1131:, who was in charge of the other Roman province (Hispania Ulterior), had their commands extended. They were reinforced with 3,000 Roman and 5,000 Latin infantry and 300 Roman and 400 Latin cavalry. They planned a joint operation. Albinus, whose province had been quiet, was to march against the Vaccaei (a people who lived to the east of Celtiberia) via eastern Lusitania and return to Celtiberia if there was a greater war there, while Gracchus was to head into the furthest part of Celtiberia. He first took the city of Munda by storm with an unexpected attack at night. He took hostages, left a garrison and burned the countryside until he reached the powerful town which the Celtiberians called Certima. A delegation from the town arrived while he was preparing the siege machines. They did not disguise the fact that they would fight to the end if they had the strength, as they asked to be allowed to go to the Celtiberian camp at Alce to ask for help. If this was rejected they would consult among themselves. Gracchus gave them permission. After a few days they returned with ten other envoys. They asked for something to drink. Then they asked for a second cup. Livy wrote that this caused 'laughter at such uncultured ignorance of all etiquetteâ. Then the oldest man said that they had been sent to enquire what the Romans relied on to attack them. Gracchus replied that he relied on an excellent army and invited them to see it for themselves. He ordered the entire army to march in review under arms. The envoys left and discouraged their people from sending aid to the besieged city. The townsfolk surrendered. An indemnity was imposed on them and they had to give forty young nobles to serve in the Roman army as a pledge of loyalty.
1112:), where Gracchus would disband the old army and incorporate the new troops. In the wake of this news, Flaccus abandoned his campaign and withdrew from Celtiberia. The Celtiberians thought that Flaccus was fleeing because he had become aware of their rebellion and continued to prepare their trap at the Manlian Pass. When the Romans entered the pass they were attacked on both sides. Quintus Fulvius ordered his men to hold their ground. The pack animals and the baggage were piled up in one place. The battle was desperate. The native auxiliaries could not hold their ground against men who were armed in the same way but were a better class of soldiers. Seeing that their regular order of battle was no match for the Roman legions, the Celtiberians bore down on them in wedge formation and almost broke their line. Flaccus ordered the Legion's cavalry to close ranks and charge the enemy wedge with loose reins, breaking the wedge and throwing the enemy into disarray. The apparent success of the tactic inspired the native auxiliary cavalry to also let their horses loose on the enemy. The enemy, now routed, scattered through the whole defile. The Celtiberians lost 17,000 men; 4,000 men and 600 horses were captured; 472 Romans, 1,019 Latin allies and 3,000 native auxiliaries died. The Romans encamped outside the pass and marched to Tarraco the next day. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus had landed two days earlier. The two commanders selected the soldiers who were to be discharged and those who were to remain. Flaccus returned to Rome with his veterans and Gracchus went to Celtiberia.
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Acilius sent Gaius
Scribonius, the commander of the allies, to the enemy rampart with his cavalry. When the Celtiberians saw them they sent out their cavalry and signaled their infantry to advance. Gaius Scribonius turned round and made for the Roman camp as per instructions. When Quintus Fulvius Flaccus thought that the Celtiberians were sufficiently drawn away from their camp he advanced with his army, which had been drawn up in three separate corps behind the rampart. Meanwhile, the cavalry on the hill charged down, as instructed, on the enemy camp, which had no more than 5,000 guarding it. The camp was taken with little resistance. Acilius set fire to that part of it which could be seen from the battlefield. Word spread through the Celtiberian line that the camp was lost, throwing them into indecision. They then resumed the fight, as it was their only hope. The Celtiberian centre was hard pressed by the Fifth Legion. However, they advanced against the Roman left flank, which had native auxiliaries, and would have overrun it had the Seventh Legion not come to its aid. The troops which were at Aebura turned up and, as Acilius was at the enemy's rear, the Celtiberians were sandwiched and cut to pieces; 23,000 died and 4,700 were captured. On the other side, 200 Romans, 800 allies and 2,400 native auxiliaries fell. Aebura was seized.
1154:, in north-western Aragon), an ally of Rome, was besieged by 20,000 Celtiberians. Gracchus was informed that it would fall soon. He hurried there, but he could not alert them that he was nearby. The commander of the cavalry, Cominius, had the idea of wearing a Hispanic sagum (a military cloak), mingling in the enemy camp and making his way to the town. He informed the townsfolk that Gracchus was nearby and told them to hold out a bit longer. Three days later Gracchus attacked the besiegers, who fled. At about the same time, the people of the town of Complega (location unknown) which, had 20,000 inhabitants, went to Gracchusâ camp pretending to be peace negotiators. They attacked unexpectedly, throwing the Romans into disarray. Gracchus quickly abandoned the camp in a feigned retreat, and then turned on them while they were plundering the camp, killing most of them. He went on to seize Complega. He then allocated land to the poor and made carefully defined treaties with the surrounding tribes and the surrounding country, binding them to be friends of Rome.
1147:), which lasted from dawn to midday with many casualties on both sides. His sources also claimed that three days later there was a bigger battle which cost the defeated Celtiberians 22,000 casualties and the capture of 300 men and 300 horses, a decisive defeat which ended the war in earnest. Livy also noted that according to these sources Lucius Postumius Albinus won a great battle against the Vaccaei, killing 35,000. Livy thought that âit would be nearer the truth to say that he arrived in his province too late in the summer to undertake a campaignâ. Livy did not give any explanation for his doubts about this information about Lucius Postumius Albinus. He did not write anything about his campaigns on his own authority either. However, in an earlier passage, Livy wrote that he arrived in Hispania before Tiberius Gracchus, who gave him a message with instructions for his predecessor, Quintus Fulvius Flaccus.
1119:(a small Celtiberian tribe in the north of Celtiberia, in the high Tajuña River valley, northeast of Guadalajara). He held that the rebellion was caused by the tribes having insufficient land. Whether this was the actual cause of the war is uncertain. He wrote that Quintus Fulvius defeated these tribes. Most of them scattered but those which were destitute and nomadic fled to Complega, a newly built and fortified city which had grown rapidly. They sent messengers who demanded that Flaccus compensate them with a sagos (a Celtic word for cloak), a horse and a sword for every man who was killed in the battle and that the Romans leave Hispania or suffer the consequences. Flaccus said that he would give them plenty of cloaks, followed the messengers and encamped in front of the city. The inhabitants, feeling intimidated, fled and plundered the fields of the neighbouring tribes along their way.
1104:
to sustain itself, and requested that
Flaccus be allowed to bring back his army. Livy wrote that this was a must because the soldiers were determined to go back home and it seemed impossible to keep them in Hispania any longer, to the point where they might mutiny if not withdrawn. Tiberius Gracchus objected to this because he did not want to lose the veterans. A compromise was reached: Gracchus was ordered to levy two legions (5,200 infantry but only 400 cavalry instead of the usual 600) and an additional 1,000 infantry and 50 cavalry plus 7,000 Latin infantry and 300 cavalry (a total of 13,200 infantry and 750 cavalry); meanwhile, Flaccus was allowed to bring back home veterans who had been sent to Hispania before 186 BC, while those who arrived after that date were to remain. He could bring back any excess over Gracchus' assigned force of 14,000 infantry and 600 cavalry.
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to cross. Heavy storms forced
Flaccus to move his army into the city. When the rain stopped the Celtiberians went on the march without knowing about the city's surrender. They saw no Roman camp and thought that it had been moved elsewhere or that the Romans had withdrawn. They approached the city without taking precautions and without proper formation. The Romans made a sortie from the two city gates. Caught by surprise the Celtiberians were routed. Not being in formation made resistance impossible, but it helped the majority to escape. Still, 12,000 men died and 5,000 men and 400 horses were captured. The fugitives bumped into another body of Celtiberians on its way to Contrebia which, on being told about the defeat, dispersed. Quintus Fulvius marched through Celtiberian territory, ravaged the countryside and stormed many forts until the Celtiberians surrendered.
1135:
native auxiliaries to offer only slight resistance and then retreat hastily to the camp, pretending that they had been overwhelmed. He placed his men behind the gates of the rampant of the camp. When the enemy pursued the retreating units in a disorderly manner and came to close range, the Romans came out from all the gates. Caught by surprise, the enemy was routed and lost 9,000 men and 320 men and 112 horses where captured; 109 Romans fell. Gracchus then marched further into
Celtiberia, which he plundered. The tribes submitted. In a few days 103 towns surrendered. He then returned to Alce and begun to besiege the city. The townsfolk resisted the first assaults, but when the siege engines were deployed they withdrew to the citadel and then sent envoys to offer their surrender. Many nobles were taken, including the two sons and the daughter of
1083:). He sent a small detachment to occupy the town. A few days later the Celtiberians encamped at the foot of a hill two miles from the Romans. The praetor sent his brother, Marcus Fulvius, with two squadrons of native cavalry for reconnaissance with instructions to get as close to the enemy rampart as possible to get an idea of the size of the camp. If enemy's cavalry spotted him he was to withdraw. For a few days nothing happened. Then the Celtiberian army drew up midway between the two camps, but the Romans did not respond. For four days, this continued. After this both sides withdrew to their camps. Both cavalries went out on patrol and collected wood at the rear of their camps without interfering with each other.
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a regulatory collection of revenue. His treaties stipulated that the allies were to provide the Romans with auxiliary troops. They also established that the natives could fortify existing cities, but not found new ones. There is some evidence that he introduced civilian administrative measures, such as the issuing of rights for mining to mint coins and the construction of roads. Gracchus is remembered for his administrative arrangements which ensured peace in the conquered territory for the next quarter of a century.
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1139:, a Celtiberian chief. According to Livy he was by far the most powerful man in Hispania. Thurru asked for safe conduct to visit Tiberius Gracchus. He asked him whether he and his family would be allowed to live. When Gracchus replied affirmatively he asked if he was allowed to serve with the Romans. Gracchus granted this. From then on Thurru followed and helped the Romans in many places.
990:. The peninsula was inhabited by various ethnic groups and numerous tribes. The Celtiberians were a confederation of five tribes, which lived in a large area of east central Hispania, to the west of Hispania Citerior. The eastern part of their territory shared a stretch of the border of this Roman province. The Celtiberian tribes were the
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was assigned the command of
Hispania Citerior and the conduct of the war with the Celtiberians. Around this time, messengers arrived in Rome, bringing news of the Celtiberian surrender. They then told the senate that there was no need to send subsidies for the army, as Hispania Citerior was now able
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during the Second Punic War. Gracchus imposed the vicensima, the requisition of 5% of the grain harvest, a form of tax which was more efficient and less vulnerable to abuse than the usual Roman practice of delegating tax collection to private âtax farmers.â Silva notes this is the first reference to
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Quintus
Fulvius Flaccus then marched across Carpetania and went to Contrebia. The townsfolk sent for Celtiberian assistance, but it did not come and they surrendered. The Celtiberians had been delayed by incessant winter rain which caused floods and made the roads impassable and the rivers difficult
1066:
were given military command for
Hispania Ulterior and Citerior respectively in 182 BC and this was extended to 181 BC. They received reinforcements of 3,000 Roman and 6,000 allied infantry and 200 Roman and 300 allied cavalry. The Celtiberians gathered 35,000 men. Livy wrote: âhardly ever before had
1142:
Ergavica, another powerful
Celtiberian city, was alarmed about the defeats of its neighbours and opened its gates to the Romans. Livy noted that some of his sources held that these surrenders were in bad faith because whenever Gracchus left hostilities resumed and there was also a major battle near
1107:
Since his successor was late, Flaccus started a third campaign against the
Celtiberians who had not surrendered, ravaging the more distant parts of Celtiberia. The Celtiberians responded by secretly gathering an army to strike at the Manlian Pass, through which the Romans would have needed to pass.
1157:
Gracchus founded the colony (settlement) of
Gracchurris (Alfaro, in La Rioja, northern Hispania) in the Upper Ebro Valley. This marked the beginning of Roman influence in northern Hispania. It was thought that this was the only colony he founded. However, in the 1950s an inscription was found near
1134:
After Certima, Tiberius Gracchus went to Alce, where the Celtiberian camp the envoys had come from was. For a few days he just harassed the enemy by sending larger and larger contingents of skirmishers against their outposts, hoping to draw the enemy out. When the enemy responded he ordered the
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When the praetor thought that the enemy would not expect action, he sent Lucius Acilius to go around the hill behind the enemy camp with a contingent of troops of Latin allies and 6,000 native auxiliaries with orders to assault the camp. They marched at night to elude detection. At dawn Lucius
1045:. There were numerous rebellions by many tribes of Hispania, including tribes both inside and outside Roman territory, in most years for a period of 98 years, until the end of the First Celtiberian War in 179 BC. For details of these rebellions see the
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Mangibar, on the banks of the River Baetis (Guadalquivir) which attests that he founded another one. It was Iliturgi, a mining town and a frontier outpost. Gracchus therefore established a colony outside his province as it was in Hispania Ulterior.
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Appian wrote that Gracchus' âtreaties were longed for in subsequent warsâ. Unlike previous praetors he spent time negotiating and cultivating personal relations with tribal leaders. This was reminiscent of the friendly relations established by
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This must be an unknown town as the well-known town of Munda, near which Julius Caesar fought the last battle of his civil war, was in Baetica (Andalusia), in the south
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they raised so large a forceâ. Quintus Fulvius Flaccus drew as many auxiliary troops from the friendly tribes as he could, but his numbers were inferior. He went to
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However, Gracchus told his colleague, Lucius Postumius, to inform Flaccus that he had nearly arrived from Rome, and that Flaccus was to bring his army to Tarraco (
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In his account of this war, Appian wrote that the rebellion was by the tribes which lived along the River Iberus (the Greek name for the Ebro), including the
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Apart from a few minor episodes, Hispania remained quiet until the outbreak of the Lusitanian War (155â150 BC) and the Second Celtiberian War (154â151 BC).
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Livy, History of Rome from Its Foundation: Rome and the Mediterranean (Books 31â45), Penguin Classics, Reprint edition, 1976;
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Appian, Roman History, The Foreign Wars, Book 6, The Wars in Spain, Loeb Classical Library, Vol I, Books 1-8.1., Loeb, 1989;
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It was probably the Alces which the Antonine itinerary placed between Augusta Emerita (MĂ©rida) and Caesaraugusta (Zaragoza)
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Richardson, J.S., Hispaniae, Spain and the Development of Roman Imperialism,218-82 BC, Cambridge University Press, 2008;
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Silva, L., Viriathus and the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome, Pen & Sword Military, Barnsley, 2013;
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Richardson, J.S., The Romans in Spain, John Wiley & Sons; Reprint edition, 1998;
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Curchin, L.A. Romans Spain:Conquest and Assimilation, Routledge, 1991; 978-0415023658
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Knapp, R. C., Aspects of The Roman Experience in Iberia 206 BC-100 BC, p. 110, n. 18
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Appian, Roman History, The Foreign Wars, Book 6, The Spanish wars, 43
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Appian, Roman History, The Foreign Wars, Book 6, The Spanish wars, 43
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Appian, Roman History, The Foreign Wars, Book 6, The Spanish wars, 43
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Appian, Roman History, The Foreign Wars, Book 6, The Spanish wars, 42
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1213:. p.216-217 F. Burillo, "Los celtĂberos. Etnias y estados", 1998
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Silva, L., Viriathus and the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome, p. 58
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Silva, L., Viriathus and the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome, p. 58
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Gracchus and Albinus campaigns in the Celtiberia (179 BC)
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in southern Hispania when they defeated them at the
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1091:Flaccus campaigns in Celtiberia (180â179 BC)
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1058:The siege of Aebura (Carpetania) (181 BC)
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1901:
1900:
1895:
1884:
1850:Civil war of 69
1838:Boudican revolt
1807:
1800:
1676:Cantabrian Wars
1614:Macedonian Wars
1521:
1514:
1509:
1415:Primary sources
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1164:
1125:
1093:
1060:
1055:
1015:Battle of Ilipa
960:
924:
922:
917:
916:
911:
883:Limes Sarmatiae
877:Anastasian Wall
855:Pannonian Limes
734:
724:
723:
718:
704:
694:
693:
692:
688:
678:
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658:
630:
620:
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484:
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469:Cantabrian Wars
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331:
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273:
262:
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192:
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90:
88:
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78:primary sources
66:
25:
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11:
5:
1970:
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1785:Bellum Siculum
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1749:
1744:
1739:
1729:
1724:
1717:
1716:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1695:
1690:
1688:Jugurthine War
1685:
1680:
1679:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1661:Lusitanian War
1658:
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1522:Roman Republic
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1478:
1476:978-0199555970
1468:
1466:978-0631209317
1458:
1456:978-0521521345
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1436:978-0140443189
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1426:978-0674990029
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1145:Moncayo Massif
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944:
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862:Limes Alutanus
858:
857:
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842:
841:
835:
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823:Wetterau Limes
820:
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772:Hadrian's Wall
769:
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454:Lusitanian War
451:
437:
431:
428:
427:
416:
415:
408:
401:
393:
385:
384:
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371:
370:
366:
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350:Roman Republic
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345:
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340:
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327:
326:
320:
316:
315:
310:
308:
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292:
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274:
257:
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171:
169:
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155:
154:
69:
67:
60:
55:
29:
28:
26:
19:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1969:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
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1822:
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1817:
1816:Germanic wars
1814:
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1811:
1809:
1803:
1797:
1796:War of Actium
1794:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1786:
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1777:
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1774:War of Mutina
1772:
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1686:
1684:
1681:
1677:
1674:
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1671:Sertorian War
1669:
1667:
1666:Numantine War
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1653:
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1649:
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1372:
1363:
1354:
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1255:
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1237:
1228:
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1206:
1197:
1188:
1184:
1176:
1173:
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1159:
1155:
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1120:
1118:
1113:
1111:
1105:
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1070:
1065:
1050:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1011:Carthaginians
1007:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
984:Numantine War
981:
977:
973:
969:
957:
952:
950:
945:
943:
938:
937:
935:
934:
931:
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908:
907:
903:
901:
900:
896:
894:
893:
889:
888:
885:
884:
880:
878:
875:
873:
872:Trajan's Wall
870:
868:
867:Limes Moesiae
865:
863:
860:
859:
856:
853:
852:
849:
848:
844:
843:
840:
839:Norican Limes
837:
836:
833:
830:
829:
824:
821:
819:
816:
814:
811:
809:
806:
804:
801:
799:
796:
794:
791:
790:
789:
788:
784:
783:
778:
775:
773:
770:
768:
767:Antonine Wall
765:
764:
763:
762:
758:
757:
752:
749:
748:
747:
746:
742:
741:
739:
738:
733:
728:
727:
715:
712:
711:
709:
708:
703:
698:
697:
687:
682:
681:
669:
666:
664:
661:
660:
655:
654:Siege engines
652:
650:
649:
645:
644:
642:
641:
638:
635:
634:
629:
624:
623:
615:
612:
611:
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602:
601:
589:
586:
584:
581:
580:
578:
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574:
571:
570:
564:
561:
559:
556:
555:
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547:
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540:
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536:
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533:
530:
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521:
516:
515:
511:
507:
503:
500:
499:
495:
491:
490:
482:
481:
470:
467:
465:
464:Sertorian War
462:
460:
459:Numantine War
457:
455:
452:
449:
445:
441:
438:
436:
433:
432:
429:
424:
414:
409:
407:
402:
400:
395:
394:
391:
382:
380:
376:
373:
372:
367:
364:
361:and possibly
360:
356:
353:
351:
348:
347:
342:
334:
329:
328:
324:
321:
318:
317:
313:
309:
306:
305:
302:181 to 179 BC
301:
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253:
250:
242:
231:
228:
224:
221:
217:
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210:
207:
203:
200: â
199:
195:
194:Find sources:
188:
184:
178:
177:
172:This article
170:
166:
161:
160:
151:
148:
140:
129:
126:
122:
119:
115:
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108:
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98: â
97:
93:
92:Find sources:
86:
80:
79:
75:
70:This article
68:
64:
59:
58:
53:
51:
44:
43:
38:
37:
32:
27:
18:
17:
1890:
1845:Armenian War
1808:Roman Empire
1791:Perusine War
1783:
1719:
1698:Servile Wars
1693:Cimbrian War
1646:Galatian War
1565:Samnite Wars
1398:
1389:
1380:
1371:
1362:
1353:
1344:
1335:
1326:
1317:
1308:
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1136:
1133:
1126:
1114:
1106:
1098:
1094:
1085:
1061:
1008:
972:Celtiberians
967:
965:
904:
897:
890:
881:
845:
785:
759:
743:
646:
443:
344:Belligerents
263:
245:
239:January 2019
236:
226:
219:
212:
205:
193:
181:Please help
176:verification
173:
143:
137:January 2019
134:
124:
117:
110:
103:
91:
71:
47:
40:
34:
33:Please help
30:
1806:Wars of the
1754:Gallic Wars
1683:Achaean War
1570:Pyrrhic War
1520:Wars of the
992:Pellendones
777:Saxon Shore
355:Celtiberian
330:Territorial
1906:Categories
1826:Gothic War
1587:Punic Wars
1575:Social War
1410:References
1069:Carpetania
808:Main Limes
209:newspapers
107:newspapers
74:references
36:improve it
1162:Aftermath
1110:Tarragona
1049:article.
1043:Andalusia
1031:Catalonia
793:Alb Limes
42:talk page
1152:Magallon
1081:Vettones
1035:Valencia
976:Hispania
588:Admirals
563:Generals
494:a series
492:Part of
363:Vettones
357:tribes,
312:Hispania
307:Location
287:Part of
1117:Lusones
1000:Lusones
996:Arevaci
558:Auxilia
549:Legions
383:Unknown
359:Vaccaei
332:changes
325:victory
223:scholar
121:scholar
1947:179 BC
1942:180 BC
1937:181 BC
1742:Second
1708:Second
1634:Fourth
1624:Second
1597:Second
1474:
1464:
1454:
1434:
1424:
1211:Cuenca
1137:Thurru
1037:, and
1027:Aragon
998:, the
994:, the
691:
648:Castra
583:Fleets
510:AD 476
506:753 BC
496:on the
448:Second
319:Result
225:
218:
211:
204:
196:
123:
116:
109:
102:
94:
1747:Third
1737:First
1713:Third
1703:First
1629:Third
1619:First
1602:Third
1592:First
1179:Notes
1004:Belli
751:Walls
745:Limes
668:Roads
444:First
323:Roman
230:JSTOR
216:books
128:JSTOR
114:books
1472:ISBN
1462:ISBN
1452:ISBN
1432:ISBN
1422:ISBN
1033:and
966:The
573:Navy
529:Army
299:Date
202:news
100:news
1006:.
185:by
76:to
1908::
1029:,
508:â
446:,
377:,
87:.
45:.
1504:e
1497:t
1490:v
955:e
948:t
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450:)
442:(
412:e
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264:(
252:)
246:(
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237:(
227:·
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213:·
206:·
179:.
150:)
144:(
139:)
135:(
125:·
118:·
111:·
104:·
81:.
52:)
48:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
