47:
1560:
5706:
4356:
602:
805:, "Fitness is a property, not of an individual, but of a class of individuals—for example homozygous for allele A at a particular locus. Thus the phrase 'expected number of offspring' means the average number, not the number produced by some one individual. If the first human infant with a gene for levitation were struck by lightning in its pram, this would not prove the new genotype to have low fitness, but only that the particular child was unlucky."
5732:
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2385:
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784:
differs from individual fitness by including the ability of an allele in one individual to promote the survival and/or reproduction of other individuals that share that allele, in preference to individuals with a different allele. To avoid double counting, inclusive fitness excludes the contribution
1210:
is the mean relative fitness in the population (again setting aside changes in frequency due to drift and mutation). Relative fitnesses only indicate the change in prevalence of different genotypes relative to each other, and so only their values relative to each other are important; relative
1550:
Assigning relative fitness values to genotypes is mathematically appropriate when two conditions are met: first, the population is at demographic equilibrium, and second, individuals vary in their birth rate, contest ability, or death rate, but not a combination of these traits.
2050:
2340:
742:
in a given environment or time. The fitness of a genotype is manifested through its phenotype, which is also affected by the developmental environment. The fitness of a given phenotype can also be different in different selective environments.
2937:
of 1864, vol. 1, p. 444, wrote: 'This survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called "natural selection", or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life.'"
758:
into different genotypes every generation; in this case, fitness values can be assigned to alleles by averaging over possible genetic backgrounds. Natural selection tends to make alleles with higher fitness more common over time, resulting in
1720:
In the particular case that there are only two genotypes of interest (e.g. representing the invasion of a new mutant allele), the change in genotype frequencies is often written in a different form. Suppose that two genotypes
1711:
2472:
measures the average fitness of a population of individuals, relative either to a theoretical genotype of optimal fitness, or relative to the most fit genotype actually present in the population. Consider n genotypes
1338:
2689:
2515:
1177:
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1930:
1211:
fitnesses can be any nonnegative number, including 0. It is often convenient to choose one genotype as a reference and set its relative fitness to 1. Relative fitness is used in the standard
1398:
1938:
1518:. It is not possible to calculate absolute fitnesses from relative fitnesses alone, since relative fitnesses contain no information about changes in overall population abundance
2220:
1516:
2598:
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lower mean fitness. Genetic load may also increase when beneficial mutations increase the maximum fitness against which other mutations are compared; this is known as the
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In order to avoid the complications of sex and recombination, the concept of fitness is presented below in the restricted setting of an asexual population without
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707:
824:. Thus, fitnesses can be assigned directly to genotypes. There are two commonly used operationalizations of fitness – absolute fitness and relative fitness.
5814:
1612:
4577:
4434:
852:) of a genotype is defined as the proportional change in the abundance of that genotype over one generation attributable to selection. For example, if
4402:
2841:
778:" should be interpreted as: "Survival of the form (phenotypic or genotypic) that will leave the most copies of itself in successive generations."
1717:
Thus, a genotype's frequency will decline or increase depending on whether its fitness is lower or greater than the mean fitness, respectively.
633:
5771:
734:
of the next generation, made by the same individuals of the specified genotype or phenotype. Fitness can be defined either with respect to a
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3137:
241:
2451:
969:
An absolute fitness larger than 1 indicates growth in that genotype's abundance; an absolute fitness smaller than 1 indicates decline.
552:
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812:—is the probability, s(x), that the individual will be included among the group selected as parents of the next generation."
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of other individuals to the survival and reproduction of the focal individual. One mechanism of inclusive fitness is
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The change in genotype frequencies due to selection follows immediately from the definition of relative fitness,
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2045:{\displaystyle \Delta p={\frac {w-{\overline {w}}}{\overline {w}}}p={\frac {w_{A}-w_{B}}{\overline {w}}}p(1-p)}
567:
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2335:{\displaystyle \Delta p={\frac {w-{\overline {w}}}{\overline {w}}}p={\frac {s}{1+sp}}p(1-p)\approx sp(1-p)}
537:
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2405:
2076:'s frequency depends crucially on the difference between its fitness and the fitness of genotype
1212:
775:
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723:
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196:
81:
38:
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3000:(2001). The Two Faces of Fitness. In R. Singh, D. Paul, C. Krimbas, and J. Beatty (Eds.),
1521:
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8:
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514:
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404:
288:
191:
116:
51:
3582:
2872:
2768:
Wassersug, J. D., and R. J. Wassersug, 1986. Fitness fallacies. Natural
History 3:34–37.
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3377:
3321:
3311:
3271:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3093:
3037:
3012:
2954:, citing HERBERT SPENCER, THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY 444 (Univ. Press of the Pac. 2002.)
2835:
2607:
2558:
2432:
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2119:
2099:
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1724:
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273:
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166:
801:
or probability, rather than the actual number of offspring. For example, according to
6022:
6017:
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5882:
5874:
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5724:
5718:
5501:
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5212:
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2886:
2821:
2800:
2781:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2442:
2417:
2373:
1559:
977:
Whereas absolute fitness determines changes in genotype abundance, relative fitness (
781:
666:
258:
136:
126:
121:
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4930:
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4603:
3911:
3478:
3456:
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3032:
3024:
2876:
1706:{\displaystyle \Delta p=p(t+1)-p(t)={\frac {w-{\overline {w}}}{\overline {w}}}p(t)}
998:
767:
293:
4802:
3756:
5799:
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5526:
5435:
5323:
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771:
246:
236:
98:
3002:
Thinking about
Evolution: Historical, Philosophical, and Political Perspectives
6046:
6036:
5950:
5829:
5163:
5143:
5053:
4746:
4638:
4513:
4112:
3984:
3926:
3286:
3281:
3219:
3197:
3071:
Pleiotrophy Blog--an interesting discussion of Sergey
Gavrilets's contributions
2424:
2413:
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727:
719:
328:
231:
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2881:
2856:
46:
6079:
5986:
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5608:
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4768:
4737:
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4716:
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4545:
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4314:
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3997:
3751:
3419:
3414:
3080:
2997:
2446:
1216:
902:
802:
786:
479:
151:
766:
The term "Darwinian fitness" can be used to make clear the distinction with
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4035:
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2464:
1583:, which has a 1% greater relative fitness than the other genotype present,
499:
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268:
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4591:
4336:
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3471:
3301:
3207:
3165:
2398:
509:
226:
176:
3776:
5541:
5536:
5253:
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4528:
4197:
4098:
4020:
4007:
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3259:
3254:
3202:
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3085:
809:
798:
283:
206:
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141:
55:
5749:
2372:. In other words, the fitter genotype's frequency grows approximately
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3791:
3409:
3157:
760:
739:
731:
542:
156:
76:
3028:
1222:
Absolute fitnesses can be used to calculate relative fitness, since
5655:
5415:
5120:
4234:
3436:
1427:
is the mean absolute fitness in the population). This implies that
906:
808:
Alternatively, "the fitness of the individual—having an array x of
735:
532:
131:
2441:. The next further advance was the introduction of the concept of
2384:
1554:
5556:
3619:
3333:
2694:
Genetic load may increase when deleterious mutations, migration,
3061:
Video: Using fitness landscapes to visualize evolution in action
2857:"Density-dependent selection and the limits of relative fitness"
770:. Fitness does not include a measure of survival or life-span;
755:
588:
2920:"Letter 5145 – Darwin, C. R. to Wallace, A. R., 5 July (1866)"
3540:
2905:"Letter 5140 – Wallace, A. R. to Darwin, C. R., 2 July 1866"
1333:{\displaystyle p(t+1)=n(t+1)/N(t+1)=(W/{\overline {W}})p(t)}
905:), and neglecting the change in genotype abundances due to
2684:{\displaystyle L={{w_{\max }-{\bar {w}}} \over w_{\max }}}
750:, it is sufficient to assign fitnesses to genotypes. With
2438:
A Mathematical Theory of
Natural and Artificial Selection
1483:, or in other words, relative fitness is proportional to
901:
in an infinitely large population (so that there is no
2510:{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} _{1}\dots \mathbf {A} _{n}}
2820:( ed.). New Jersey: Blackburn Press. p. 5.
2633:
2610:
2566:
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2479:
2352:
2223:
2165:
2145:
2122:
2102:
2082:
2062:
1941:
1867:
1841:
1821:
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1747:
1727:
1615:
1589:
1569:
1524:
1489:
1433:
1406:
1346:
1228:
1189:
1172:{\displaystyle p(t+1)={\frac {w}{\overline {w}}}p(t)}
1120:
1056:
1036:
1007:
983:
918:
887:
858:
838:
695:
2427:was the first to quantify fitness, in terms of the
1476:{\displaystyle w/{\overline {w}}=W/{\overline {W}}}
2683:
2616:
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2549:
2509:
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2334:
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1392:
1332:
1202:
1171:
1103:
1042:
1022:
989:
957:
893:
873:
844:
701:
1925:{\displaystyle {\overline {w}}=w_{A}p+w_{B}(1-p)}
6077:
3004:. Cambridge University Press, pp. 309–321.
2674:
2648:
3013:"Fitness and its role in evolutionary genetics"
1555:Change in genotype frequencies due to selection
3066:BEACON Blog--Evolution 101: Fitness Landscapes
2855:Bertram, Jason; Masel, Joanna (January 2019).
5765:
4396:
3101:
2970:(2nd ed.). New York: Springer. pp.
2939:
2818:An introduction to population genetics theory
881:is the abundance of a genotype in generation
627:
2854:
2840:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1563:Increase in frequency over time of genotype
4410:
2452:The Genetical Evolution of Social Behaviour
1050:, and the relevant genotype's frequency is
1030:is the total population size in generation
5772:
5758:
4403:
4389:
3108:
3094:
1393:{\displaystyle N(t+1)={\overline {W}}N(t)}
634:
620:
3081:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
3036:
2880:
5567:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
4342:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
3115:
2704:substitutional load or cost of selection
2383:
1558:
792:
5779:
2756:
2346:where the last approximation holds for
14:
6078:
6065:Index of evolutionary biology articles
3010:
2815:
5753:
5059:Psychological effects of Internet use
4384:
4105:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
3089:
2963:
2816:Kimura, James F. Crow, Motoo (1970).
815:
645:
5039:Digital media use and mental health
2897:
972:
827:
24:
4670:Automatic and controlled processes
3510:Evolutionary developmental biology
2224:
1942:
1616:
25:
6127:
5079:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
3054:
1511:{\displaystyle W/{\overline {W}}}
997:) determines changes in genotype
5730:
5717:
5705:
5704:
5104:Mobile phones and driving safety
4364:
4355:
4354:
2967:Mathematical population genetics
2593:{\displaystyle p_{1}\dots p_{n}}
2550:{\displaystyle w_{1}\dots w_{n}}
2497:
2482:
2207:{\displaystyle w_{A}=(1+s)w_{B}}
650:
601:
600:
587:
45:
6096:Modern synthesis (20th century)
5007:Computer-mediated communication
4167:Extended evolutionary synthesis
3356:Gene-centered view of evolution
2991:
2922:. Darwin Correspondence Project
2907:. Darwin Correspondence Project
2798:A Primer of Population Genetics
2716:Gene-centered view of evolution
2458:
1420:{\displaystyle {\overline {W}}}
1203:{\displaystyle {\overline {w}}}
594:Evolutionary biology portal
5865:Constructive neutral evolution
5284:Empathising–systemising theory
4587:female intrasexual competition
4524:Evolutionarily stable strategy
4295:Hologenome theory of evolution
4162:History of molecular evolution
3388:Evolutionarily stable strategy
3277:Last universal common ancestor
2957:
2861:Theoretical Population Biology
2848:
2809:
2790:
2771:
2762:
2662:
2329:
2317:
2305:
2293:
2191:
2179:
2039:
2027:
1919:
1907:
1700:
1694:
1655:
1649:
1640:
1628:
1534:
1528:
1387:
1381:
1362:
1350:
1327:
1321:
1315:
1294:
1288:
1276:
1265:
1253:
1244:
1232:
1166:
1160:
1136:
1124:
1104:{\displaystyle p(t)=n(t)/N(t)}
1098:
1092:
1081:
1075:
1066:
1060:
1017:
1011:
952:
946:
934:
922:
868:
862:
797:Fitness is often defined as a
553:Creation–evolution controversy
307:History of evolutionary theory
13:
1:
6086:Evolutionary biology concepts
5644:Standard social science model
4697:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
4089:Renaissance and Enlightenment
2602:frequency-dependent selection
2435:starting with his 1924 paper
2429:modern evolutionary synthesis
2423:The British-Indian biologist
2056:Thus, the change in genotype
722:representation of individual
27:Expected reproductive success
5815:Fisher's fundamental theorem
5492:Missing heritability problem
5084:Social aspects of television
4707:Evolution of nervous systems
4675:Computational theory of mind
4300:Missing heritability problem
3927:Gamete differentiation/sexes
2257:
2247:
2018:
1975:
1965:
1873:
1685:
1675:
1503:
1468:
1447:
1412:
1373:
1340:(we have used the fact that
1310:
1195:
1151:
958:{\displaystyle n(t+1)=Wn(t)}
538:Evolution as fact and theory
7:
5840:Coefficient of relationship
5738:Evolutionary biology portal
2943:Better Competition Advocacy
2709:
2517:, which have the fitnesses
659:It has been suggested that
10:
6132:
5699:Evolutionary psychologists
5572:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
5487:Human–animal communication
5199:Ovulatory shift hypothesis
5049:Imprinted brain hypothesis
5017:Human–computer interaction
3932:Life cycles/nuclear phases
3484:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
2933:^ "Herbert Spencer in his
2462:
2379:
754:, recombination scrambles
726:. It is also equal to the
573:Nature-nurture controversy
6060:
5995:
5969:
5931:
5906:
5873:
5835:Coefficient of inbreeding
5787:
5693:
5619:Environmental determinism
5590:Cultural selection theory
5582:
5477:Evolutionary epistemology
5464:
5391:evolutionary neuroscience
5353:
5346:
5244:
5119:
5064:Rank theory of depression
4987:
4911:
4813:
4619:
4612:
4566:Parent–offspring conflict
4475:
4418:
4350:
4250:
4175:
4079:
4006:
3962:
3817:
3721:
3538:
3497:
3430:Parent–offspring conflict
3366:
3235:Earliest known life forms
3156:
3123:
2964:Ewens, Warren J. (2003).
2882:10.1016/j.tpb.2018.11.006
2777:Maynard-Smith, J. (1989)
2445:by the British biologist
676:Proposed since July 2024.
460:Evolutionary neuroscience
435:Evolutionary epistemology
415:Evolutionary anthropology
395:Applications of evolution
6013:Evolutionary game theory
5795:Hardy–Weinberg principle
5512:Cultural group selection
5396:Biocultural anthropology
5089:Societal impacts of cars
5022:Media naturalness theory
4712:Fight-or-flight response
4283:Cultural group selection
4147:The eclipse of Darwinism
4119:On the Origin of Species
4094:Transmutation of species
2624:) may be calculated as:
2449:in 1964 in his paper on
1219:of population genetics.
450:Evolutionary linguistics
445:Evolutionary game theory
420:Evolutionary computation
5825:Shifting balance theory
5712:Evolutionary psychology
5676:Sociocultural evolution
5517:Dual inheritance theory
4974:Personality development
4435:Theoretical foundations
4412:Evolutionary psychology
4288:Dual inheritance theory
4127:History of paleontology
2600:respectively. Ignoring
2406:survival of the fittest
776:survival of the fittest
774:'s well-known phrase "
563:Objections to evolution
470:Evolutionary psychology
465:Evolutionary physiology
410:Evolutionary aesthetics
389:Fields and applications
371:History of paleontology
5810:Linkage disequilibrium
5634:Social constructionism
5629:Psychological nativism
5604:Biological determinism
5552:Recent human evolution
5547:Punctuated equilibrium
5370:Behavioral epigenetics
5365:evolutionary economics
5334:Variability hypothesis
5279:Emotional intelligence
5012:Engineering psychology
4702:Evolution of the brain
3976:Punctuated equilibrium
3297:Non-adaptive radiation
3245:Evolutionary arms race
3076:Evolution A-Z: Fitness
3011:Orr HA (August 2009).
2685:
2618:
2594:
2551:
2511:
2391:
2366:
2365:{\displaystyle s\ll 1}
2336:
2208:
2153:
2130:
2110:
2090:
2070:
2046:
1926:
1855:
1829:
1809:
1782:
1755:
1735:
1707:
1603:
1597:
1577:
1541:
1512:
1477:
1421:
1394:
1334:
1204:
1173:
1105:
1044:
1024:
991:
959:
895:
875:
846:
832:The absolute fitness (
703:
662:Organismal performance
495:Speciation experiments
475:Experimental evolution
430:Evolutionary economics
252:Recent human evolution
110:Processes and outcomes
6052:Quantitative genetics
5961:Balding–Nichols model
5946:Population bottleneck
5941:Small population size
5845:Selection coefficient
5661:Multilineal evolution
5624:Nature versus nurture
5583:Theoretical positions
5431:Functional psychology
5426:Evolutionary medicine
5401:Biological psychiatry
5109:Texting while driving
5099:Lead–crime hypothesis
4959:Cognitive development
4944:Caregiver deprivation
4455:Gene selection theory
4268:Evolutionary medicine
4142:Mendelian inheritance
3850:Biological complexity
3838:Programmed cell death
3530:Phenotypic plasticity
3250:Evolutionary pressure
3240:Evidence of evolution
3138:Timeline of evolution
2935:Principles of Biology
2779:Evolutionary Genetics
2741:Selection coefficient
2686:
2619:
2604:, then genetic load (
2595:
2552:
2512:
2412:to characterise what
2410:Principles of Biology
2387:
2367:
2337:
2209:
2154:
2138:selection coefficient
2131:
2111:
2091:
2071:
2047:
1927:
1861:, respectively. Then
1856:
1830:
1810:
1808:{\displaystyle w_{B}}
1783:
1781:{\displaystyle w_{A}}
1756:
1736:
1708:
1598:
1578:
1562:
1542:
1513:
1478:
1422:
1395:
1335:
1205:
1174:
1106:
1045:
1025:
992:
960:
896:
876:
847:
822:genetic recombination
793:Fitness as propensity
704:
455:Evolutionary medicine
400:Biosocial criminology
366:History of speciation
279:Evolutionary taxonomy
242:Timeline of evolution
5923:Background selection
5910:on genomic variation
5908:Effects of selection
5860:Population structure
5614:Cultural determinism
5421:Evolutionary biology
5406:Cognitive psychology
5354:Academic disciplines
5002:Cognitive ergonomics
4969:Language acquisition
4949:Childhood attachment
4762:Wason selection task
4656:Behavioral modernity
4445:Cognitive revolution
4428:Evolutionary thought
4242:Teleology in biology
4137:Blending inheritance
3515:Genetic assimilation
3378:Artificial selection
3117:Evolutionary biology
2796:Hartl, D. L. (1981)
2757:Notes and references
2751:Differential fitness
2736:Reproductive success
2631:
2608:
2564:
2559:genotype frequencies
2521:
2477:
2408:" in his 1864 work
2350:
2221:
2163:
2143:
2120:
2100:
2080:
2060:
1939:
1865:
1839:
1819:
1792:
1765:
1745:
1725:
1613:
1587:
1567:
1540:{\displaystyle N(t)}
1522:
1487:
1431:
1404:
1344:
1226:
1187:
1118:
1054:
1034:
1023:{\displaystyle N(t)}
1005:
981:
916:
885:
874:{\displaystyle n(t)}
856:
836:
748:asexual reproduction
728:average contribution
724:reproductive success
693:
669:into this article. (
425:Evolutionary ecology
39:Evolutionary biology
6101:Population genetics
6042:Population genomics
5918:Genetic hitchhiking
5805:Identity by descent
5781:Population genetics
5681:Unilineal evolution
5446:Population genetics
5231:Sexy son hypothesis
5169:Hormonal motivation
5149:Concealed ovulation
4690:Dual process theory
4561:Parental investment
4305:Molecular evolution
4263:Ecological genetics
4132:Transitional fossil
3922:Sexual reproduction
3762:endomembrane system
3691:pollinator-mediated
3647:dolphins and whales
3425:Parental investment
2940:Maurice E. Stucke,
2873:2019TPBio.129...81B
2746:Universal Darwinism
2404:coined the phrase "
2136:, and defining the
1854:{\displaystyle 1-p}
752:sexual reproduction
716:population genetics
527:Social implications
515:Universal Darwinism
505:Island biogeography
440:Evolutionary ethics
405:Ecological genetics
351:Molecular evolution
289:Transitional fossil
117:Population genetics
33:Part of a series on
6028:Landscape genetics
5639:Social determinism
5522:Fisher's principle
5482:Great ape language
5472:Cultural evolution
5441:Philosophy of mind
5274:Division of labour
5236:Westermarck effect
5184:Mating preferences
5094:Distracted driving
4828:Literary criticism
4685:Domain specificity
4665:modularity of mind
4278:Cultural evolution
3393:Fisher's principle
3322:Handicap principle
3312:Parallel evolution
3176:Adaptive radiation
2681:
2614:
2590:
2547:
2507:
2433:Mendelian genetics
2392:
2362:
2332:
2204:
2149:
2126:
2106:
2086:
2066:
2042:
1922:
1851:
1825:
1815:, and frequencies
1805:
1778:
1751:
1731:
1703:
1604:
1593:
1573:
1537:
1508:
1473:
1417:
1390:
1330:
1200:
1169:
1101:
1040:
1020:
987:
955:
891:
871:
842:
699:
558:Theistic evolution
490:Selective breeding
202:Parallel evolution
167:Adaptive radiation
6111:Natural selection
6091:Genetics concepts
6073:
6072:
6023:Genetic genealogy
6018:Fitness landscape
5747:
5746:
5725:Psychology portal
5689:
5688:
5532:Hologenome theory
5502:Unit of selection
5497:Primate cognition
5411:Cognitive science
5342:
5341:
5213:Sexual attraction
5189:Mating strategies
4954:Cinderella effect
4884:Moral foundations
4788:Visual perception
4680:Domain generality
4649:Facial expression
4597:Sexual dimorphism
4556:Natural selection
4502:Hamiltonian spite
4378:
4377:
3994:Uniformitarianism
3947:Sex-determination
3452:Sexual dimorphism
3447:Natural selection
3351:Unit of selection
3317:Signalling theory
2981:978-0-387-20191-7
2827:978-1-932846-12-6
2805:978-0-87893-271-9
2786:978-0-19-854215-5
2731:Natural selection
2726:Lineage selection
2721:Inclusive fitness
2679:
2665:
2617:{\displaystyle L}
2443:inclusive fitness
2431:of Darwinism and
2418:natural selection
2288:
2261:
2260:
2250:
2152:{\displaystyle s}
2129:{\displaystyle B}
2116:is more fit than
2109:{\displaystyle A}
2096:. Supposing that
2089:{\displaystyle B}
2069:{\displaystyle A}
2022:
2021:
1979:
1978:
1968:
1876:
1828:{\displaystyle p}
1754:{\displaystyle B}
1734:{\displaystyle A}
1689:
1688:
1678:
1596:{\displaystyle B}
1576:{\displaystyle A}
1506:
1471:
1450:
1415:
1376:
1313:
1198:
1155:
1154:
1043:{\displaystyle t}
990:{\displaystyle w}
894:{\displaystyle t}
845:{\displaystyle W}
816:Models of fitness
782:Inclusive fitness
702:{\displaystyle w}
683:
682:
678:
644:
643:
335:Origin of Species
137:Natural selection
16:(Redirected from
6123:
6106:Sexual selection
5982:J. B. S. Haldane
5774:
5767:
5760:
5751:
5750:
5734:
5721:
5708:
5707:
5351:
5350:
5347:Related subjects
5134:Adult attachment
4661:Cognitive module
4617:
4616:
4604:Social selection
4578:Costly signaling
4573:Sexual selection
4460:Modern synthesis
4405:
4398:
4391:
4382:
4381:
4368:
4358:
4357:
4157:Modern synthesis
3917:Multicellularity
3912:Mosaic evolution
3797:auditory ossicle
3479:Social selection
3462:Flowering plants
3457:Sexual selection
3110:
3103:
3096:
3087:
3086:
3050:
3040:
2986:
2985:
2961:
2955:
2953:
2952:
2950:
2931:
2929:
2927:
2916:
2914:
2912:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2884:
2852:
2846:
2845:
2839:
2831:
2813:
2807:
2794:
2788:
2775:
2769:
2766:
2690:
2688:
2687:
2682:
2680:
2678:
2677:
2668:
2667:
2666:
2658:
2652:
2651:
2641:
2623:
2621:
2620:
2615:
2599:
2597:
2596:
2591:
2589:
2588:
2576:
2575:
2556:
2554:
2553:
2548:
2546:
2545:
2533:
2532:
2516:
2514:
2513:
2508:
2506:
2505:
2500:
2491:
2490:
2485:
2371:
2369:
2368:
2363:
2341:
2339:
2338:
2333:
2289:
2287:
2270:
2262:
2253:
2252:
2251:
2243:
2234:
2213:
2211:
2210:
2205:
2203:
2202:
2175:
2174:
2158:
2156:
2155:
2150:
2135:
2133:
2132:
2127:
2115:
2113:
2112:
2107:
2095:
2093:
2092:
2087:
2075:
2073:
2072:
2067:
2051:
2049:
2048:
2043:
2023:
2014:
2013:
2012:
2011:
1999:
1998:
1988:
1980:
1971:
1970:
1969:
1961:
1952:
1931:
1929:
1928:
1923:
1906:
1905:
1890:
1889:
1877:
1869:
1860:
1858:
1857:
1852:
1834:
1832:
1831:
1826:
1814:
1812:
1811:
1806:
1804:
1803:
1787:
1785:
1784:
1779:
1777:
1776:
1760:
1758:
1757:
1752:
1740:
1738:
1737:
1732:
1712:
1710:
1709:
1704:
1690:
1681:
1680:
1679:
1671:
1662:
1602:
1600:
1599:
1594:
1582:
1580:
1579:
1574:
1546:
1544:
1543:
1538:
1517:
1515:
1514:
1509:
1507:
1499:
1497:
1482:
1480:
1479:
1474:
1472:
1464:
1462:
1451:
1443:
1441:
1426:
1424:
1423:
1418:
1416:
1408:
1399:
1397:
1396:
1391:
1377:
1369:
1339:
1337:
1336:
1331:
1314:
1306:
1304:
1272:
1209:
1207:
1206:
1201:
1199:
1191:
1178:
1176:
1175:
1170:
1156:
1147:
1143:
1110:
1108:
1107:
1102:
1088:
1049:
1047:
1046:
1041:
1029:
1027:
1026:
1021:
996:
994:
993:
988:
973:Relative fitness
964:
962:
961:
956:
900:
898:
897:
892:
880:
878:
877:
872:
851:
849:
848:
843:
828:Absolute fitness
768:physical fitness
708:
706:
705:
700:
674:
654:
653:
646:
636:
629:
622:
609:
604:
603:
596:
592:
591:
568:Level of support
361:Current research
346:Modern synthesis
341:Before synthesis
294:Extinction event
52:Darwin's finches
49:
30:
29:
21:
6131:
6130:
6126:
6125:
6124:
6122:
6121:
6120:
6076:
6075:
6074:
6069:
6056:
5991:
5965:
5927:
5911:
5909:
5902:
5869:
5800:Genetic linkage
5783:
5778:
5748:
5743:
5685:
5671:Neoevolutionism
5578:
5562:Species complex
5527:Group selection
5465:Research topics
5460:
5436:Neuropsychology
5338:
5324:Substance abuse
5246:Sex differences
5240:
5154:Coolidge effect
5115:
5027:Neuroergonomics
4992:
4983:
4907:
4809:
4743:Folk psychology
4624:
4608:
4478:
4471:
4414:
4409:
4379:
4374:
4346:
4273:Group selection
4246:
4171:
4075:
4002:
3964:Tempo and modes
3958:
3813:
3717:
3534:
3493:
3369:
3362:
3339:Species complex
3152:
3143:History of life
3119:
3114:
3057:
3029:10.1038/nrg2603
3017:Nat. Rev. Genet
2994:
2989:
2982:
2962:
2958:
2948:
2946:
2932:
2925:
2923:
2918:
2917:
2910:
2908:
2903:
2902:
2898:
2853:
2849:
2833:
2832:
2828:
2814:
2810:
2795:
2791:
2776:
2772:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2712:
2673:
2669:
2657:
2656:
2647:
2643:
2642:
2640:
2632:
2629:
2628:
2609:
2606:
2605:
2584:
2580:
2571:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2561:
2541:
2537:
2528:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2518:
2501:
2496:
2495:
2486:
2481:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2474:
2467:
2461:
2402:Herbert Spencer
2389:Herbert Spencer
2382:
2351:
2348:
2347:
2274:
2269:
2242:
2235:
2233:
2222:
2219:
2218:
2198:
2194:
2170:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2160:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2121:
2118:
2117:
2101:
2098:
2097:
2081:
2078:
2077:
2061:
2058:
2057:
2007:
2003:
1994:
1990:
1989:
1987:
1960:
1953:
1951:
1940:
1937:
1936:
1901:
1897:
1885:
1881:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1862:
1840:
1837:
1836:
1820:
1817:
1816:
1799:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1789:
1772:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1761:have fitnesses
1746:
1743:
1742:
1726:
1723:
1722:
1670:
1663:
1661:
1614:
1611:
1610:
1588:
1585:
1584:
1568:
1565:
1564:
1557:
1523:
1520:
1519:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1485:
1484:
1463:
1458:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1429:
1428:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1401:
1368:
1345:
1342:
1341:
1305:
1300:
1268:
1227:
1224:
1223:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1184:
1142:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1084:
1055:
1052:
1051:
1035:
1032:
1031:
1006:
1003:
1002:
982:
979:
978:
975:
917:
914:
913:
886:
883:
882:
857:
854:
853:
837:
834:
833:
830:
818:
795:
772:Herbert Spencer
694:
691:
690:
688:(often denoted
679:
655:
651:
640:
599:
586:
585:
578:
577:
528:
520:
519:
390:
382:
381:
380:
308:
300:
299:
298:
247:Human evolution
237:History of life
221:
220:Natural history
213:
212:
211:
111:
103:
58:
28:
23:
22:
18:Fitness decline
15:
12:
11:
5:
6129:
6119:
6118:
6113:
6108:
6103:
6098:
6093:
6088:
6071:
6070:
6068:
6067:
6061:
6058:
6057:
6055:
6054:
6049:
6047:Phylogeography
6044:
6039:
6037:Microevolution
6034:
6025:
6020:
6015:
6010:
6005:
5999:
5997:
5996:Related topics
5993:
5992:
5990:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5973:
5971:
5967:
5966:
5964:
5963:
5958:
5953:
5951:Founder effect
5948:
5943:
5937:
5935:
5929:
5928:
5926:
5925:
5920:
5914:
5912:
5907:
5904:
5903:
5901:
5900:
5895:
5890:
5885:
5879:
5877:
5871:
5870:
5868:
5867:
5862:
5857:
5852:
5847:
5842:
5837:
5832:
5830:Price equation
5827:
5822:
5820:Neutral theory
5817:
5812:
5807:
5802:
5797:
5791:
5789:
5785:
5784:
5777:
5776:
5769:
5762:
5754:
5745:
5744:
5742:
5741:
5728:
5715:
5702:
5694:
5691:
5690:
5687:
5686:
5684:
5683:
5678:
5673:
5668:
5663:
5658:
5653:
5648:
5647:
5646:
5641:
5636:
5631:
5626:
5621:
5616:
5611:
5606:
5592:
5586:
5584:
5580:
5579:
5577:
5576:
5575:
5574:
5569:
5564:
5559:
5554:
5549:
5544:
5539:
5534:
5529:
5524:
5519:
5514:
5509:
5499:
5494:
5489:
5484:
5479:
5474:
5468:
5466:
5462:
5461:
5459:
5458:
5453:
5448:
5443:
5438:
5433:
5428:
5423:
5418:
5413:
5408:
5403:
5398:
5393:
5376:
5367:
5357:
5355:
5348:
5344:
5343:
5340:
5339:
5337:
5336:
5331:
5326:
5321:
5316:
5311:
5306:
5301:
5296:
5291:
5286:
5281:
5276:
5271:
5266:
5261:
5256:
5250:
5248:
5242:
5241:
5239:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5215:
5206:
5201:
5196:
5191:
5186:
5181:
5176:
5171:
5166:
5161:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5136:
5131:
5125:
5123:
5117:
5116:
5114:
5113:
5112:
5111:
5106:
5101:
5096:
5086:
5081:
5076:
5071:
5066:
5061:
5056:
5054:Mind-blindness
5051:
5046:
5041:
5036:
5031:
5030:
5029:
5024:
5019:
5014:
5009:
4998:
4996:
4985:
4984:
4982:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4928:
4923:
4917:
4915:
4909:
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4747:theory of mind
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4514:Baldwin effect
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4113:Charles Darwin
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4051:Non-ecological
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3302:Origin of life
3299:
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3287:Microevolution
3284:
3282:Macroevolution
3279:
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3267:
3257:
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3220:Common descent
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3205:
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3198:Baldwin effect
3195:
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3055:External links
3053:
3052:
3051:
3023:(8): 531–539.
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2463:Main article:
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2425:J.B.S. Haldane
2414:Charles Darwin
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548:Social effects
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274:Classification
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232:Common descent
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227:Origin of life
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5987:Sewall Wright
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5933:Genetic drift
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5682:
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5672:
5669:
5667:
5666:Neo-Darwinism
5664:
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5659:
5657:
5654:
5652:
5651:Functionalism
5649:
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5642:
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5609:Connectionism
5607:
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5599:indeterminism
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5319:Schizophrenia
5317:
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5307:
5305:
5304:Mental health
5302:
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5180:
5179:Mate guarding
5177:
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5167:
5165:
5162:
5160:
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5155:
5152:
5150:
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5145:
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5140:
5139:Age disparity
5137:
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5069:Schizophrenia
5067:
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5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5008:
5005:
5004:
5003:
5000:
4999:
4997:
4995:
4994:Mental health
4990:
4989:Human factors
4986:
4980:
4979:Socialization
4977:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4939:paternal bond
4936:
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4924:
4922:
4919:
4918:
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4914:
4910:
4904:
4901:
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4885:
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4829:
4826:
4825:
4824:
4821:
4820:
4818:
4816:
4812:
4804:
4803:NaĂŻve physics
4801:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4790:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4770:
4769:Motor control
4767:
4763:
4760:
4758:
4755:
4754:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4735:
4732:
4728:
4727:Ophidiophobia
4725:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4717:Arachnophobia
4715:
4714:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4667:
4666:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4644:Display rules
4642:
4640:
4637:
4636:
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4632:
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4557:
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4552:
4549:
4547:
4546:Kin selection
4544:
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4532:
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4468:
4465:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4440:Adaptationism
4438:
4437:
4436:
4433:
4429:
4426:
4425:
4424:
4421:
4420:
4417:
4413:
4406:
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4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4321:
4318:
4317:
4316:
4315:Phylogenetics
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
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4249:
4243:
4240:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4224:
4221:
4220:
4219:
4218:Structuralism
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4193:Catastrophism
4191:
4190:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4180:
4178:
4174:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4152:Neo-Darwinism
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4121:
4120:
4116:
4115:
4114:
4111:
4107:
4106:
4102:
4101:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4090:
4087:
4086:
4084:
4082:
4078:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4066:Reinforcement
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4013:
4011:
4009:
4005:
3999:
3998:Catastrophism
3995:
3992:
3990:
3989:Macromutation
3986:
3985:Micromutation
3983:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3965:
3961:
3955:
3952:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3924:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3892:Immune system
3890:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3866:
3863:
3862:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3830:
3829:
3826:
3825:
3823:
3821:
3816:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3784:
3782:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3752:symbiogenesis
3750:
3749:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3729:
3727:
3725:
3720:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3692:
3689:
3688:
3687:
3684:
3680:
3677:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3664:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3627:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3617:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3604:
3601:
3600:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3577:
3574:
3573:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3560:
3557:
3556:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3542:
3537:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3502:
3500:
3496:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3459:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3422:
3421:
3420:Kin selection
3418:
3416:
3415:Genetic drift
3413:
3411:
3408:
3404:
3401:
3400:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3375:
3373:
3371:
3365:
3357:
3354:
3353:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3331:
3330:
3327:
3323:
3320:
3319:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3214:
3211:
3210:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3183:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3163:
3161:
3159:
3155:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3122:
3118:
3111:
3106:
3104:
3099:
3097:
3092:
3091:
3088:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3058:
3048:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3009:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2996:
2995:
2983:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2968:
2960:
2945:
2944:
2936:
2921:
2906:
2900:
2892:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2851:
2843:
2837:
2829:
2823:
2819:
2812:
2806:
2802:
2799:
2793:
2787:
2783:
2780:
2774:
2765:
2761:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
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2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2713:
2707:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2670:
2659:
2653:
2644:
2637:
2634:
2627:
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2625:
2611:
2603:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2572:
2568:
2560:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2529:
2525:
2502:
2492:
2487:
2471:
2466:
2456:
2454:
2453:
2448:
2447:W.D. Hamilton
2444:
2440:
2439:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2421:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2400:
2397:
2390:
2386:
2377:
2375:
2359:
2356:
2353:
2326:
2323:
2320:
2314:
2311:
2308:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2290:
2284:
2281:
2278:
2275:
2271:
2266:
2263:
2254:
2244:
2239:
2236:
2230:
2227:
2217:
2216:
2215:
2199:
2195:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2176:
2171:
2167:
2146:
2139:
2123:
2103:
2083:
2063:
2036:
2033:
2030:
2024:
2015:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1984:
1981:
1972:
1962:
1957:
1954:
1948:
1945:
1935:
1934:
1933:
1916:
1913:
1910:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1870:
1848:
1845:
1842:
1822:
1800:
1796:
1773:
1769:
1748:
1728:
1718:
1697:
1691:
1682:
1672:
1667:
1664:
1658:
1652:
1646:
1643:
1637:
1634:
1631:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1609:
1608:
1607:
1590:
1570:
1561:
1552:
1548:
1531:
1525:
1500:
1494:
1490:
1465:
1459:
1455:
1452:
1444:
1438:
1434:
1409:
1384:
1378:
1370:
1365:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1347:
1324:
1318:
1307:
1301:
1297:
1291:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1273:
1269:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1250:
1247:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1229:
1220:
1218:
1214:
1213:Wright–Fisher
1192:
1163:
1157:
1148:
1144:
1139:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1121:
1114:
1113:
1112:
1095:
1089:
1085:
1078:
1072:
1069:
1063:
1057:
1037:
1014:
1008:
1000:
984:
970:
949:
943:
940:
937:
931:
928:
925:
919:
912:
911:
910:
908:
904:
903:genetic drift
888:
865:
859:
839:
825:
823:
813:
811:
806:
804:
803:Maynard Smith
800:
790:
788:
787:kin selection
783:
779:
777:
773:
769:
764:
762:
757:
753:
749:
744:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
718:models) is a
717:
713:
709:
696:
687:
677:
672:
668:
664:
663:
657:
648:
647:
637:
632:
630:
625:
623:
618:
617:
615:
614:
608:
598:
595:
590:
584:
583:
582:
581:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
539:
536:
534:
531:
530:
524:
523:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
480:Phylogenetics
478:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
392:
386:
385:
376:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
349:
347:
344:
342:
339:
337:
336:
332:
330:
327:
325:
324:Before Darwin
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
311:
304:
303:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
253:
250:
249:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
233:
230:
228:
225:
224:
217:
216:
208:
205:
203:
200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
163:
160:
158:
155:
153:
152:Genetic drift
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
114:
107:
106:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
86:
83:
80:
78:
75:
73:
70:
68:
65:
64:
62:
61:
57:
53:
48:
44:
43:
40:
37:
36:
32:
31:
19:
6003:Biogeography
5977:R. A. Fisher
5855:Heritability
5849:
5788:Key concepts
5736:
5723:
5710:
5697:
5456:Sociobiology
5314:Neuroscience
5294:Intelligence
4840:Anthropology
4793:Color vision
4778:Multitasking
4757:Flynn effect
4752:Intelligence
4734:Folk biology
4533:
4477:Evolutionary
4327:Polymorphism
4310:Astrobiology
4258:Biogeography
4213:Saltationism
4203:Orthogenesis
4188:Alternatives
4117:
4103:
4036:Cospeciation
4031:Cladogenesis
3980:Saltationism
3937:Mating types
3860:Color vision
3845:Avian flight
3767:mitochondria
3505:Canalisation
3397:
3383:Biodiversity
3128:Introduction
3020:
3016:
3001:
2992:Bibliography
2966:
2959:
2947:, retrieved
2942:
2934:
2924:. Retrieved
2909:. Retrieved
2899:
2864:
2860:
2850:
2817:
2811:
2797:
2792:
2778:
2773:
2764:
2693:
2470:Genetic load
2468:
2465:Genetic load
2459:Genetic load
2450:
2436:
2422:
2409:
2393:
2374:logistically
2345:
2214:, we obtain
2055:
1719:
1716:
1605:
1549:
1221:
1217:Moran models
1182:
976:
968:
831:
819:
807:
796:
780:
765:
745:
720:quantitative
711:
689:
685:
684:
675:
660:
500:Sociobiology
485:Paleontology
333:
269:Biogeography
264:Biodiversity
182:Coextinction
172:Co-operation
147:Polymorphism
72:Introduction
5956:Coalescence
5595:Determinism
5507:Coevolution
5451:Primatology
5289:Gender role
5194:Orientation
5074:Screen time
4931:Affectional
4913:Development
4592:Mate choice
4519:By-products
4487:Adaptations
4450:Cognitivism
4337:Systematics
4208:Mutationism
4026:Catagenesis
3954:Snake venom
3887:Eusociality
3865:in primates
3855:Cooperation
3783:In animals
3603:butterflies
3576:Cephalopods
3566:Brachiopods
3498:Development
3472:Mate choice
3225:Convergence
3208:Coevolution
3166:Abiogenesis
2700:outcrossing
2416:had called
2399:sociologist
763:evolution.
510:Systematics
319:Renaissance
197:Convergence
187:Contingency
177:Coevolution
6080:Categories
5898:Ecological
5888:Artificial
5542:Population
5537:Lamarckism
5383:behavioral
5361:Behavioral
5309:Narcissism
5254:Aggression
5044:Hypophobia
5034:Depression
4921:Attachment
4903:Universals
4867:Psychology
4845:Biological
4833:Musicology
4823:Aesthetics
4722:Basophobia
4529:Exaptation
4507:Reciprocal
4198:Lamarckism
4176:Philosophy
4099:David Hume
4061:Peripatric
4056:Parapatric
4041:Ecological
4021:Anagenesis
4016:Allopatric
4008:Speciation
3972:Gradualism
3897:Metabolism
3757:chromosome
3747:Eukaryotes
3525:Modularity
3442:Population
3368:Population
3329:Speciation
3307:Panspermia
3260:Extinction
3255:Exaptation
3230:Divergence
3203:Cladistics
3191:Reciprocal
3171:Adaptation
2926:12 January
2911:12 January
2696:inbreeding
810:phenotypes
799:propensity
284:Cladistics
207:Extinction
192:Divergence
162:Speciation
142:Adaptation
56:John Gould
6116:Darwinism
6008:Evolution
5875:Selection
5387:cognitive
5379:Affective
5264:Cognition
5218:Sexuality
5204:Pair bond
4964:Education
4621:Cognition
4539:Inclusive
4479:processes
4467:Criticism
4332:Protocell
4183:Darwinism
4071:Sympatric
3820:processes
3708:Tetrapods
3657:Kangaroos
3583:Dinosaurs
3520:Inversion
3489:Variation
3410:Gene flow
3403:Inclusive
3213:Mutualism
3158:Evolution
3006:Full text
2998:Sober, E.
2949:29 August
2867:: 81–92.
2836:cite book
2663:¯
2654:−
2578:…
2535:…
2493:…
2357:≪
2324:−
2309:≈
2300:−
2258:¯
2248:¯
2240:−
2225:Δ
2034:−
2019:¯
2001:−
1976:¯
1966:¯
1958:−
1943:Δ
1932:, and so
1914:−
1874:¯
1846:−
1686:¯
1676:¯
1668:−
1644:−
1617:Δ
1504:¯
1469:¯
1448:¯
1413:¯
1374:¯
1311:¯
1196:¯
1152:¯
999:frequency
907:mutations
761:Darwinian
740:phenotype
732:gene pool
543:Dysgenics
259:Phylogeny
157:Gene flow
127:Diversity
122:Variation
6032:genomics
5970:Founders
5656:Memetics
5416:Ethology
5374:genetics
5209:Physical
5174:Jealousy
5129:Activity
4935:maternal
4891:Religion
4879:Morality
4857:Language
4738:taxonomy
4551:Mismatch
4497:Cheating
4492:Altruism
4360:Category
4235:Vitalism
4230:Theistic
4223:Spandrel
3907:Morality
3902:Monogamy
3777:plastids
3742:Flagella
3698:Reptiles
3679:sea cows
3662:primates
3571:Molluscs
3549:Bacteria
3437:Mutation
3370:genetics
3346:Taxonomy
3292:Mismatch
3272:Homology
3186:Cheating
3181:Altruism
3047:19546856
2891:30664884
2710:See also
2557:and the
1400:, where
738:or to a
736:genotype
607:Category
533:Eugenics
375:timeline
356:Evo-devo
314:Overview
132:Mutation
94:Evidence
89:Glossary
5883:Natural
5850:Fitness
5557:Species
5329:Suicide
5164:Fantasy
5144:Arousal
4926:Bonding
4815:Culture
4639:Display
4626:Emotion
4534:Fitness
4423:History
4251:Related
4081:History
3942:Meiosis
3877:Empathy
3872:Emotion
3772:nucleus
3713:Viruses
3703:Spiders
3615:Mammals
3598:Insects
3398:Fitness
3334:Species
3133:Outline
3038:2753274
2869:Bibcode
2396:British
2380:History
1111:, then
909:, then
756:alleles
730:to the
686:Fitness
671:Discuss
99:History
82:Outline
5893:Sexual
5735:
5722:
5709:
5299:Memory
5259:Autism
5226:female
5159:Desire
4896:Origin
4872:Speech
4862:Origin
4634:Affect
4370:Portal
4046:Hybrid
3882:Ethics
3724:organs
3686:Plants
3672:lemurs
3667:humans
3652:horses
3642:hyenas
3630:wolves
3625:canids
3559:origin
3045:
3035:
2978:
2889:
2824:
2803:
2784:
1183:where
667:merged
605:
329:Darwin
5269:Crime
4852:Crime
4783:Sleep
4773:skill
4613:Areas
3833:Death
3828:Aging
3807:brain
3593:Fungi
3554:Birds
3467:Fungi
3265:Event
3148:Index
2974:–86.
2698:, or
1001:. If
746:With
67:Index
6030:and
5222:male
4583:Male
4320:Tree
3792:hair
3732:Cell
3635:dogs
3620:cats
3610:Life
3588:Fish
3541:taxa
3043:PMID
2976:ISBN
2951:2007
2928:2010
2913:2010
2887:PMID
2842:link
2822:ISBN
2801:ISBN
2782:ISBN
2394:The
1835:and
1788:and
1741:and
1215:and
77:Main
5121:Sex
4798:Eye
3818:Of
3787:eye
3737:DNA
3722:Of
3539:Of
3033:PMC
3025:doi
2877:doi
2865:129
2675:max
2649:max
2159:by
714:in
710:or
665:be
54:by
6082::
3041:.
3031:.
3021:10
3019:.
3015:.
2972:78
2885:.
2875:.
2863:.
2859:.
2838:}}
2834:{{
2706:.
2455:.
2420:.
2376:.
1547:.
789:.
5773:e
5766:t
5759:v
5597:/
5389:/
5385:/
5381:/
5372:/
5363:/
5224:/
5220:/
5211:/
4991:/
4937:/
4933:/
4771:/
4745:/
4736:/
4663:/
4623:/
4585:/
4404:e
4397:t
4390:v
3996:/
3987:/
3978:/
3974:/
3109:e
3102:t
3095:v
3049:.
3027::
2984:.
2930:.
2915:.
2893:.
2879::
2871::
2844:)
2830:.
2671:w
2660:w
2645:w
2638:=
2635:L
2612:L
2586:n
2582:p
2573:1
2569:p
2543:n
2539:w
2530:1
2526:w
2503:n
2498:A
2488:1
2483:A
2360:1
2354:s
2342:,
2330:)
2327:p
2321:1
2318:(
2315:p
2312:s
2306:)
2303:p
2297:1
2294:(
2291:p
2285:p
2282:s
2279:+
2276:1
2272:s
2267:=
2264:p
2255:w
2245:w
2237:w
2231:=
2228:p
2200:B
2196:w
2192:)
2189:s
2186:+
2183:1
2180:(
2177:=
2172:A
2168:w
2147:s
2124:B
2104:A
2084:B
2064:A
2052:.
2040:)
2037:p
2031:1
2028:(
2025:p
2016:w
2009:B
2005:w
1996:A
1992:w
1985:=
1982:p
1973:w
1963:w
1955:w
1949:=
1946:p
1920:)
1917:p
1911:1
1908:(
1903:B
1899:w
1895:+
1892:p
1887:A
1883:w
1879:=
1871:w
1849:p
1843:1
1823:p
1801:B
1797:w
1774:A
1770:w
1749:B
1729:A
1713:.
1701:)
1698:t
1695:(
1692:p
1683:w
1673:w
1665:w
1659:=
1656:)
1653:t
1650:(
1647:p
1641:)
1638:1
1635:+
1632:t
1629:(
1626:p
1623:=
1620:p
1591:B
1571:A
1535:)
1532:t
1529:(
1526:N
1501:W
1495:/
1491:W
1466:W
1460:/
1456:W
1453:=
1445:w
1439:/
1435:w
1410:W
1388:)
1385:t
1382:(
1379:N
1371:W
1366:=
1363:)
1360:1
1357:+
1354:t
1351:(
1348:N
1328:)
1325:t
1322:(
1319:p
1316:)
1308:W
1302:/
1298:W
1295:(
1292:=
1289:)
1286:1
1283:+
1280:t
1277:(
1274:N
1270:/
1266:)
1263:1
1260:+
1257:t
1254:(
1251:n
1248:=
1245:)
1242:1
1239:+
1236:t
1233:(
1230:p
1193:w
1179:,
1167:)
1164:t
1161:(
1158:p
1149:w
1145:w
1140:=
1137:)
1134:1
1131:+
1128:t
1125:(
1122:p
1099:)
1096:t
1093:(
1090:N
1086:/
1082:)
1079:t
1076:(
1073:n
1070:=
1067:)
1064:t
1061:(
1058:p
1038:t
1018:)
1015:t
1012:(
1009:N
985:w
965:.
953:)
950:t
947:(
944:n
941:W
938:=
935:)
932:1
929:+
926:t
923:(
920:n
889:t
869:)
866:t
863:(
860:n
840:W
712:ω
697:w
673:)
635:e
628:t
621:v
377:)
373:(
20:)
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