques, and technologies designed to document and utilize local knowledge in communities around the world. 1477:(DEM) involves calculation of slope and aspect, DEMs are very useful for hydrological analysis. Slope and aspect can then be used to determine direction of 6394:

Maguire, D.J., Goodchild M.F., Rhind D.W. (1997). "Geographic Information Systems: principles, and applications" Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow.

4103: 2325:, using specialized GIS software, specialized hardware, specialized data, and specialized professionals. Although these remain common to the present day, 1023:

map or survey plan is transferred into a digital medium through the use of a CAD program, and geo-referencing capabilities. With the wide availability of

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Longley, P. A.; Goodchild, M. F.; McGuire, D. J.; Rhind, D. W. (2005). "Analysis of errors of derived slope and aspect related to DEM data properties".

3070:

Public works and utilities, tracking water and stormwater drainage, electrical assets, engineering projects, and public transportation assets and trends

1058:

Errors such as undershoots and overshoots must also be removed. For scanned maps, blemishes on the source map may need to be removed from the resulting

996:

provides another important source of spatial data. Here satellites use different sensor packages to passively measure the reflectance from parts of the

936:. New technologies also allow users to create maps as well as analysis directly in the field, making projects more efficient and mapping more accurate. 347:, Snow's map was unique due to his use of cartographic methods, not only to depict, but also to analyze clusters of geographically dependent phenomena. 6027:

Análisis de la práctica educativa con SIG en la enseñanza de la Geografía de la educación secundaria: un estudio de caso en Baden-Württemberg, Alemania

5440: 3087:

initiative is pushing local government to take advantage of technology such as GIS technology, as it encompasses the requirements to fit the open data/

623:, enabling clients to have access to GIS data and processing tools without having to install specialized desktop software. These networks are known as 2963:. Also, simpler ontologies and semantic metadata standards are being proposed by the W3C Geo Incubator Group to represent geospatial data on the web. 2525: 2117:

projects have been proven to provide a high level of value and benefit to end users outside that possible through traditional geographic information.

339:

one of the earliest successful uses of a geographic methodology in pinpointing the source of an outbreak in epidemiology. While the basic elements of

189:. The academic discipline that studies these systems and their underlying geographic principles, may also be abbreviated as GIS, but the unambiguous 6103: 5140: 1310:. Since digital data is collected and stored in various ways, the two data sources may not be entirely compatible. So a GIS must be able to convert 5036: 256:

first coined the phrase "geographic information system", many of the geographic concepts and methods that GIS automates date back decades earlier.

942:

data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of sensors attached to a platform. Sensors include cameras, digital scanners and

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and the private sector to provide contrast enhancement, false color rendering and a variety of other techniques including use of two dimensional

4001: 1717:) creates a new output vector dataset, visually similar to stacking several maps of the same region. These overlays are similar to mathematical 60: 1946:

facilitate distribution of generated maps through web browsers using various implementations of web-based application programming interfaces (

5607: 5429:

Abbot, J. et al. 1998. Participatory Learning & Action PLA Notes (IIED, Sustainable Agriculture & Rural Livelihoods), PLA 33, 27-34.

2885: 989:. Analog aerial photos must be scanned before being entered into a soft-copy system, for high-quality digital cameras this step is skipped. 185:, also abbreviated GIS, is the most common term for the industry and profession concerned with these systems. It is roughly synonymous with 107: 874:

GIS data acquisition includes several methods for gathering spatial data into a GIS database, which can be grouped into three categories:

79: 5759:

Haque, Akhlaque (2003). "Information technology, GIS and democraticvalues: Ethical implications for IT professionals in public service".

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Jo Abbot; Robert Chambers; Christine Dunn; Trevor Harris; Emmanuel de Merode; Gina Porter; Janet Townsend; Daniel Weiner (October 1998).

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An example of use of layers in a GIS application. In this example, the forest-cover layer (light green) forms the bottom layer, with the

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can provide a spatial element that other hydrological models lack, with the analysis of variables such as slope, aspect and watershed or

1097: 444:-based system in support of federal and provincial resource planning and management. Its strength was continent-wide analysis of complex 5369: 5062: 6519: 2458:

Geographic information system (GIS) is a commonly used tool for environmental management, modelling and planning. As simply defined by

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and time of day of the display, to properly render the shadows created by the sun's rays at that latitude, longitude, and time of day.

1228:

The degree to which a data set represents all of the actual features that it purports to include. For example, if a layer of "roads in

1214:

is vague, as there are places on the outskirts of the city that are less connected to the central city (measured by activities such as

1740:

In raster data analysis, the overlay of datasets is accomplished through a process known as "local operation on multiple rasters" or "

1501:

is a depiction of the surface as if it were a three dimensional model lit from a given direction, which is very commonly used in maps.

1387:

processing, and data conversion. Geoprocessing allows for definition, management, and analysis of information used to form decisions.

7158: 6076: 2028:, consisting of surface elevations recorded on a 30-meter horizontal grid, shows high elevations as white and low elevation as black. 427:

CGIS was an improvement over "computer mapping" applications as it provided capabilities for data storage, overlay, measurement, and

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Parks and recreation departments and their functions in asset inventory, land conservation, land management, and cemetery management

1840:

Geocoding is interpolating spatial locations (X,Y coordinates) from street addresses or any other spatially referenced data such as

1495:

predicts the impact that terrain has on the visibility between locations, which is especially important for wireless communications.

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Kocman, D., & Horvat, M. (2011). Non-point source mercury emission from the Idrija Hg-mine region: GIS mercury emission model.

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drawing origin/units). Units applied to recorded temporal-spatial data can vary widely (even when using exactly the same data, see

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of where surface water would want to travel in intermittent and permanent streams can be computed from elevation data in the GIS.

838:. GIS thematic maps then are becoming more and more realistically visually descriptive of what they set out to show or determine. 7242: 5642: 1247:

The degree to which the representations of the many phenomena in a data set correctly correspond with each other. Consistency in

3597: 3494: 3294:

Maliene V, Grigonis V, Palevičius V, Griffiths S (2011). "Geographic information system: Old principles with new capabilities".

5339:

Jasminka, A., & Robert, S. (2011). Distribution of chemical elements in an old metallurgical area, Zenica. Geoderma, 71–85.

4707:"Evaluating a concept design of a crowd-sourced 'mashup' providing ease-of-access information for people with limited mobility" 4175: 2671:

The use of digital maps generated by GIS has also influenced the development of an academic field known as spatial humanities.

1362: 556: 545: 156: 93: 6450: 6409: 6342: 6325: 5710: 5543: 5101: 4997:

Chouhan, Avinash Kumar; Harsh, Anuranjan; Mishra, Abhishek Kumar; Kumar, Vikram; Kumar, Rakesh; Kumar, Satyam (August 2024).

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being such an estimate of uncertainty). This is sometimes used as a collective term for all or most aspects of data quality.

911:

data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on survey instruments using a technique called

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on April 1, 2020 was 2,304,580; if it was actually 2,310,674, this would be an error and thus a lack of attribute accuracy.

678:) that extend programming languages to enable the incorporation of GIS data and processing into custom software, including 405: 6053:"New Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Certificate Now Offered to USD Undergraduate Students - University of San Diego" 4161: 923:

can also be collected and then imported into a GIS. A current trend in data collection gives users the ability to utilize

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Traditionally, there are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS for both kinds of abstractions mapping references:

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Using models to project the data held by a GIS forward in time have enabled planners to test policy decisions using

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interpolation is required to predict the behavior of particles, points, and locations that are not directly measurable.

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accumulated, the models of the earth have become more sophisticated and more accurate. In fact, there are models called

6469: 6308: 5869: 5844: 4650:"User Centred Design of Neogeography: The Impact of Volunteered Geographic Information on Trust of Online Map 'Mashups" 3329: 3182: 2491: 2485: 1482: 804:(e.g., rainfall amount or population density). Other types of geographic phenomena, such as events (e.g., location of 654:

software, which defines a geometry datatype so that spatial data can be stored in relational tables, and extensions to

466: 331: 281: 4286: 4268: 1473:. Terrain analysis is fundamental to hydrology, since water always flows down a slope. As basic terrain analysis of a 209:

applications are at the foundation of location-enabled services, which rely on geographic analysis and visualization.

6356: 6260: 5990: 5945: 5898: 5257: 4881:"Assessment of the geothermal potential zone of India utilizing GIS-based multi-criteria decision analysis technique" 4447: 3811: 3685: 3653: 2102: 1150:

is the amount of difference between them. In GIS data, there is concern for accuracy in representations of location (

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A new hybrid method of storing data is that of identifying point clouds, which combine three-dimensional points with

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can be defined as the direction in which a unit of terrain faces. Aspect is usually expressed in degrees from north.

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Conolly J and Lake M (2006) Geographical Information Systems in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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or compatible with a GIS that has been developed for some other application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or purpose.

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be ranked or prioritised. GIS MCDA may reduce costs and time involved in identifying potential restoration sites.

7220: 5660: 4999:"Delineation of groundwater vulnerable zone for sustainable development in the southwestern part of Bihar, India" 2968: 2900: 2608: 2114: 2074:

In recent years there has been a proliferation of free-to-use and easily accessible mapping software such as the

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A GIS can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These

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in an area) are represented less commonly or indirectly, or are modeled in analysis procedures rather than data.

167: 3061:

location decisions can use the tools to choose communities and sites that best match their criteria for success.

2923:

problems in information systems. Correspondingly, such technologies have been proposed as a means to facilitate

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since the early 1990s. Indeed, archaeologists were early adopters, users, and developers of GIS and GIScience,

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tools. Commercial GIS systems are very powerful and have touched many applications and industries, including

1450:

is the steepness or gradient of a unit of terrain, usually measured as an angle in degrees or as a percentage.

890:, the extraction of information from existing sources that are not in a GIS form, such as paper maps, through 5971:

Geospatial technologies and geography education in a changing world: geospatial practices and lessons learned

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overlay defines an output area that includes the total area of both inputs except for the overlapping area.

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platform. This began the process of moving GIS from the research department into the business environment.

100: 3018:. A more optimistic social approach to GIS adoption is to use it as a tool for public participation. 1725:

overlay combines the geographic features and attribute tables of both inputs into a single new output. An

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The latitude and longitude on a map made against a local datum may not be the same as one obtained from a

492:

In 1986, Mapping Display and Analysis System (MIDAS), the first desktop GIS product, was released for the

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As a result, environmental agencies are placed in charge in remediating, monitoring, and mitigating the

1365:" which, when openly delivered via intranet, democratizes access to geographic and social network data. 374:

and its map overlay method and the introduction of a street network into the U.S. Census Bureau's DIME (

7208: 4336:"A comparison of techniques for calculating gradient and aspect from a gridded digital elevation model" 3112: 2821: 2815: 2564: 1811: 1618: 1540: 1259: 1253: 928: 651: 642:

An alternative approach is the integration of some or all of these capabilities into other software or

451:

In 1964, Howard T. Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis at the

424:

and land use at a scale of 1:50,000. A rating classification factor was also added to permit analysis.

4299:

Jones, K.H. (1998). "A comparison of algorithms used to compute hill slope as a property of the DEM".

7014: 6505: 6242: 4840:"Normalizing the pandemic: exploring the cartographic issues in state government COVID-19 dashboards" 4005: 3849: 3840: 3352:"Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le département de la Seine. Année 1832" 2960: 2912: 2785: 2779: 2728: 1729:

overlay defines the area where both inputs overlap and retains a set of attribute fields for each. A

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is a GIS operation used to manipulate spatial data. A typical geoprocessing operation takes an input

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research led to more widespread general-purpose computer "mapping" applications by the early 1960s.

6180:"Capturing Volunteered Information for Inclusive Service Design: Potential Benefits and Challenges" 5591: 3966: 3157: 3000: 2972: 2572: 2556: 2529:

Screenshot of a structure map generated by geological mapping software for an 8500 ft deep gas and

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as well as other federal and state agencies are utilizing GIS to aid in their conservation efforts.

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networks, such as electric, gas, and water networks. Network modeling is also commonly employed in

1460: 1428: 1335: 1071: 997: 896: 308: 5618: 7122: 7087: 7029: 6552: 6380: 6293: 6030: 5560: 5304:

Demers, M. N. (2003). Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

4998: 4880: 4470:

Greene, R.; Devillers, R.; Luther, J.E.; Eddy, B.G. (2011). "GIS-based multi-criteria analysis".

3730:

Ablimit Aji; Hoang Vo; Qiaoling Liu; Fusheng Wang; Joel Saltz; Rubao Lee; Xiaodong Zhang (2013).

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uses. The latter has become increasingly prominent with the rise of location-enabled smartphones.

2268: 2025: 1807: 1791: 1637: 1585: 1474: 1436: 1400: 1366: 956: 53: 431:/scanning. It supported a national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as 6942: 6909: 6657: 6587: 5586: 4521: 4158:"Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards Part 3: National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy" 3172: 3152: 2347: 2208: 1691: 1536: 1165: 1141: 1105: 1101: 971: 683: 643: 513: 5215: 5175: 2687:

Geographic information systems (GISs) have become a useful and important tool in the field of

2563:

are observed, analyzed, and recorded in the field and displayed in real-time on a computer or

1588:, isopleth lines representing elevation contours can be generated, along with slope analysis, 381:

The first publication detailing the use of computers to facilitate cartography was written by

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Haque, Akhlaque (1 May 2001). "GIS, Public Service, and the Issue of Democratic Governance".

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Fonseca, Frederico; Egenhofer, Max (1999). "Ontology-Driven Geographic Information Systems".

5066: 2789: 2761: 2742: 2632: 2615: 2568: 2499: 1358: 1146:

The degree of similarity between a represented measurement and the actual value; conversely,

1086: 827:. Points, lines, and polygons represent vector data of mapped location attribute references. 762: 754: 632: 529: 478: 409: 319:

color gradients, to provide a visual representation for the number of reported deaths due to

267: 237: 206: 3076:

School analytical and demographic data, asset management, and improvement/expansion planning

496:

operating system. This was renamed in 1990 to MapInfo for Windows when it was ported to the

7082: 7054: 6955: 6891: 6791: 6662: 6652: 6622: 6592: 6562: 6547: 6531: 5507:

Monmonier, Mark (1990). "Strategies For The Visualization Of Geographic Time-Series Data".

5010: 4892: 4851: 4755: 4718: 4513: 4499:"Distributed Clustering-Based Aggregation Algorithm for Spatial Correlated Sensor Networks" 4308: 4214: 4040: 3452: 3405: 3162: 2720: 2664: 2394: 2353:

GIS is also used in digital marketing and SEO for audience segmentation based on location.

2075: 1819: 1745: 1730: 1524: 1116: 978: 916: 797: 585: 561: 412:, an effort to determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping information about 287:

One of the first known instances in which spatial analysis was used came from the field of

31: 6153: 3351: 2619:

GEOINT and national security related problems from anywhere in the world. There are many

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of aerial photographs. Soft-copy workstations are used to digitize features directly from

611:, as computer network technology progressed, GIS infrastructure and data began to move to 8: 7163: 7148: 6843: 6748: 6689: 6672: 6647: 6597: 6384: 3396:

Broome, Frederick R.; Meixler, David B. (January 1990). "The TIGER Data Base Structure".

3177: 2829: 2530: 2264: 2196: 2176: 2149: 1974: 1922: 1687: 1248: 1196: 912: 722: 521: 198: 164: 17: 6052: 5509:

Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization

5014: 4896: 4855: 4759: 4722: 4517: 4399: 4312: 4218: 4044: 3905: 3520: 3456: 3409: 3287: 1459:

Cut and fill is a computation of the difference between the surface before and after an

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methods and other processing tools derives from the quality of input data. For example,

1111:

In popular GIS software, data projected in latitude/longitude is often represented as a

216:

are able to be recorded through the date and time of occurrence, along with x, y, and z

7184: 7044: 6994: 6833: 6704: 6667: 6642: 6632: 6627: 6612: 6602: 6199: 6004: 5817: 5776: 5267: 4979: 4918:

Longley, Paul; Goodchild, Michael F.; Maguire, David J.; Rhind, David W., eds. (1999).

4815: 4790: 4771: 4680: 4630: 4589: 4539: 4238: 4029:"A Primer of GIS: Fundamental Geographic and Cartographic Concepts - By Francis Harvey" 3984: 3947: 3800: 3744: 3468: 3311: 3132: 2927:

and data reuse among GIS applications and also to enable new analysis mechanisms.

2560: 2504: 2418: 2412: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2192: 1722: 1623: 1518: 1466: 1453: 1435:. Thus, terrain data is often a core dataset in a GIS, usually in the form of a raster 1307: 1173: 714:. A GIS database may be stored in a variety of forms, such as a collection of separate 671: 612: 441: 5862:

Surveillance, Transparency and Democracy: Public Administration in the Information Age

5646: 4791:"The disguised pandemic: The importance of data normalization in COVID-19 web mapping" 4320: 1935:

GIS software gives the user substantial control over the appearance of the data.

7191: 6914: 6734: 6694: 6465: 6446: 6405: 6352: 6338: 6330: 6321: 6313: 6304: 6203: 6195: 6008: 5996: 5986: 5951: 5941: 5904: 5894: 5865: 5840: 5741: 5539: 5377: 5350: 5253: 5249: 5171: 5097: 4983: 4923: 4820: 4775: 4672: 4634: 4581: 4483: 4443: 4436: 4230: 4137: 4058: 4053: 4028: 3988: 3974: 3951: 3871: 3861: 3817: 3807: 3802:

Internet GIS: Distributed Information Services for the Internet and Wireless Networks

3780:

Longley, Paul A.; Goodchilde, Michael F.; Maguire, David J.; Rhind, David W. (2015).

3749: 3710: 3681: 3659: 3649: 3601: 3498: 3421: 3378: 3315: 3245: 3220: 3033: 2716: 2710: 2681: 2604: 2459: 2272: 2113:, which is a collaborative project to create a free editable map of the world. These 2049: 1862: 1799: 1527:. Thus, a wide variety of analysis tools have analyze distance in some form, such as 1492: 1486: 1211: 1062:. For example, a fleck of dirt might connect two lines that should not be connected. 1050:

a map results in raster data that could be further processed to produce vector data.

933: 855: 801: 497: 386: 6077:"Minor in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) | University of New England in Maine" 5780: 5124:

Longley, Paul A.; Goodchild, Michael F.; Maguire, David J.; Rhind, David W. (2011).

4684: 4593: 4242: 4179: 400:, Canada, by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development. Developed by 304: 7196: 7009: 6881: 6766: 6684: 6617: 6191: 6034: 5978: 5933: 5923: 5807: 5768: 5733: 5516: 5245: 5018: 4971: 4900: 4859: 4810: 4802: 4763: 4726: 4664: 4620: 4573: 4543: 4531: 4479: 4347: 4316: 4222: 4048: 3939: 3853: 3739: 3736:

Proceedings of the VLDB Endowment International Conference on Very Large Data Bases

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agendas to the forefront of public policy, the global media and the private sector.

2340: 2045: 2013: 1951: 1823: 1803: 1578: 1574: 1414: 1351: 1299: 1265: 1219: 951: 867: 790: 786: 719: 715: 647: 533: 508:, requiring data format and transfer standards. More recently, a growing number of 351: 171: 160: 5438: 5400: 4864: 4839: 3857: 1505:

Most of these are generated using algorithms that are discrete simplifications of

294:

Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le département de la

6977: 6770: 6677: 6579: 6436: 5974: 5929: 5925:

International perspectives on teaching and learning with GIS in secondary schools

4904: 4668: 4577: 3967:"Mobile GIS in Archaeology – Current Possibilities, Future Needs. Position Paper" 3943: 3127: 3088: 2948: 2825: 2692: 2550: 2386: 2188: 1989: 1926: 1532: 1528: 1506: 1384: 1311: 1178: 1078: 1059: 1043: 1028: 924: 859: 824: 809: 628: 624: 525: 401: 397: 253: 5520: 5170:

Kumar, Deepak; Das, Bhumika (23 May 2015). "Recent Trends in GIS Applications".

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Public administration for election data, property records, and zoning/management

2052:, using the Thematic Mapper image pixels, but shaded using the elevation of the 1979: 1671:

under the streams, so that a stream line can be seen overlying one of the ponds.

7039: 7034: 6999: 6919: 6861: 6722: 6397: 6283:

GIS Fundamentals: A first text on Geographic Information Systems, Sixth Edition

5812: 5795: 4806: 4767: 4202: 3732:"Hadoop GIS: a high performance spatial data warehousing system over mapreduce" 3417: 2952: 2870: 2838: 2765: 2579: 2375: 2276: 2260: 2216: 1943: 1868: 1704: 1645: 1633: 1478: 1408: 1081:

that apply to different areas of the earth to provide increased accuracy, like

993: 986: 939: 879: 766: 659: 486: 390: 186: 5982: 5937: 5772: 5244:

Goodchild, Michael F. (July 2009). "GIScience and Systems". pp. 526–538.

5022: 4731: 4706: 4535: 4351: 4002:"Aeryon Announces Version 5 of the Aeryon Scout System | Aeryon Labs Inc" 3663: 2607:. These technologies allow a user to efficiently manage, analyze, and produce 7236: 7004: 6967: 6796: 6743: 6000: 5955: 5745: 5381: 5313:

Longley, P. A., Goodchild, M. F., Maguire, D. J., & Rhind, D. W. (2005).

4625: 4608: 4234: 4062: 3875: 3425: 3382: 3192: 2888:(MODIS) are only two of many sensor systems used for Earth surface analysis. 2801: 2757: 2628: 2228: 2224: 2187:: the domains in which GIS is applied largely fall into those concerned with 2110: 2106: 2091: 1780: 1770: 1762: 1757: 1589: 1498: 1447: 1269: 1202: 1047: 1046:

data as an operator traces points, lines, and polygon boundaries from a map.

963: 820: 758: 601: 432: 408:(CGIS) and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the 263: 5908: 5737: 5485: 4975: 4838:

Adams, Aaron M.; Chen, Xiang; Li, Weidong; Chuanrong, Zhang (27 July 2023).

4226: 3821: 2285:: GIS has been implemented in a variety of different kinds of institutions: 1523:

Distance is a key part of solving many geographic tasks, usually due to the

7143: 6982: 6819: 6738: 6727: 6712: 6637: 6376: 4879:

Chouhan, Avinash Kumar; Kumar, Rakesh; Mishra, Abhishek Kumar (June 2024).

4824: 4676: 4585: 4257: 4079: 3753: 3729: 3279: 3266: 2996: 2916: 2624: 2575: 2546: 2248: 2244: 1993: 1718: 1682:

in his PhD dissertation (1983); he later used it in the title of his book,

1565: 1432: 1134: 1128: 1093: 967: 891: 805: 636: 382: 359: 288: 4959: 4203:"The Certainty of Uncertainty: GIS and the Limits of Geographic Knowledge" 2719:(PGIS) or public participation geographic information system (PPGIS) is a 635:(SAAS). The use of the Internet to facilitate distributed GIS is known as 627:. This strategy has been extended through the Internet and development of 7072: 7024: 7019: 6960: 6950: 6762: 6752: 6430:

Integrated Geospatial Technologies: A Guide to GPS, GIS, and Data Logging

4920:

Geographical Information Systems, V.2: Management Issues and Applications

4442:. Prentice Hall series in geographic information science. Prentice Hall. 4431: 2893: 2422: 2252: 2220: 2212: 2079: 2069: 2057: 1955: 1931: 1905: 1741: 1708: 1675: 1657: 1605: 1570: 1339: 1331: 1242: 1189: 1158:), and time. For example, the US 2020 Census says that the population of 982: 835: 774: 679: 616: 344: 330:, an epidemiologist and physician, was able to determine the source of a 301: 6179: 6038: 5973:. Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences. Tōkyō; New York: 5821: 5678: 4561: 3307: 2599:

Geographic information systems (GIS) play a constantly evolving role in

473:) were in development, and by the early 1980s, M&S Computing (later 7077: 6827: 6805: 6780: 6775: 6442:

Thinking about GIS: Geographic Information System Planning for Managers

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Ground Truth: The Social Implications of Geographic Information Systems

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Solari, Osvaldo Muñiz; Demirci, Ali; Schee, Joop van der, eds. (2015).

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May, Andrew; Parker, Christopher J.; Taylor, Neil; Ross, Tracy (2014).

3015: 2121:

state government COVID-19 dashboards did not follow these conventions.

2098: 2017: 1667: 1024: 1016: 1010: 742: 734: 687: 573: 474: 428: 367: 340: 217: 5664: 5090:

Principles of Geographic Information Systems: An introductory textbook

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that contains representations of geographic phenomena, modeling their

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Time-integrative GIS. Management and analysis of Spatio-temporal data

5333: 5320: 5307: 5039:. Continuingeducation.construction.com. 11 March 2011. Archived from 4789:

Adams, Aaron; Xiang, Chen; Weidong, Li; Zhang, Chuanrong (May 2020).

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software in mapping out the contaminants in soil and water using the

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is a commonly used expression of positional precision, especially in

1039: 1020: 947: 908: 863: 746: 593: 470: 417: 327: 221: 213: 194: 190: 2143:: the purpose of an application can be broadly classified as either 1065: 580:, currently dominates the GIS market. Other examples of GIS include 42: 6823: 6497: 5615:

Proc. ACM International Symposium on Geographic Information Systems

5583:

Proc. ACM International Symposium on Geographic Information Systems

3464: 3142: 2753: 2256: 2154: 2053: 2008: 1873: 1845: 1841: 1714: 1561: 1556: 1552: 1380: 846: 750: 699: 662:. Another example is the proliferation of geospatial libraries and 608: 597: 581: 517: 505: 459: 445: 436: 421: 316: 259: 229: 178:

of relevant concepts and methods, and institutional organizations.

6364:

A Primer of GIS, Fundamental geographic and cartographic concepts.

3293: 2752:(GIScience) combine computer-mapping capabilities with additional 366:

Two additional developments are notable in the early days of GIS:

6987: 6856: 6800: 6784: 6717: 5922:

Milson, Andrew J.; Demirci, Ali; Kerski, Joseph J., eds. (2012).

5370:"Digital Maps Are Giving Scholars the Historical Lay of the Land" 3147: 3011: 2797: 2793: 2032: 2004: 1815: 1593: 1420: 1376: 1229: 1208: 1159: 396:

In 1963, the world's first true operational GIS was developed in

355: 320: 274: 193:

is more common. GIScience is often considered a subdiscipline of

5707:"Terra Cognita 2006 – Directions to the Geospatial Semantic Web" 5216:"How To Use Geofencing for Targeted Digital Marketing Campaigns" 3707:

GIS Fundamentals: A First Text on Geographic Information Systems

3574: 2942:

in one dataset is a specialization or subset of land cover type

2792:

is information that encompasses the experiences of a particular

2466:

philosophies. Social and technological evolutions have elevated

2421:

or Geographic Information Systems has been an important tool in

1744:", through a function that combines the values of each raster's 962:

Recently aerial data collection has become more accessible with

6486: 5864:. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. pp. 70–73. 5342: 4746:

Plewe, Brandon (2007). "Web Cartography in the United States".

2980: 2639: 1713:

The combination of several spatial datasets (points, lines, or

1334:

tools provide the data processing functionality of traditional

1115:. For example, data in latitude/longitude if the datum is the ' 577: 569: 335: 278: 4560:

Parker, Christopher J.; May, Andrew J.; Mitchell, Val (2013).

3971:

CAA: Digital Archaeologies, Material Worlds (Past and Present)

3734:. The 39th International Conference on Very Large Data Bases. 1581:

resources to find the best geographic potential for a region.

1096:. Converting coordinates from one datum to another requires a 5608:"Analyzing Theme, Space and Time: an Ontology-based Approach" 5191:"Location Data: How GIS is Used in Digital Marketing and SEO" 4648:

Parker, Christopher J.; May, Andrew J.; Mitchel, Val (2014).

3779: 3521:"History of GIS | Early History and the Future of GIS – Esri" 3073:

Fiber network management for interdepartmental network assets

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Courses in GIS are also offered by educational institutions.

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tools such as shortest path would still give correct results.

1082: 943: 915:(COGO). Positions from a global navigation satellite system ( 675: 312: 295: 5123: 4917: 3929: 2977:

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation

2379:

ArcGIS Server website depicting submersed aquatic vegetation

1826:

are all mathematical methods to produce interpolative data.

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Additionally, from a series of three-dimensional points, or

6318:

Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems, 4th Edition

6104:"Strategic GIS Planning and Management in Local Government" 5439:

Giacomo Rambaldi and Daniel Weiner (Track Leaders) (2004).

2956: 2636: 2611: 2056:. The GIS display depends on the viewing point of the 1947: 1867:

Reverse geocoding is the process of returning an estimated

1303: 1286:

GIS operations in ways that are difficult to predict.

950:. In England in the mid 1990s, hybrid kite/balloons called 813: 667: 589: 566: 456: 413: 358:. This work was initially drawn on glass plates, but later 271: 6301:

Introduction to Geographic Information System, 4th Edition

6128: 5887:

Understanding place: GIS and mapping across the curriculum

4562:"The role of VGI and PGI in supporting outdoor activities" 2163:: Management applications have been further classified as 1218:) than places that are closer. Mathematical tools such as 481: platform, Environmental Systems Research Institute ( 139: 6428:

Thurston, J., Poiker, T.K. and J. Patrick Moore. (2003).

6178:

Parker, C.J.; May, A.; Mitchell, V.; Burrows, A. (2013).

5692: 4469: 4340:

International Journal of Geographical Information Science

2495: 2331: 2040:

A GIS was used to register and combine the two images to

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are commonly used to manage vagueness in geographic data.

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or scanned to produce digital data. A digitizer produces

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Perry, Matthew; Hakimpour, Farshad; Sheth, Amit (2006).

4438:

Geographic information systems and cartographic modeling

1848:

and address locations. A reference theme is required to

1684:

Geographic Information Systems and Cartographic Modeling

631:

GIS platforms such as ArcGIS Online and GIS-specialized

440:

land resource database in Canada. It was developed as a

350:

The early 20th century saw the development of

4996: 4945:

Bringing geographical information systems into business

4265:

Natural Kinds and Classification in Scientific Practice

3891:"GIS versus CAD versus DBMS: What Are the Differences?" 3646:

GIS for Environmental Applications A practical approach

3123:

Dialogue-Assisted Visual Environment for Geoinformation

2809: 2131:

Category:Applications of geographic information systems

878:, the direct measurement phenomena in the field (e.g., 6276:

Beyond Mapping: Concepts, Algorithms and Issues in GIS

5885:

Sinton, Diana Stuart; Lund, Jennifer J., eds. (2007).

5661:"Semantic Web for Earth and Environmental Terminology" 5355:

Digital Mapping Techniques '00 -- Workshop Proceedings

4788: 4369: 1485:. Other applications of hydrological modeling include 1403:

of the Valestra area in the northern Apennines (Italy)

1395: 277:

outbreak showing the clusters of cholera cases in the

27:

System to capture, manage, and present geographic data

4960:"Deep mapping for environmental communication design" 4711:

Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies

607:

Starting in the late 1990s with the emergence of the

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Traditional knowledge Geographic Information Systems

1577:

source. Similarly, GIS can be used to compare other

6371:

An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems

6369:Heywood, I., Cornelius, S., and Carver, S. (2006). 5921: 5693:"International Conferences on Geospatial Semantics" 5605: 5351:"Digital Mapping Systems for Field Data Collection" 4704: 4372:

An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems

1880: 1232:" is missing some actual streets, it is incomplete. 67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 5968: 5839:. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 5534:Zhang, Chuanrong; Zhao, Tian; Li, Weidong (2015). 5357:. U.S. Geological Survey. Open-File Report 00-325. 4878: 4435: 3839: 3799: 2578:that can be utilized and updated while conducting 1302:, a technique developed in the late 1960s by 1264:The degree to which the quality of the results of 1119:of 1983' is denoted by 'GCS North American 1983'. 977:The majority of digital data currently comes from 974:of 1 inch (2.54 cm) in only 12 minutes. 946:, while platforms usually consist of aircraft and 477:) along with Bentley Systems Incorporated for the 5063:"Arctic Sea Ice Extent is Third Lowest on Record" 4559: 4404:. West Sussex, England: John Wiley and Sons: 328. 3039:GIS seems to provide many advantages in teaching 2800:. Traditional knowledge GIS differ from ordinary 2289:(at all levels from municipal to international), 1423:, the shape of the surface of the earth, such as 1066:Projections, coordinate systems, and registration 465:By the late 1970s two public domain GIS systems ( 7234: 5580: 4647: 4387:Introduction to Geographical Information Systems 3738:. Vol. 6, no. 11. pp. 1009–1020. 2967:is a standard developed by the Ordnance Survey, 550:The distinction must be made between a singular 6435: 4496: 4127: 4125: 2860: 1289: 252:While digital GIS dates to the mid-1960s, when 155:) consists of integrated computer hardware and 6459: 6290:Principles of geographical information systems 5096:. Enschede, The Netherlands: ITC. p. 44. 4947:. Cambridge, UK: GeoInformation International. 4748:Cartography and Geographic Information Science 4497:Ma, Y.; Guo, Y.; Tian, X.; Ghanem, M. (2011). 4374:(3rd ed.). Essex, England: Prentice Hall. 4080:"Digitizing - GIS Wiki | The GIS Encyclopedia" 3898:Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 3775: 3773: 3771: 3769: 3767: 3765: 3763: 3624:"Open Source GIS History – OSGeo Wiki Editors" 3616: 3398:Cartography and Geographic Information Systems 3242:Introduction to Geographic Information Systems 3217:Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems 2623:used in GEOINT and national security, such as 2478: 1938:Cartographic work serves two major functions: 1916: 7108:Geographic data and information organizations 6513: 6288:Burrough, P. A. and McDonnell, R. A. (1998). 6024: 5928:(Submitted manuscript). Dordrecht; New York: 5471:Peat, F. David. "I Have a Map in my Head." 5403:"Participatory GIS: opportunity or oxymoron?" 4958:Butts, Shannon; Jones, Madison (2021-05-20). 4555: 4553: 3965:Buławka, Nazarij; Chyla, Julia Maria (2020), 3395: 3267:"Twenty years of progress: GIScience in 2010" 2886:moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer 2545:. The left-to-right gap, near the top of the 1298:More advanced data processing can occur with 728: 693: 448:. The CGIS was never available commercially. 5558: 5126:Geographic Information Systems & Science 5086: 4936: 4384: 4333: 4327: 4256:Winther, Rasmus G. (2014). C. Kendig (ed.). 4131: 4122: 4106:. Government of Ireland 1999. Archived from 3964: 3782:Geographic Information Systems & Science 3219:(4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, inc. 2772: 2321:: Traditionally, most GIS applications were 1983:A traditional topographic map rendered in 3D 292: 6418:, Berlin / Heidelberg / New York: Springer. 6154:"GIS for Local Government| Open Government" 5533: 5117: 4393: 4298: 4134:Introductory Geographic Information Systems 3798:Peng, Zhong-Ren; Tsou, Ming-Hsiang (2003). 3760: 3118:Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography 2433: 1690:refers to a process where several thematic 1015:The most common method of data creation is 970:was used to map a 50-acre area with a 6520: 6506: 6389:Geographic Information Systems and Science 5884: 5315:Geographic Information Systems and Science 4957: 4550: 4402:Geographic Information Systems and Science 4365: 4363: 4361: 3932:Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 3833: 3831: 3700: 3698: 3696: 3694: 2748:Geographic information systems (GISs) and 2586: 2307:: GIS implementations may be focused on a 2003:Today, graphic display techniques such as 1104:, although in certain situations a simple 955:used over roads, railways and towns where 247: 30:"GIS" redirects here. For other uses, see 7159:National Council for Geographic Education 6261:Learn how and when to remove this message 5834: 5811: 5793: 5590: 5506: 5243: 5141:"Integrating GIS with SAP—The Imperative" 4863: 4814: 4730: 4624: 4525: 4370:Heywood I, Cornelius S, Carver S (2006). 4292: 4200: 4132:Jensen, John R.; Jensen, Ryan R. (2013). 4052: 4004:. Aeryon.com. 6 July 2011. Archived from 3844:. In Shekhar, Shashi; Xiong, Hui (eds.). 3793: 3791: 3743: 3595: 3571:"GIS Hall of Fame – Roger Tomlinson" 3563: 3547:. UCGIS. 21 February 2014. Archived from 3278: 3264: 3210: 3208: 2911:Tools and technologies emerging from the 2842:OGC standards help GIS tools communicate. 1004: 127:Learn how and when to remove this message 6460:Worboys, Michael; Duckham, Matt (2004). 6425:, New York and London: Guilford, 248 pp. 6020: 6018: 5559:Fonseca, Frederico; Sheth, Amit (2002). 5169: 4942: 4416:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 4026: 3797: 3244:(9th ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 1. 3233: 2990: 2882:advanced very-high-resolution radiometer 2867:Historical geographic information system 2837: 2768:, agricultural applications, and others. 2661:historical geographic information system 2654:Historical geographic information system 2614:, to combine GEOINT with other forms of 2524: 2446: 2374: 1978: 1661: 1651: 1394: 932:incorporate positions collected using a 845: 658:for spatial analysis operations such as 258: 138: 5213: 5188: 5080: 5003:Groundwater for Sustainable Development 4911: 4600: 4358: 4255: 3973:, Tübingen: Tübingen University Press, 3828: 3704: 3691: 3372: 1737:the spatial extent of another dataset. 1599: 903: 834:information at each point, returning a 773:previously had not been systematically 323:per every 1,000 inhabitants. 14: 7235: 5348: 5138: 5087:Huisman, Otto; de By, Rolf A. (2009). 4831: 4782: 4739: 4606: 4463: 4430: 4258:"Mapping Kinds in GIS and Cartography" 3837: 3788: 3589: 3492: 3438: 3271:Journal of Spatial Information Science 3214: 3205: 3050: 2955:and the SWEET ontologies developed by 621:relational database management systems 546:Geographic information system software 170:. Much of this often happens within a 6501: 6098: 6096: 6015: 5859: 5758: 5723: 5538:. Springer International Publishing. 5367: 4745: 4389:. New York: McGraw Hill. p. 184. 4378: 4096: 4074: 4072: 3888: 3239: 2938:that a land cover type classified as 2385:(GIS) has become an integral part of 1612: 1512: 1487:groundwater and surface water mapping 808:battles), processes (e.g., extent of 416:, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, 7203: 6527: 6349:Web GIS: Principles and Applications 6278:. Fort Collins, CO: GIS World Books. 6217: 3806:. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons. 3678:Web GIS: Principles and Applications 3643: 3600:. Harvard University. Archived from 2810:Open Geospatial Consortium standards 2703: 2567:(PDA). The primary function of this 1992:show the shape of land surface with 1968: 1856: 1829: 1483:environmental contamination research 406:Canada Geographic Information System 65:adding citations to reliable sources 36: 7215: 6404:. The University of Chicago Press, 5328:Journal of Environmental Management 5128:(3rd ed.). Wiley. p. 434. 4178:. Njgin.state.nj.us. Archived from 2511: 2453:Federal Emergency Management Agency 2097:Some of them, like Google Maps and 1887:Multiple-criteria decision analysis 1390: 1345: 841: 24: 6213: 6093: 4069: 3537: 2492:GIS in environmental contamination 2486:GIS in environmental contamination 2361: 1899: 1419:Many geographic tasks involve the 1034:Existing data printed on paper or 664:application programming interfaces 25: 7254: 6479: 6414:Ott, T. and Swiaczny, F. (2001) . 6391:. Chichester: Wiley. 2nd edition. 5761:Ethics and Information Technology 4104:"Making maps compatible with GPS" 2103:application programming interface 850:Example of hardware for mapping ( 588:and open-source programs such as 453:Harvard Graduate School of Design 7214: 7202: 7190: 7179: 7178: 7154:International Geography Olympiad 6485: 6222: 6196:10.2752/175630613x13584367984947 6171: 6146: 5679:"W3C Geospatial Incubator Group" 5412:. pp. 27–34. Archived from 5250:10.1016/B978-008044910-4.00029-8 5113:from the original on 2018-05-14. 4694:from the original on 2017-08-30. 4484:10.1111/j.1749-8198.2011.00431.x 4274:from the original on 2014-08-08. 4054:10.1111/j.1745-5871.2009.00577.x 3188:Tobler's second law of geography 2901:spatial decision support systems 2778:This section is an excerpt from 2741:This section is an excerpt from 2735: 2709:This section is an excerpt from 2680:This section is an excerpt from 2652:This section is an excerpt from 2592:This section is an excerpt from 2517:This section is an excerpt from 2484:This section is an excerpt from 2441:GIS and environmental governance 2439:This section is an excerpt from 2411:This section is an excerpt from 2367:This section is an excerpt from 1893:multi-criteria decision analysis 1881:Multi-criteria decision analysis 1751: 1546: 780: 646:architectures. One example is a 343:and theme existed previously in 41: 6121: 6069: 6045: 6025:Nieto Barbero, Gustavo (2016). 5962: 5915: 5878: 5853: 5828: 5787: 5752: 5717: 5699: 5685: 5671: 5653: 5635: 5599: 5574: 5552: 5527: 5500: 5478: 5465: 5432: 5394: 5361: 5298: 5237: 5228: 5207: 5182: 5163: 5132: 5055: 5029: 4990: 4951: 4872: 4698: 4641: 4490: 4424: 4408: 4278: 4249: 4201:Couclelis, Helen (March 2003). 4194: 4176:"NJGIN's Information Warehouse" 4168: 4150: 4020: 3994: 3958: 3923: 3904:(11): 1551–1555. Archived from 3882: 3848:. New York: Springer. pp. 3723: 3670: 3637: 3513: 3183:Tobler's first law of geography 3021: 2969:United States Geological Survey 2124: 1796:triangulated irregular networks 1399:Hillshade model derived from a 1122: 1085:for U.S. measurements, and the 866:technology) is used mainly for 706:(location and shape) and their 539: 76:"Geographic information system" 52:needs additional citations for 7243:Geographic information systems 6867:Geographic information science 6492:Geographic information systems 5368:Cohen, Patricia (2011-07-26). 5189:Haywood, Leeann (2023-03-15). 4964:Communication Design Quarterly 3432: 3389: 3366: 3344: 3322: 3258: 3028:Esri Education User Conference 2750:geographic information science 2594:GIS in geospatial intelligence 2427:Geographic Information Science 2405: 2383:Geographic Information Systems 2063: 1698: 1441:Triangulated irregular network 1326: 1282:be of widely varying quality. 812:), and masses (e.g., types of 510:free, open-source GIS packages 300:(1832). French geographer and 183:geographic information systems 13: 1: 6973:Geographic information system 6432:. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. 6373:. Prentice Hall. 3rd edition. 6245:and help improve the section. 5561:"The Geospatial Semantic Web" 5139:Benner, Steve (Spring 2009). 4865:10.1080/17445647.2023.2235385 4321:10.1016/S0098-3004(98)00032-6 4284:Wade, T. and Sommer, S. eds. 4027:Puotinen, Marji (June 2009). 3858:10.1007/978-0-387-35973-1_648 3330:"The 50th Anniversary of GIS" 3265:Goodchild, Michael F (2010). 3199: 2175:, a common classification in 1489:, as well as flood risk maps. 966:and drones. For example, the 552:geographic information system 376:Dual Independent Map Encoding 149:geographic information system 6900:Environmental social science 6462:GIS: a computing perspective 6351:. ESRI Press. Redlands, CA. 6285:. Ann Arbor: XanEdu, 764 pp. 5726:Public Administration Review 5643:"Ordnance Survey Ontologies" 5317:. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 4905:10.1016/j.renene.2024.120552 4669:10.1080/00140139.2014.909950 4613:Dialogues in Human Geography 4578:10.1016/j.apergo.2012.04.013 3944:10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.07.004 3680:. ESRI Press. Redlands, CA. 3441:"Automation and Cartography" 2906: 2861:Adding the dimension of time 2727:and spatial information and 2691:to study and manage Earth's 2674: 2399:US Fish and Wildlife Service 2297:(even churches), as well as 2235:), and those concerned with 1533:Voronoi or Thiessen polygons 1290:Raster-to-vector translation 1113:Geographic coordinate system 1089:for worldwide measurements. 1083:North American Datum of 1983 800:(e.g., a house, a road) and 307:created a map outlining the 7: 6347:Fu, P., and J. Sun (2010). 6029:(Ph.D. thesis). Barcelona: 5521:10.3138/U558-H737-6577-8U31 5486:"OGC Members | OGC(R)" 5446:. iapad.org. Archived from 5214:Liaquat, Ali (2021-08-01). 3108:Climate Information Service 3095: 2603:(GEOINT) and United States 2479:Environmental contamination 2346:GIS is also diverging into 1917:Data output and cartography 1798:, edge-finding algorithms, 1317:object-oriented programming 10: 7259: 6366:The Guilford Press, 31 pp. 5813:10.1214/088342305000000241 5475:18.3 (1996) : 11-17. 4807:10.1016/j.puhe.2020.04.034 4768:10.1559/152304007781002235 3676:Fu, P., and J. Sun. 2010. 3418:10.1559/152304090784005859 3296:Urban Design International 3240:Chang, Kang-tsung (2016). 3113:Comparison of GIS software 3025: 2994: 2983:database query protocols. 2940:deciduous needleleaf trees 2864: 2822:Open Geospatial Consortium 2816:Open Geospatial Consortium 2813: 2777: 2740: 2708: 2679: 2651: 2646: 2591: 2565:personal digital assistant 2516: 2483: 2438: 2410: 2366: 2293:(of all types and sizes), 2128: 2067: 1972: 1920: 1884: 1860: 1833: 1812:inverse distance weighting 1808:(weighted) moving averages 1755: 1702: 1655: 1619:Transport network analysis 1616: 1551:It is difficult to relate 1516: 1463:project to estimate costs. 1412: 1406: 1349: 1260:Propagation of uncertainty 1126: 1069: 1008: 784: 733:GIS uses spatio-temporal ( 729:Aspects of geographic data 694:Geospatial data management 652:Object-relational database 543: 309:forty-eight districts 29: 7174: 7131: 7100: 7063: 7015:Global Positioning System 6941: 6932: 6890: 6842: 6703: 6578: 6571: 6538: 6464:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 6421:Pickles, J., ed., (1994) 5983:10.1007/978-4-431-55519-3 5938:10.1007/978-94-007-2120-3 5617:: 147–154. Archived from 5023:10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101240 4732:10.1016/j.trc.2014.10.007 4607:Everts, Jonathan (2020). 4536:10.1109/JSEN.2010.2056916 4352:10.1080/02693798908941519 4301:Computers and Geosciences 3377:. Natural History Press. 2961:Jet Propulsion Laboratory 2913:World Wide Web Consortium 2780:Traditional knowledge GIS 2773:Traditional knowledge GIS 2729:communications management 2356: 2109:geodata in projects like 1249:topological relationships 921:Global Positioning System 884:global positioning system 870:, monitoring and mapping. 698:The core of any GIS is a 6362:Harvey, Francis (2008). 6186:(Submitted manuscript). 5860:Haque, Akhlaque (2015). 5835:Monmonier, Mark (1991). 5794:Monmonier, Mark (2005). 4626:10.1177/2043820620935355 4609:"The dashboard pandemic" 4418:18, pp. 416–429 (2013). 3709:(6th ed.). XanEdu. 3373:MacHarg, Ian L. (1971). 3215:DeMers, Michael (2009). 3158:List of GIS data sources 3001:Public participation GIS 2973:Natural Resources Canada 2559:is the process by which 2557:Digital geologic mapping 2519:Digital geologic mapping 2434:Environmental governance 2295:non-profit organizations 1911:environmental monitoring 1792:Digital elevation models 1336:extract, transform, load 1295:adjacency or inclusion. 1072:Spatial reference system 998:electromagnetic spectrum 957:unmanned aerial vehicles 576:and the legacy software 520:infrastructure, such as 270:'s 1855 map of the 7123:National mapping agency 7088:Survey (human research) 7030:Participant observation 6294:Oxford University Press 6031:University of Barcelona 5773:10.1023/A:1024986003350 5738:10.1111/0033-3352.00028 5536:Geospatial Semantic Web 4976:10.1145/3437000.3437001 4943:Grimshaw, D.J. (1994). 4922:(2nd ed.). Wiley. 4227:10.1111/1467-9671.00138 3573:. URISA. Archived from 3168:Map database management 2919:are proving useful for 2857:and verify each entry. 2601:geospatial intelligence 2587:Geospatial intelligence 2369:GIS and aquatic science 2348:location-based services 2269:sustainable development 2026:digital elevation model 1638:transportation planning 1586:digital elevation model 1475:digital elevation model 1437:Digital elevation model 1401:digital elevation model 1367:Geospatial intelligence 1025:ortho-rectified imagery 858:) and data collection ( 684:location-based services 435:having a true embedded 389:development spurred by 248:History and development 7113:Geographical societies 6910:Landscape architecture 6335:GIS modeling in raster 3838:Moretz, David (2008). 3784:(4th ed.). Wiley. 3705:Bolstad, Paul (2019). 3596:Lovison-Golob, Lucia. 3495:"Map Printing Methods" 3493:Fitzgerald, Joseph H. 3439:Tobler, Waldo (1959). 3280:10.5311/JOSIS.2010.1.2 3173:Quantitative geography 3153:Integrated Geo Systems 2843: 2554: 2456: 2380: 2209:landscape architecture 2044:the three-dimensional 1984: 1824:trend surface analysis 1672: 1537:Cost distance analysis 1404: 1319:and sustained work by 1203:Vagueness or fuzziness 1102:Helmert transformation 1005:Secondary data capture 972:ground sample distance 888:secondary data capture 871: 644:information technology 514:Information technology 293: 284: 181:The uncounted plural, 144: 6905:Environmental studies 6877:Statistical geography 6758:Environmental science 6274:Berry, J. K. (1993). 5349:Kramer, John (2000). 4385:Chang, K. T. (2008). 4334:Chang, K. T. (1989). 4033:Geographical Research 3889:Cowen, David (1988). 2991:Societal implications 2854:Implementing products 2841: 2790:Traditional knowledge 2762:environmental science 2743:GIS and public health 2633:GeoNetwork opensource 2621:types of GIS software 2528: 2500:spatial interpolation 2450: 2378: 2014:San Mateo County 1982: 1688:Cartographic modeling 1680:cartographic modeling 1665: 1652:Cartographic modeling 1467:Hydrological modeling 1398: 1359:business intelligence 1350:Further information: 1127:Further information: 1087:World Geodetic System 1009:Further information: 849: 633:software as a service 530:software as a service 410:Canada Land Inventory 266:'s version (1958) of 262: 207:location intelligence 197:within the branch of 142: 7118:Geoscience societies 7083:Interview (research) 7055:Land change modeling 6956:Computer cartography 6934:Techniques and tools 6792:Earth system science 6494:at Wikimedia Commons 6402:How to Lie With Maps 6383:, Maguire, D.J. and 6281:Bolstad, P. (2019). 5837:How to Lie with Maps 5488:. Opengeospatial.org 4506:IEEE Sensors Journal 3163:List of GIS software 2665:historical geography 2573:spatially referenced 2533:in the Erath field, 2395:US Geological Survey 2088:free and open-source 1731:symmetric difference 1600:Topological modeling 1525:friction of distance 1363:spatial intelligence 1117:North American Datum 1098:datum transformation 979:photo interpretation 904:Primary data capture 876:primary data capture 586:MapInfo Professional 560:, a general-purpose 522:relational databases 462:, released in 1983. 404:, it was called the 163:, edit, output, and 159:that store, manage, 61:improve this article 32:GIS (disambiguation) 7164:Spatial citizenship 7149:Geographers on Film 7139:Geography education 6749:Atmospheric science 5800:Statistical Science 5015:2024GSusD..2601240C 4897:2024REne..22720552C 4856:2023JMaps..19Q...1A 4760:2007CGISc..34..133P 4723:2014TRPC...49..103M 4518:2011ISenJ..11..641M 4313:1998CG.....24..315J 4219:2003TrGIS...7..165C 4207:Transactions in GIS 4164:on 6 November 2018. 4045:2009GeoRs..47..219P 3846:Encyclopedia of GIS 3604:on 13 December 2007 3551:on 17 December 2015 3457:1959GeoRv..49..526T 3445:Geographical Review 3410:1990CGISy..17...39B 3308:10.1057/udi.2010.25 3178:Technical geography 3051:In local government 2830:Web Feature Service 2569:emerging technology 2561:geological features 2265:wildlife management 2177:business management 2150:resource management 2145:scientific research 1975:Terrain cartography 1923:Cartographic design 1197:confidence interval 1152:positional accuracy 1108:may be sufficient. 959:(UAVs) are banned. 913:coordinate geometry 723:relational database 562:application program 199:technical geography 7045:Statistical survey 6995:Geologic modelling 6834:Quaternary science 6299:Chang, K. (2007). 6184:The Design Journal 5374:The New York Times 5151:on 22 October 2009 4566:Applied Ergonomics 4182:on 10 October 2011 3644:Xuan, Zhu (2016). 3598:"Howard T. Fisher" 3375:Design with nature 3133:Geodatabase (Esri) 2847:Compliant products 2844: 2555: 2505:soil contamination 2457: 2413:GIS in archaeology 2381: 1985: 1891:Coupled with GIS, 1673: 1624:Geometric networks 1613:Geometric networks 1519:Proximity analysis 1513:Proximity analysis 1405: 1308:Fourier transforms 1156:attribute accuracy 872: 868:forest inventories 372:Design with Nature 285: 145: 7230: 7229: 7096: 7095: 6928: 6927: 6915:Landscape ecology 6735:Coastal geography 6490:Media related to 6452:978-1-58948-158-9 6410:978-0-226-43592-3 6343:978-0-471-31965-8 6326:978-0-470-12906-7 6296:, Oxford, 327 pp. 6271: 6270: 6263: 6129:"Home - SafeCity" 5796:"Lying with Maps" 5568:UCGIS White Paper 5545:978-3-319-17801-1 5286:Missing or empty 5195:Hennessey Digital 5103:978-90-6164-269-5 4472:Geography Compass 4143:978-0-13-614776-3 3980:978-3-947-25115-5 3867:978-0-387-35973-1 3716:978-1-59399-552-2 3545:"Roger Tomlinson" 3251:978-1-259-92964-9 3226:978-0-470-12906-7 3034:spatial cognition 2717:Participatory GIS 2711:Participatory GIS 2704:Participatory GIS 2682:GIS and hydrology 2605:national security 2460:Michael Goodchild 2273:natural resources 2237:the natural world 2153:. The purpose of 2086:, as well as the 2078:web applications 2050:San Andreas Fault 2048:looking down the 2031:The accompanying 1969:Terrain depiction 1863:Reverse geocoding 1857:Reverse geocoding 1830:Address geocoding 1800:Thiessen polygons 1493:Viewshed analysis 1212:metropolitan area 1029:digitizing tablet 934:laser rangefinder 856:laser rangefinder 802:continuous fields 720:spatially-enabled 648:spatial extension 572:, which includes 498:Microsoft Windows 387:computer hardware 385:in 1959. Further 176:body of knowledge 143:Basic GIS concept 137: 136: 129: 111: 16:(Redirected from 7250: 7218: 7217: 7206: 7205: 7194: 7182: 7181: 7010:Geovisualization 6939: 6938: 6882:Spatial analysis 6767:Paleoclimatology 6576: 6575: 6522: 6515: 6508: 6499: 6498: 6489: 6475: 6456: 6266: 6259: 6255: 6252: 6246: 6241:Please read the 6237:may need cleanup 6226: 6225: 6218: 6208: 6207: 6175: 6169: 6168: 6166: 6164: 6150: 6144: 6143: 6141: 6139: 6125: 6119: 6118: 6116: 6114: 6100: 6091: 6090: 6088: 6087: 6073: 6067: 6066: 6064: 6063: 6057:www.sandiego.edu 6049: 6043: 6042: 6022: 6013: 6012: 5966: 5960: 5959: 5919: 5913: 5912: 5889:. Redlands, CA: 5882: 5876: 5875: 5857: 5851: 5850: 5832: 5826: 5825: 5815: 5791: 5785: 5784: 5756: 5750: 5749: 5721: 5715: 5714: 5709:. Archived from 5703: 5697: 5696: 5689: 5683: 5682: 5675: 5669: 5668: 5663:. Archived from 5657: 5651: 5650: 5645:. 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Archived from 4154: 4148: 4147: 4129: 4120: 4119: 4117: 4115: 4100: 4094: 4093: 4091: 4090: 4076: 4067: 4066: 4056: 4024: 4018: 4017: 4015: 4013: 3998: 3992: 3991: 3962: 3956: 3955: 3927: 3921: 3920: 3918: 3916: 3911:on 24 April 2011 3910: 3895: 3886: 3880: 3879: 3843: 3835: 3826: 3825: 3805: 3795: 3786: 3785: 3777: 3758: 3757: 3747: 3727: 3721: 3720: 3702: 3689: 3674: 3668: 3667: 3641: 3635: 3634: 3632: 3630: 3620: 3614: 3613: 3611: 3609: 3593: 3587: 3586: 3584: 3582: 3567: 3561: 3560: 3558: 3556: 3541: 3535: 3534: 3532: 3531: 3517: 3511: 3510: 3508: 3506: 3497:. Archived from 3490: 3484: 3483: 3481: 3479: 3436: 3430: 3429: 3393: 3387: 3386: 3370: 3364: 3363: 3361: 3359: 3348: 3342: 3341: 3339: 3337: 3326: 3320: 3319: 3291: 3285: 3284: 3282: 3262: 3256: 3255: 3237: 3231: 3230: 3212: 2925:interoperability 2921:data integration 2894:U.S. Census 2725:spatial planning 2697:hydrologic cycle 2535:Vermilion Parish 2512:Geologic mapping 2233:national defense 2080:Google Maps 2046:perspective view 1990:Topographic maps 1804:Fourier analysis 1678:coined the term 1579:renewable energy 1575:renewable energy 1541:network analysis 1415:Surface gradient 1391:Terrain analysis 1352:Spatial analysis 1346:Spatial analysis 1323:and co-workers. 1300:image processing 1266:Spatial analysis 1254:network analysis 1220:fuzzy set theory 842:Data acquisition 798:discrete objects 791:GIS file formats 787:Data model (GIS) 534:mobile computing 352:photozincography 332:cholera outbreak 299: 282:epidemic of 1854 220:; representing, 205:reason, GIS and 172:spatial database 132: 125: 121: 118: 112: 110: 69: 45: 37: 21: 7258: 7257: 7253: 7252: 7251: 7249: 7248: 7247: 7233: 7232: 7231: 7226: 7170: 7127: 7092: 7059: 6978:Distributed GIS 6924: 6886: 6838: 6771:Palaeogeography 6699: 6567: 6534: 6526: 6482: 6472: 6453: 6437:Roger Tomlinson 6381:Goodchild, M.F. 6303:. McGraw Hill, 6267: 6256: 6250: 6247: 6240: 6233:Further reading 6227: 6223: 6216: 6214:Further reading 6211: 6176: 6172: 6162: 6160: 6152: 6151: 6147: 6137: 6135: 6127: 6126: 6122: 6112: 6110: 6102: 6101: 6094: 6085: 6083: 6075: 6074: 6070: 6061: 6059: 6051: 6050: 6046: 6023: 6016: 5993: 5975:Springer-Verlag 5967: 5963: 5948: 5930:Springer-Verlag 5920: 5916: 5901: 5883: 5879: 5872: 5858: 5854: 5847: 5833: 5829: 5792: 5788: 5757: 5753: 5722: 5718: 5713:on 18 May 2007. 5705: 5704: 5700: 5691: 5690: 5686: 5677: 5676: 5672: 5667:on 29 May 2007. 5659: 5658: 5654: 5649:on 21 May 2007. 5641: 5640: 5636: 5627: 5625: 5621: 5610: 5604: 5600: 5579: 5575: 5563: 5557: 5553: 5546: 5532: 5528: 5505: 5501: 5491: 5489: 5484: 5483: 5479: 5470: 5466: 5456: 5454: 5453:on 16 July 2011 5450: 5443: 5437: 5433: 5422: 5420: 5419:on 16 July 2011 5416: 5405: 5399: 5395: 5386: 5384: 5366: 5362: 5347: 5343: 5338: 5334: 5325: 5321: 5312: 5308: 5303: 5299: 5287: 5285: 5275: 5274: 5265: 5264: 5260: 5242: 5238: 5233: 5229: 5220: 5218: 5212: 5208: 5199: 5197: 5187: 5183: 5168: 5164: 5154: 5152: 5137: 5133: 5122: 5118: 5110: 5104: 5093: 5085: 5081: 5072: 5070: 5061: 5060: 5056: 5046: 5044: 5043:on 8 March 2012 5035: 5034: 5030: 4995: 4991: 4956: 4952: 4941: 4937: 4930: 4916: 4912: 4877: 4873: 4844:Journal of Maps 4836: 4832: 4787: 4783: 4744: 4740: 4703: 4699: 4691: 4652: 4646: 4642: 4605: 4601: 4558: 4551: 4527:10.1.1.724.1158 4501: 4495: 4491: 4468: 4464: 4454: 4452: 4450: 4432:Tomlin, C. Dana 4429: 4425: 4413: 4409: 4398: 4394: 4383: 4379: 4368: 4359: 4332: 4328: 4297: 4293: 4283: 4279: 4271: 4260: 4254: 4250: 4199: 4195: 4185: 4183: 4174: 4173: 4169: 4156: 4155: 4151: 4144: 4130: 4123: 4113: 4111: 4110:on 21 July 2011 4102: 4101: 4097: 4088: 4086: 4078: 4077: 4070: 4025: 4021: 4011: 4009: 4008:on 10 June 2020 4000: 3999: 3995: 3981: 3963: 3959: 3928: 3924: 3914: 3912: 3908: 3893: 3887: 3883: 3868: 3836: 3829: 3814: 3796: 3789: 3778: 3761: 3728: 3724: 3717: 3703: 3692: 3675: 3671: 3656: 3642: 3638: 3628: 3626: 3622: 3621: 3617: 3607: 3605: 3594: 3590: 3580: 3578: 3577:on 14 July 2007 3569: 3568: 3564: 3554: 3552: 3543: 3542: 3538: 3529: 3527: 3519: 3518: 3514: 3504: 3502: 3491: 3487: 3477: 3475: 3437: 3433: 3394: 3390: 3371: 3367: 3357: 3355: 3350: 3349: 3345: 3335: 3333: 3328: 3327: 3323: 3292: 3288: 3263: 3259: 3252: 3238: 3234: 3227: 3213: 3206: 3202: 3197: 3128:Distributed GIS 3098: 3089:open government 3053: 3030: 3024: 3003: 2995:Main articles: 2993: 2949:Ordnance Survey 2909: 2873: 2863: 2826:Web Map Service 2818: 2812: 2807: 2806: 2783: 2775: 2770: 2769: 2756:management and 2746: 2738: 2733: 2732: 2714: 2706: 2701: 2700: 2693:water resources 2685: 2677: 2669: 2668: 2657: 2649: 2644: 2643: 2597: 2589: 2584: 2583: 2522: 2514: 2509: 2508: 2489: 2481: 2476: 2475: 2444: 2436: 2431: 2430: 2416: 2408: 2403: 2402: 2387:aquatic science 2372: 2364: 2362:Aquatic science 2359: 2189:the human world 2133: 2127: 2072: 2066: 1977: 1971: 1944:Web Map Servers 1929: 1927:Digital mapping 1921:Main articles: 1919: 1904:GIS or spatial 1902: 1900:GIS data mining 1889: 1883: 1865: 1859: 1838: 1832: 1760: 1754: 1711: 1703:Main articles: 1701: 1660: 1654: 1621: 1615: 1602: 1573:potential as a 1549: 1521: 1515: 1507:vector calculus 1417: 1411: 1393: 1354: 1348: 1329: 1312:geographic data 1292: 1131: 1125: 1074: 1068: 1013: 1007: 940:Remotely sensed 925:field computers 906: 860:rugged computer 844: 810:suburbanization 793: 785:Main articles: 783: 767:map projections 731: 696: 625:distributed GIS 548: 542: 526:cloud computing 402:Roger Tomlinson 398:Ottawa, Ontario 370:'s publication 254:Roger Tomlinson 250: 168:geographic data 133: 122: 116: 113: 70: 68: 58: 46: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7256: 7246: 7245: 7228: 7227: 7225: 7224: 7212: 7200: 7188: 7175: 7172: 7171: 7169: 7168: 7167: 7166: 7161: 7156: 7151: 7146: 7135: 7133: 7129: 7128: 7126: 7125: 7120: 7115: 7110: 7104: 7102: 7098: 7097: 7094: 7093: 7091: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7075: 7069: 7067: 7061: 7060: 7058: 7057: 7052: 7047: 7042: 7040:Remote sensing 7037: 7035:Photogrammetry 7032: 7027: 7022: 7017: 7012: 7007: 7002: 7000:Geomathematics 6997: 6992: 6991: 6990: 6985: 6980: 6970: 6965: 6964: 6963: 6958: 6947: 6945: 6936: 6930: 6929: 6926: 6925: 6923: 6922: 6920:Time geography 6917: 6912: 6907: 6902: 6896: 6894: 6888: 6887: 6885: 6884: 6879: 6874: 6869: 6864: 6862:Geoinformatics 6859: 6854: 6848: 6846: 6840: 6839: 6837: 6836: 6831: 6817: 6808: 6803: 6794: 6789: 6788: 6787: 6778: 6773: 6760: 6755: 6741: 6732: 6731: 6730: 6725: 6723:Phytogeography 6720: 6709: 6707: 6701: 6700: 6698: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6681: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6584: 6582: 6573: 6569: 6568: 6566: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6539: 6536: 6535: 6525: 6524: 6517: 6510: 6502: 6496: 6495: 6481: 6480:External links 6478: 6477: 6476: 6471:978-0415283755 6470: 6457: 6451: 6433: 6426: 6419: 6412: 6395: 6392: 6374: 6367: 6360: 6345: 6328: 6311: 6309:978-0071267588 6297: 6286: 6279: 6269: 6268: 6230: 6228: 6221: 6215: 6212: 6210: 6209: 6190:(2): 197–218. 6170: 6145: 6120: 6092: 6068: 6044: 6014: 5991: 5961: 5946: 5914: 5899: 5877: 5871:978-0817318772 5870: 5852: 5846:978-0226534213 5845: 5827: 5806:(3): 215–222. 5786: 5751: 5732:(3): 259–265. 5716: 5698: 5684: 5670: 5652: 5634: 5598: 5592:10.1.1.99.5206 5573: 5551: 5544: 5526: 5499: 5477: 5464: 5431: 5393: 5360: 5341: 5332: 5319: 5306: 5297: 5276:|journal= 5258: 5236: 5227: 5206: 5181: 5162: 5131: 5116: 5102: 5079: 5054: 5028: 4989: 4950: 4935: 4928: 4910: 4871: 4830: 4781: 4754:(2): 133–136. 4738: 4697: 4663:(7): 987–997. 4640: 4619:(2): 260–264. 4599: 4549: 4489: 4478:(6): 412–432. 4462: 4448: 4423: 4407: 4392: 4377: 4357: 4346:(4): 323–334. 4326: 4307:(4): 315–323. 4291: 4277: 4248: 4213:(2): 165–175. 4193: 4167: 4149: 4142: 4121: 4095: 4068: 4039:(2): 219–221. 4019: 3993: 3979: 3957: 3922: 3881: 3866: 3841:"Internet GIS" 3827: 3812: 3787: 3759: 3722: 3715: 3690: 3669: 3654: 3636: 3615: 3588: 3562: 3536: 3512: 3501:on 4 June 2007 3485: 3465:10.2307/212211 3451:(4): 526–534. 3431: 3388: 3365: 3343: 3321: 3286: 3257: 3250: 3232: 3225: 3203: 3201: 3198: 3196: 3195: 3190: 3185: 3180: 3175: 3170: 3165: 3160: 3155: 3150: 3145: 3140: 3135: 3130: 3125: 3120: 3115: 3110: 3105: 3099: 3097: 3094: 3081: 3080: 3077: 3074: 3071: 3068: 3065: 3062: 3052: 3049: 3023: 3020: 2992: 2989: 2975:, Australia's 2953:United Kingdom 2908: 2905: 2871:Time geography 2862: 2859: 2814:Main article: 2811: 2808: 2802:cognitive maps 2784: 2776: 2774: 2771: 2766:urban planning 2747: 2739: 2737: 2734: 2715: 2707: 2705: 2702: 2686: 2678: 2676: 2673: 2658: 2650: 2648: 2645: 2598: 2590: 2588: 2585: 2571:is to produce 2523: 2515: 2513: 2510: 2494:is the use of 2490: 2482: 2480: 2477: 2445: 2437: 2435: 2432: 2417: 2409: 2407: 2404: 2373: 2365: 2363: 2360: 2358: 2355: 2336: 2335: 2316: 2302: 2280: 2277:climate change 2261:Natural hazard 2217:urban planning 2201:transportation 2182: 2181: 2180: 2161:Decision level 2136:several ways: 2126: 2123: 2084:Bing Maps 2068:Main article: 2065: 2062: 2038: 2037: 2029: 1973:Main article: 1970: 1967: 1918: 1915: 1901: 1898: 1885:Main article: 1882: 1879: 1869:street address 1861:Main article: 1858: 1855: 1842:ZIP Codes 1834:Main article: 1831: 1828: 1756:Main article: 1753: 1750: 1705:Vector overlay 1700: 1697: 1656:Main article: 1653: 1650: 1646:infrastructure 1644:modeling, and 1634:public utility 1617:Main article: 1614: 1611: 1601: 1598: 1548: 1545: 1517:Main article: 1514: 1511: 1503: 1502: 1496: 1490: 1479:surface runoff 1471:catchment area 1464: 1457: 1451: 1448:Slope or grade 1409:Geomorphometry 1407:Main article: 1392: 1389: 1347: 1344: 1328: 1325: 1291: 1288: 1275: 1274: 1262: 1257: 1245: 1240: 1236: 1233: 1226: 1223: 1205: 1200: 1192: 1187: 1168: 1163: 1144: 1124: 1121: 1070:Main article: 1067: 1064: 1006: 1003: 994:remote sensing 987:photogrammetry 964:miniature UAVs 905: 902: 880:remote sensing 843: 840: 836:3D color image 782: 779: 745:representing, 730: 727: 695: 692: 544:Main article: 541: 538: 391:nuclear weapon 305:Charles Picqué 249: 246: 187:geoinformatics 135: 134: 49: 47: 40: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7255: 7244: 7241: 7240: 7238: 7223: 7222: 7213: 7211: 7210: 7201: 7199: 7198: 7193: 7189: 7187: 7186: 7177: 7176: 7173: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7141: 7140: 7137: 7136: 7134: 7130: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7105: 7103: 7099: 7089: 7086: 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ESRI, Inc. 6444: 6443: 6438: 6434: 6431: 6427: 6424: 6420: 6417: 6413: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6398:Monmonier, M. 6396: 6393: 6390: 6386: 6382: 6378: 6377:Longley, P.A. 6375: 6372: 6368: 6365: 6361: 6358: 6357:1-58948-245-X 6354: 6350: 6346: 6344: 6340: 6336: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6306: 6302: 6298: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6284: 6280: 6277: 6273: 6272: 6265: 6262: 6254: 6244: 6243:editing guide 6238: 6234: 6229: 6220: 6219: 6205: 6201: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6185: 6181: 6174: 6159: 6155: 6149: 6134: 6130: 6124: 6109: 6105: 6099: 6097: 6082: 6078: 6072: 6058: 6054: 6048: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6021: 6019: 6010: 6006: 6002: 5998: 5994: 5992:9784431555186 5988: 5984: 5980: 5976: 5972: 5965: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5947:9789400721197 5943: 5939: 5935: 5931: 5927: 5926: 5918: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5900:9781589481497 5896: 5892: 5888: 5881: 5873: 5867: 5863: 5856: 5848: 5842: 5838: 5831: 5823: 5819: 5814: 5809: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5790: 5782: 5778: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5755: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5727: 5720: 5712: 5708: 5702: 5694: 5688: 5680: 5674: 5666: 5662: 5656: 5648: 5644: 5638: 5624:on 2007-06-14 5620: 5616: 5609: 5602: 5593: 5588: 5584: 5577: 5569: 5562: 5555: 5547: 5541: 5537: 5530: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5503: 5487: 5481: 5474: 5468: 5449: 5442: 5435: 5415: 5411: 5404: 5397: 5383: 5379: 5375: 5371: 5364: 5356: 5352: 5345: 5336: 5329: 5323: 5316: 5310: 5301: 5293: 5281: 5269: 5261: 5259:9780080449104 5255: 5251: 5247: 5240: 5231: 5217: 5210: 5196: 5192: 5185: 5177: 5173: 5166: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5135: 5127: 5120: 5109: 5105: 5099: 5092: 5091: 5083: 5069:on 2017-05-17 5068: 5064: 5058: 5042: 5038: 5032: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4993: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4954: 4946: 4939: 4931: 4925: 4921: 4914: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4875: 4866: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4834: 4826: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4795:Public Health 4792: 4785: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4742: 4733: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4701: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4651: 4644: 4636: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4603: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4572:(6): 886–94. 4571: 4567: 4563: 4556: 4554: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4528: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4500: 4493: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4466: 4451: 4449:9780133509274 4445: 4440: 4439: 4433: 4427: 4421: 4417: 4411: 4403: 4396: 4388: 4381: 4373: 4366: 4364: 4362: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4330: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4295: 4289: 4288: 4281: 4270: 4266: 4259: 4252: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4197: 4181: 4177: 4171: 4163: 4159: 4153: 4145: 4139: 4135: 4128: 4126: 4109: 4105: 4099: 4085: 4081: 4075: 4073: 4064: 4060: 4055: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4023: 4007: 4003: 3997: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3961: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3926: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3892: 3885: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3842: 3834: 3832: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3813:0-471-35923-8 3809: 3804: 3803: 3794: 3792: 3783: 3776: 3774: 3772: 3770: 3768: 3766: 3764: 3755: 3751: 3746: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3726: 3718: 3712: 3708: 3701: 3699: 3697: 3695: 3687: 3686:1-58948-245-X 3683: 3679: 3673: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3655:9780415829069 3651: 3648:. Routledge. 3647: 3640: 3625: 3619: 3603: 3599: 3592: 3576: 3572: 3566: 3550: 3546: 3540: 3526: 3522: 3516: 3500: 3496: 3489: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3435: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3392: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3369: 3353: 3347: 3331: 3325: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3290: 3281: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3261: 3253: 3247: 3243: 3236: 3228: 3222: 3218: 3211: 3209: 3204: 3194: 3193:Virtual globe 3191: 3189: 3186: 3184: 3181: 3179: 3176: 3174: 3171: 3169: 3166: 3164: 3161: 3159: 3156: 3154: 3151: 3149: 3146: 3144: 3141: 3139: 3136: 3134: 3131: 3129: 3126: 3124: 3121: 3119: 3116: 3114: 3111: 3109: 3106: 3104: 3101: 3100: 3093: 3090: 3086: 3078: 3075: 3072: 3069: 3066: 3063: 3059: 3058: 3057: 3048: 3045: 3042: 3037: 3035: 3029: 3019: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3002: 2998: 2988: 2984: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2932: 2928: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2904: 2902: 2897: 2895: 2889: 2887: 2883: 2877: 2872: 2868: 2858: 2855: 2851: 2848: 2840: 2836: 2833: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2817: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2781: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2758:data analysis 2755: 2751: 2744: 2736:Public health 2730: 2726: 2722: 2721:participatory 2718: 2712: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2683: 2672: 2666: 2662: 2655: 2641: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2629:ERDAS IMAGINE 2626: 2622: 2617: 2613: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2595: 2581: 2577: 2576:geologic maps 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2531:oil reservoir 2527: 2520: 2506: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2487: 2473: 2472:environmental 2469: 2465: 2461: 2454: 2449: 2442: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2414: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2377: 2370: 2354: 2351: 2349: 2344: 2342: 2341:interoperable 2333: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2317: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2303: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2281: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2229:crime mapping 2226: 2225:public health 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2183: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2159: 2158: 2156: 2152: 2151: 2146: 2142: 2139: 2138: 2137: 2132: 2122: 2118: 2116: 2112: 2111:OpenStreetMap 2108: 2107:crowdsourcing 2104: 2100: 2095: 2093: 2092:OpenStreetMap 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2071: 2061: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2034: 2030: 2027: 2023: 2022: 2021: 2019: 2015: 2010: 2006: 2001: 1999: 1998:shaded relief 1995: 1994:contour lines 1991: 1981: 1976: 1966: 1962: 1959: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1939: 1936: 1933: 1928: 1924: 1914: 1912: 1907: 1897: 1894: 1888: 1878: 1875: 1870: 1864: 1854: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1837: 1827: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1782: 1781:Interpolation 1778: 1774: 1772: 1771:Pacific Ocean 1766: 1764: 1763:Geostatistics 1759: 1758:Geostatistics 1752:Geostatistics 1749: 1747: 1743: 1738: 1734: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1710: 1706: 1696: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1669: 1664: 1659: 1649: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1630: 1625: 1620: 1610: 1607: 1597: 1595: 1591: 1590:shaded relief 1587: 1582: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1567: 1566:contour lines 1563: 1558: 1554: 1547:Data analysis 1544: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1520: 1510: 1508: 1500: 1499:Shaded relief 1497: 1494: 1491: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1465: 1462: 1458: 1455: 1452: 1449: 1446: 1445: 1444: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1416: 1410: 1402: 1397: 1388: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1373:Geoprocessing 1370: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1353: 1343: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1324: 1322: 1318: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1296: 1287: 1283: 1280: 1271: 1270:interpolation 1267: 1263: 1261: 1258: 1255: 1250: 1246: 1244: 1241: 1237: 1234: 1231: 1227: 1224: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1210: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1198: 1193: 1191: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1175: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1161: 1157: 1154:), property ( 1153: 1149: 1145: 1143: 1140: 1139: 1138: 1136: 1130: 1120: 1118: 1114: 1109: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1090: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1073: 1063: 1061: 1055: 1051: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1032: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1012: 1002: 999: 995: 990: 988: 984: 980: 975: 973: 969: 965: 960: 958: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 935: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 901: 899: 898: 897:data transfer 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 869: 865: 861: 857: 853: 848: 839: 837: 833: 828: 826: 822: 821:raster images 817: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 792: 788: 781:Data modeling 778: 776: 770: 768: 764: 760: 756: 752: 748: 744: 738: 736: 726: 724: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 691: 689: 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 640: 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 618: 614: 610: 605: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 568: 563: 559: 558: 553: 547: 537: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 511: 507: 501: 499: 495: 490: 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 468: 463: 461: 458: 454: 449: 447: 443: 438: 434: 430: 425: 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 399: 394: 392: 388: 384: 379: 377: 373: 369: 364: 361: 357: 353: 348: 346: 342: 337: 333: 329: 324: 322: 318: 314: 310: 306: 303: 298: 297: 290: 283: 280: 276: 273: 269: 265: 264:E. W. Gilbert 261: 257: 255: 245: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 219: 215: 210: 208: 202: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 179: 177: 173: 169: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 141: 131: 128: 120: 109: 106: 102: 99: 95: 92: 88: 85: 81: 78: – 77: 73: 72:Find sources: 66: 62: 56: 55: 50:This article 48: 44: 39: 38: 33: 19: 7219: 7207: 7195: 7183: 7144:Geo-literacy 7101:Institutions 6983:Internet GIS 6972: 6943:Quantitative 6820:Soil science 6739:Oceanography 6728:Zoogeography 6713:Biogeography 6588:Agricultural 6461: 6441: 6429: 6422: 6415: 6401: 6388: 6370: 6363: 6348: 6334: 6317: 6300: 6289: 6282: 6275: 6257: 6251:January 2022 6248: 6236: 6187: 6183: 6173: 6161:. Retrieved 6158:www.esri.com 6157: 6148: 6136:. Retrieved 6132: 6123: 6111:. Retrieved 6107: 6084:. Retrieved 6080: 6071: 6060:. 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A 1719:Venn diagram 1712: 1683: 1679: 1674: 1622: 1603: 1583: 1550: 1522: 1504: 1433:biogeography 1418: 1383:processing, 1372: 1371: 1355: 1340:spreadsheets 1330: 1297: 1293: 1284: 1276: 1225:Completeness 1172: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1135:homomorphism 1132: 1129:Data quality 1123:Data quality 1110: 1094:GPS receiver 1091: 1075: 1056: 1052: 1038:maps can be 1033: 1017:digitization 1014: 991: 983:stereo pairs 976: 968:Aeryon Scout 961: 938: 907: 895: 892:digitization 887: 875: 873: 829: 818: 806:World War II 794: 771: 739: 732: 718:or a single 711: 707: 703: 697: 641: 637:Internet GIS 617:HTTP servers 606: 557:GIS software 555: 551: 549: 540:GIS software 532:(SAAS), and 502: 491: 464: 450: 426: 395: 383:Waldo Tobler 380: 371: 365: 360:plastic film 349: 325: 302:cartographer 289:epidemiology 286: 251: 241: 233: 225: 211: 203: 182: 180: 152: 148: 146: 123: 114: 104: 97: 90: 83: 71: 59:Please help 54:verification 51: 7221:WikiProject 7073:Ethnography 7065:Qualitative 7025:Map algebra 7020:Hydrography 6961:Web mapping 6951:Cartography 6763:Climatology 6753:Meteorology 6608:Development 6385:Rhind, D.W. 6081:www.une.edu 4970:(1): 4–19. 4717:: 103–113. 4420:open access 4136:. 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