1699:
658:
31:
515:
2575:
156:
was centered underneath with additional shielding. From the detection of air-shower particles passing through the Geiger counters in coincidence, he assumed that secondary particles are being produced by cosmic rays in the first shielding layer as well as in the rooftop of the laboratory, unknowing that the particles he measured were
116:, unaware of Rossi's earlier report, detected the same phenomenon and investigated it in some detail. He concluded that cosmic-ray particles are of extremely high energies and interact with nuclei high up in the atmosphere, initiating a cascade of secondary interactions that produce extensive showers of subatomic particles.
319:, Rossi and others), assuming that in the vicinity of nuclear fields high-energy gamma rays will undergo pair-production of electrons and positrons, and electrons and positrons will produce gamma rays by radiation. Work on extensive air showers continued mainly after the war, as many key figures were involved in the
1187:
104:
are produced in the first interactions, which then fuel a hadronic shower component that produces shower particles mostly through pion decay. Primary photons and electrons, on the other hand, produce mainly electromagnetic showers. Depending on the energy of the primary particle, the detectable size
2353:
544:
that develops along the extended trajectory of the primary cosmic ray, until it is fully absorbed by either the atmosphere or the ground. The interaction and decay of particles in the shower core feeds the main particle components of the shower, which are hadrons, muons, and purely electromagnetic
258:
above sea level, and at sea level. They found that the rate of coincidences reduces with increasing distance of the detectors, but does not vanish, even at high altitudes. Thus confirming that cosmic rays produce air showers of secondary particles in the atmosphere. They estimated that the primary
155:
conducted an experiment in the
Institute of Physics in Florence, using shielded Geiger counters to confirm the penetrating character of the cosmic radiation. He used different arrangements of Geiger counters, including a setup of three counters, where two were placed next to each other and a third
2650:
can be given for example by the longitudinal profile function. The lateral distribution of hadronic showers (i.e. initiated by a primary hadron, such as a proton), which contain a significantly increased amount of muons, can be well approximated by a superposition of NKG-like functions, in which
1694:
The number of particles present in an air shower is approximately proportional to the calorimetric energy deposit of the shower. The energy deposit as a function of the surpassed atmospheric matter, as it can for example be seen by fluorescence detector telescopes, is known as the longitudinal
2731:
clusters. Finally, air showers emit radio waves due to the deflection of electrons and positrons by the geomagnetic field. As advantage over the optical techniques, radio detection is possible around the clock and not only during dark and clear nights. Thus, several modern experiments, e.g.,
444:
A novel detection technique for extensive air showers was proposed by
Greisen in 1965. He suggested to directly observe Cherenkov radiation of the shower particles, and fluorescence light produced by excited nitrogen molecules in the atmosphere. In this way, one would be able to measure the
1855:
650:. The same holds true for charged and neutral kaons. In addition, kaons also produce pions. Neutrinos from pion and kaon decay are usually not accounted for as parts of the shower because of their very low cross-section, and are referred to as part of the
522:
The air shower is formed by interaction of the primary cosmic ray with the atmosphere, and then by subsequent interaction of the secondary particles, and so on. Depending on the type of the primary particle, the shower particles will be created mostly by
96:. Upon entering the atmosphere, they interact with molecules and initiate a particle cascade that lasts for several generations, until the energy of the primary particle is fully converted. If the primary particle is a hadron, mostly light mesons like
2710:, so the products of the collisions tend also to move generally in the same direction as the primary, while to some extent spreading sidewise. In addition, the secondary particles produce a widespread flash of light in forward direction due to the
1695:
profile of the shower. For the longitudinal profile of the shower, only the electromagnetic particles (electrons, positrons, and photons) are relevant, as they dominate the particle content and the contribution to the calorimetric energy deposit.
1685:
is assumed to be the depth of the first interaction of the cosmic ray in the atmosphere. This approximation is, however, not accurate for all types of primary particles. Especially showers from heavy nuclei will reach their maximum much earlier.
665:
Qualitatively, the particle content of a shower can be described by a simplified model, in which all particles partaking in any interaction of the shower will equally share the available energy. One can assume that in each hadronic interaction,
3402:
Bird, D. J.; Corbato, S. C.; Dai, H. Y.; Elbert, J. W.; Green, K. D.; Huang, M. A.; Kieda, D. B.; Ko, S.; Larsen, C. G.; Loh, E. C.; Luo, M. Z.; Salamon, M. H.; Smith, J. D.; Sokolsky, P.; Sommers, P.; Tang, J. K. K.; Thomas, S. B. (1995).
445:
longitudinal development of a shower in the atmosphere. This method was first applied successfully and reported in 1977 at
Volcano Ranch, using 67 optical modules. Volcano Ranch finished its operation shortly after due to lack of funding.
2718:
that is emitted isotropically from the excitation of nitrogen molecules. The particle cascade and the light produced in the atmosphere can be detected with surface detector arrays and optical telescopes. Surface detectors typically use
1653:
1282:
1061:
2570:{\displaystyle \varrho (r)={\frac {N}{2\pi r_{\text{M}}^{2}}}{\frac {\Gamma ({\tfrac {9}{2}})}{\Gamma (s)\Gamma ({\frac {9}{2}}-2s)}}\left({\frac {r}{r_{\text{M}}}}\right)^{s-2}\,\left(1+{\frac {r}{r_{\text{M}}}}\right)^{s-9/2},}
1371:
and pair production. For the sake of simplicity, photons, electrons, and positrons are often treated as equivalent particles in the shower. The electromagnetic cascade continues, until the particles reach a critical energy of
3347:
Bergeson, H. E.; Cassiday, G. L.; Chiu, T. -W.; Cooper, D. A.; Elbert, J. W.; Loh, E. C.; Steck, D.; West, W. J.; Linsley, J.; Mason, G. W. (1977-09-26). "Measurement of Light
Emission from Remote Cosmic-Ray Air Showers".
921:
1468:
539:
Shortly after entering the atmosphere, the primary cosmic ray (which is assumed to be a proton or nucleus in the following) is scattered by a nucleus in the atmosphere and creates a shower core - a region of high-energy
1365:
135:. The latter is the largest observatory for cosmic rays ever built, operating with 4 fluorescence detector buildings and 1600 surface detector stations spanning an area of 3,000 km in the Argentinean desert.
1414:
1054:
160:, which are produced in air showers and which would only be discovered three years later. He also noted that the coincidence rate drops significantly for cosmic rays that are detected at a zenith angle below
1922:
835:
3690: : Interactive animated 3d models of several different cosmic ray air showers, and instructions on how to make your own using AIRES simulations. From the COSMUS group at the University of Chicago.
1567:
47:
2308:
For idealized electromagnetic showers, the angular and lateral distribution functions for electromagnetic particles have been derived by
Japanese physicists Nishimura and Kamata. For a shower of age
460:. In 1995, the latter reported the detection of an ultrahigh-energy cosmic ray with an energy beyond the theoretically expected spectral cutoff. The air shower of the cosmic ray was detected by the
198:, together with three colleagues, suggested that secondary particles are created by cosmic rays in the atmosphere, and conducted experiments using shielded scintillators and Wilson chambers on the
2022:
302:
723:
neutral pions are produced. The neutral pions will decay into photons, which fuel the electromagnetic part of the shower. The charged pions will then continue to interact hadronically. After
1736:
1010:
500:
1747:
1511:
326:
In 1955, the first surface detector array to detect air showers with sufficient precision to detect the arrival direction of the primary cosmic rays was built at the
Agassiz station at
2225:
2075:
402:
35:
1470:, the electromagnetic particles dominate the number of particles in the shower by far. A good approximation for the number of (electromagnetic) particles produced in a shower is
464:
fluorescence detector system and was estimated to contain approximately 240 billion particles at its maximum. This corresponds to a primary energy for the cosmic ray of about
256:
226:
435:
354:
2298:
694:
721:
2696:
2624:
2097:
is introduced to compare showers with different starting depths and different primary energies to highlight their universal features, as for example at the shower maximum
3666:(AIRshower Extended Simulations) : Large and well documented Fortran package for simulating cosmic ray showers by Sergio Sciutto at the Department of Physics of the
636:
185:
2273:
The longitudinal profiles of showers are particularly interesting in the context of measuring the total calorimetric energy deposit and the depth of the shower maximum,
1963:
2727:
to detect the charged secondary particles at ground level. The telescopes used to measure the fluorescence and
Cherenkov light use large mirrors to focus the light on
605:
575:
2154:
323:. In the 1950s, the lateral and angular structure of electromagnetic particles in air showers were calculated by Japanese scientists Koichi Kamata and Jun Nishimura.
2049:
1683:
768:
1182:{\displaystyle n_{\text{c}}=\left\lceil {\frac {\ln \left(E_{0}/\epsilon _{\text{c}}^{\pi }\right)}{\ln \left({\tfrac {3}{2}}\,N_{\text{ch}}\right)}}\right\rceil }
2121:
1574:
1194:
2669:
2648:
2597:
2346:
2326:
2300:, since the latter is an observable that is sensitive to type of the primary particle. The shower appears brightest in a fluorescence telescope at its maximum.
2268:
2248:
2174:
2095:
944:
741:
307:
Based on the idea of quantum theory, theoretical work on air showers was carried between 1935 and 1940 out by many well-known physicists of the time (including
404:
was reported. With a footprint of several kilometers, the shower size at the ground was twice as large as any event recorded before, approximately producing
845:
3226:
CLARK, G.; EARL, J.; KRAUSHAAR, W.; LINSLEY, J.; ROSSI, B.; SCHERB, F. (1957). "An
Experiment on Air Showers Produced by High-Energy Cosmic Rays".
1423:
457:
1287:
2230:
The image shows the ideal longitudinal profile of showers using different primary energies, as a function of the surpassed atmospheric depth
1375:
1015:
1862:
1706:
The shower profile is characterized by a fast rise in the number of particles, before the average energy of the particles falls below
437:
particles in the shower. Furthermore, it was confirmed that the lateral distribution of the particles detected at the ground matched
3696: : Movies and instructions for how to make them, showing how air showers interact with the Milagro detector. By Miguel Morales.
1738:
around the shower maximum, and a slow decay afterwards. Mathematically the profile can be well described by a slanted
Gaussian, the
775:
120:
39:
1516:
34:
Cosmic ray air shower created by a 1TeV proton hitting the atmosphere 20 km above the Earth. The shower was simulated using the
3461:
Gaisser, T. K., Engel, R., & Resconi, E. (2016). Cosmic Rays and
Particle Physics: 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press.
3687:
518:
Air shower formation in the atmosphere. First proton collides with a particle in the air creating pions, protons and neutrons.
356:
diameter circular array. The results of the experiment on the arrival directions of cosmic rays, however, where inconclusive.
3405:"Detection of a cosmic ray with measured energy well beyond the expected spectral cutoff due to cosmic microwave radiation"
1968:
17:
262:
3631:
3642:
3485:
1709:
3667:
2950:
Auger, Pierre; Ehrenfest, P.; Maze, R.; Daudin, J.; Fréon, Robley A. (1939-07-01). "Extensive Cosmic-Ray Showers".
1850:{\displaystyle N(t)={\frac {\epsilon }{\sqrt {\beta }}}\,{\text{e}}^{\left((t-t_{1})-{\tfrac {3}{2}}\ln s\right)}.}
949:
611:
into pairs of oppositely spinning photons, which fuel the electromagnetic component of the shower. Charged pions,
467:
502:. To this day, no single particle with a larger energy was recorded. It is therefore publicly referred to as the
3699:
1473:
2181:
3637:
3677:
2054:
453:
368:
374:
3681:
2737:
2848:
Rossi, Bruno (1933). "Über die Eigenschaften der durchdringenden Korpuskularstrahlung im Meeresniveau".
235:
205:
407:
333:
2276:
1702:
Number of particles for different primary energies as a function of the surpassed atmospheric depth.
669:
3732:
2741:
699:
360:
132:
2674:
2602:
1739:
614:
608:
528:
163:
128:
3702: : Animations of different cosmic ray air showers by Hajo Dreschler of New York University.
3693:
2753:
1927:
229:
3277:
Linsley, John (1963-02-15). "Evidence for a Primary Cosmic-Ray Particle with Energy 10^20eV".
583:
560:
2724:
2126:
66:
1648:{\displaystyle X_{\text{max}}\simeq X_{1}+X_{0}\ln \left({\frac {E_{0}}{\text{GeV}}}\right)}
3737:
3602:
3557:
3510:
3426:
3357:
3321:
3235:
3190:
3143:
3098:
3051:
3006:
2959:
2908:
2857:
2822:
2787:
2027:
1661:
1277:{\displaystyle (N_{\text{ch}})^{n_{\text{c}}}=(E_{0}/\epsilon _{\text{c}}^{\pi })^{\beta }}
746:
8:
3727:
2999:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A - Mathematical and Physical Sciences
2100:
195:
113:
46:
3614:
3606:
3561:
3522:
3514:
3430:
3361:
3333:
3325:
3239:
3194:
3147:
3102:
3091:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences
3055:
3010:
2963:
2912:
2861:
2826:
2791:
3416:
3390:
3259:
2932:
2881:
2720:
2654:
2633:
2582:
2331:
2311:
2253:
2233:
2159:
2080:
1417:
929:
726:
503:
1513:. Assuming each electromagnetic interaction occurs after the average radiation length
3575:
3526:
3481:
3444:
3373:
3294:
3251:
3208:
3159:
3116:
3067:
3024:
2975:
2936:
2924:
2885:
2873:
320:
3610:
3565:
3518:
3434:
3365:
3329:
3286:
3263:
3243:
3198:
3151:
3106:
3059:
3014:
2967:
2916:
2865:
2830:
2795:
2733:
2711:
647:
3475:
2758:
2728:
438:
62:
3369:
3290:
2707:
2627:
1368:
916:{\displaystyle E_{\gamma }=\left(1-\left({\frac {2}{3}}\right)^{n}\right)E_{0}}
308:
81:
3663:
3155:
3042:
Carlson, J. F.; Oppenheimer, J. R. (1937-02-15). "On Multiplicative Showers".
2971:
2799:
3721:
3579:
3530:
3448:
3377:
3298:
3255:
3212:
3163:
3120:
3071:
3028:
2979:
2928:
2899:
Hilgert, R.; Bothe, W. (1936). "Zur Struktur der kosmischen Ultrastrahlung".
2877:
2744:
use radio antennas in addition to particle detectors and optical techniques.
2706:
The original particle arrives with high energy and hence a velocity near the
1463:{\displaystyle \epsilon _{\text{c}}^{\gamma }\ll \epsilon _{\text{c}}^{\pi }}
524:
441:'s approximation of the structure functions derived by Kamata and Nishimura.
51:
3680:: Another code for simulating cosmic ray air showers by Dieter Heck of the
3111:
3086:
3063:
3019:
2994:
2834:
2715:
461:
364:
199:
3421:
2813:
Rossi, Bruno (August 1930). "On the Magnetic Deflection of Cosmic Rays".
2328:, the density of electromagnetic particles as a function of the distance
1360:{\displaystyle \beta =\ln N_{\text{ch}}/\ln(3N_{\text{ch}}/2)\simeq 0.95}
661:
Sketch of the hadronic and electromagnetic sub-cascades in an air shower.
312:
152:
148:
119:
The most important experiments detecting extensive air showers today are
109:
330:. The Agassiz array consisted of 16 plastic scintillators arranged in a
2920:
2869:
2651:
different particle components are described using effective values for
316:
188:
144:
73:
3570:
3545:
3203:
3178:
1698:
38:
package. Animated 3d models of this and other showers can be found on
3546:"The Lateral and the Angular Structure Functions of Electron Showers"
3247:
3179:"The Lateral and the Angular Structure Functions of Electron Showers"
1409:{\displaystyle \epsilon _{\text{c}}^{\gamma }\simeq 87\,{\text{MeV}}}
643:
448:
Many air-shower experiments followed in the decades after, including
187:. A similar experiment was conducted in 1936 by Hilgert and Bothe in
2778:
Auger, P.; et al. (July 1939), "Extensive Cosmic-Ray Showers",
367:, was the first surface detector array of sufficient size to detect
3705:
3439:
3404:
93:
85:
3134:
Rossi, Bruno; Greisen, Kenneth (1941-10-01). "Cosmic-Ray Theory".
1367:. The electromagnetic part of the cascade develops in parallel by
1049:{\displaystyle \epsilon _{\text{c}}^{\pi }\simeq 20\,{\text{GeV}}}
1012:. The reaction continues, until the pions reach a critical energy
3673:
3501:
Matthews, J. (2005). "A Heitler model of extensive air showers".
657:
449:
2995:"The passage of fast electrons and the theory of cosmic showers"
1917:{\displaystyle \beta =\ln(E_{0}/\epsilon _{\text{c}}^{\gamma })}
1569:, the shower will reach its maximum at a depth of approximately
3711:
541:
124:
89:
77:
30:
1416:, from which on they start losing most of their energy due to
545:
particles. The hadronic part of the shower consists mostly of
3647:
830:{\displaystyle E_{\pi }=\left({\frac {2}{3}}\right)^{n}E_{0}}
639:
550:
514:
76:
enters the atmosphere. Particles of cosmic radiation can be
3660:(High School Project on Astrophysics Research with Cosmics)
2348:
to the shower axis can be approximated by the NKG function
554:
546:
157:
101:
97:
65:
of subatomic particles and ionized nuclei, produced in the
3346:
3234:(4582). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 353–356.
1562:{\displaystyle X_{0}\simeq 37\,{\text{g}}/{\text{cm}}^{2}}
3657:
3225:
2907:(5–6). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 353–362.
2856:(3–4). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 151–178.
327:
259:
particles of this phenomenon must have energies of up to
3652:
2949:
2777:
840:
and the electromagnetic part thus approximately carries
108:
The air shower phenomenon was unknowingly discovered by
105:
of the shower can reach several kilometers in diameter.
2412:
2077:
is a dimensionless constant. The shower age parameter
1817:
1145:
2677:
2657:
2636:
2605:
2585:
2356:
2334:
2314:
2279:
2256:
2236:
2184:
2162:
2129:
2103:
2083:
2057:
2030:
2017:{\displaystyle X_{0}=37\,{\text{g}}/{\text{cm}}^{-2}}
1971:
1930:
1865:
1750:
1712:
1664:
1577:
1519:
1476:
1426:
1378:
1290:
1197:
1064:
1018:
952:
932:
848:
778:
749:
729:
702:
672:
617:
586:
563:
470:
410:
377:
336:
265:
238:
208:
166:
3401:
363:
experiment, which was built in 1959 and operated by
297:{\displaystyle 10^{15}\,{\text{eV}}=1\,{\text{PeV}}}
1965:using the electromagnetic radiation length in air,
1056:, at which they decay into muons. Thus, a total of
3041:
2690:
2663:
2642:
2618:
2591:
2569:
2340:
2320:
2292:
2262:
2250:or, equivalently, the number of radiation lengths
2242:
2219:
2168:
2148:
2115:
2089:
2069:
2043:
2016:
1957:
1916:
1849:
1730:
1677:
1647:
1561:
1505:
1462:
1408:
1359:
1276:
1181:
1048:
1004:
938:
915:
829:
762:
735:
715:
688:
630:
599:
569:
494:
429:
396:
371:. In 1962, the first cosmic ray with an energy of
348:
296:
250:
220:
179:
3708: : South-Pole Air Shower Experiment (SPASE).
3084:
2992:
2958:(3–4). American Physical Society (APS): 288–291.
3719:
3356:(13). American Physical Society (APS): 847–849.
770:deposited in the hadronic component is given by
3543:
3312:Greisen, Kenneth (1960). "Cosmic Ray Showers".
3285:(4). American Physical Society (APS): 146–148.
3176:
3142:(4). American Physical Society (APS): 240–309.
3050:(4). American Physical Society (APS): 220–231.
3593:Greisen, Kennet (1960). "Cosmic Ray Showers".
2051:marks the point of the first interaction, and
1731:{\displaystyle \epsilon _{\text{c}}^{\gamma }}
743:interactions, the share of the primary energy
3595:Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science
3314:Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science
3714: : High mountain Air Shower Experiment.
3133:
2898:
2812:
1005:{\displaystyle E_{0}/(3N_{\text{ch}}/2)^{n}}
495:{\displaystyle 3.2\times 10^{20}{\text{eV}}}
112:in 1933 in a laboratory experiment. In 1937
2123:. For a shower with a first interaction at
3550:Progress of Theoretical Physics Supplement
3183:Progress of Theoretical Physics Supplement
3087:"The cascade theory of electronic showers"
1506:{\displaystyle N\simeq E_{0}/{\text{GeV}}}
1420:with molecules in the atmosphere. Because
534:
27:Cascade of atmospheric subatomic particles
3569:
3556:. Oxford University Press (OUP): 93–155.
3438:
3420:
3202:
3189:. Oxford University Press (OUP): 93–155.
3110:
3018:
2509:
2220:{\displaystyle s={\frac {3t}{t+2\beta }}}
1988:
1778:
1536:
1400:
1191:interactions are expected and a total of
1156:
1040:
388:
340:
288:
276:
242:
212:
3500:
3469:
3467:
1697:
946:th generation thus carries an energy of
656:
513:
143:In 1933, shortly after the discovery of
45:
29:
3592:
3544:Kamata, Koichi; Nishimura, Jun (1958).
3311:
3276:
3177:Kamata, Koichi; Nishimura, Jun (1958).
1689:
509:
14:
3720:
3415:. American Astronomical Society: 144.
3464:
2847:
2070:{\displaystyle \epsilon \approx 0.31}
1742:or the generalized Greisen function,
3085:Landau, L.; Rumer, G. (1938-05-19).
397:{\displaystyle 10^{20}\,{\text{eV}}}
3615:10.1146/annurev.ns.10.120160.000431
3523:10.1016/j.astropartphys.2004.09.003
3473:
3334:10.1146/annurev.ns.10.120160.000431
3097:(925). The Royal Society: 213–228.
3005:(898). The Royal Society: 432–458.
24:
2440:
2428:
2405:
2303:
25:
3749:
3638:Buckland Park Air Shower Detector
3625:
3668:Universidad Nacional de La Plata
3480:. World Scientific. p. 10.
251:{\displaystyle 2900\,{\text{m}}}
221:{\displaystyle 3500\,{\text{m}}}
3586:
3537:
3494:
3455:
3395:
3384:
3340:
3305:
3270:
3219:
3170:
430:{\displaystyle 5\times 10^{10}}
349:{\displaystyle 460\,{\text{m}}}
3127:
3078:
3035:
2986:
2943:
2892:
2841:
2806:
2771:
2579:using the number of particles
2465:
2443:
2437:
2431:
2423:
2408:
2366:
2360:
2293:{\displaystyle X_{\text{max}}}
1911:
1878:
1810:
1791:
1760:
1754:
1348:
1324:
1265:
1231:
1212:
1198:
993:
968:
689:{\displaystyle 2N_{\text{ch}}}
13:
1:
3643:Haverah Park Detection System
3509:(5–6). Elsevier BV: 387–397.
2764:
716:{\displaystyle N_{\text{ch}}}
2701:
2691:{\displaystyle r_{\text{M}}}
2619:{\displaystyle r_{\text{M}}}
638:, preferentially decay into
369:ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays
7:
3682:Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe
2747:
631:{\displaystyle \pi ^{\pm }}
180:{\displaystyle 60^{\circ }}
10:
3754:
3370:10.1103/physrevlett.39.847
3291:10.1103/physrevlett.10.146
194:In a publication in 1939,
138:
3409:The Astrophysical Journal
3156:10.1103/revmodphys.13.240
3136:Reviews of Modern Physics
2972:10.1103/revmodphys.11.288
2952:Reviews of Modern Physics
2800:10.1103/RevModPhys.11.288
2780:Reviews of Modern Physics
1958:{\displaystyle t=X/X_{0}}
1284:muons are produced, with
50:Air shower detected in a
3653:Pierre Auger Observatory
2993:Bhabha; Heitler (1937).
2742:Pierre Auger Observatory
600:{\displaystyle \pi ^{0}}
570:{\displaystyle \varrho }
228:above sea level, and on
133:Pierre Auger Observatory
3350:Physical Review Letters
3279:Physical Review Letters
2149:{\displaystyle t_{0}=0}
1740:Gaisser-Hillas function
609:electroweak interaction
535:Simplified shower model
129:Telescope Array Project
3112:10.1098/rspa.1938.0088
3064:10.1103/physrev.51.220
3020:10.1098/rspa.1937.0082
2901:Zeitschrift für Physik
2850:Zeitschrift für Physik
2835:10.1103/PhysRev.36.606
2754:Cosmic-ray observatory
2725:scintillation counters
2692:
2665:
2644:
2620:
2593:
2571:
2342:
2322:
2294:
2264:
2244:
2221:
2176:is usually defined as
2170:
2150:
2117:
2091:
2071:
2045:
2018:
1959:
1918:
1851:
1732:
1703:
1679:
1649:
1563:
1507:
1464:
1410:
1361:
1278:
1183:
1050:
1006:
940:
917:
831:
764:
737:
717:
690:
662:
632:
601:
571:
519:
496:
431:
398:
350:
298:
252:
222:
181:
55:
43:
3648:HiRes Detector System
3632:Extensive Air Showers
3503:Astroparticle Physics
3477:Extensive Air Showers
2693:
2666:
2645:
2621:
2594:
2572:
2343:
2323:
2295:
2265:
2245:
2222:
2171:
2151:
2118:
2092:
2072:
2046:
2044:{\displaystyle t_{1}}
2019:
1960:
1919:
1852:
1733:
1701:
1680:
1678:{\displaystyle X_{1}}
1650:
1564:
1508:
1465:
1411:
1362:
1279:
1184:
1051:
1007:
941:
918:
832:
765:
763:{\displaystyle E_{0}}
738:
718:
691:
660:
633:
602:
572:
517:
497:
432:
399:
351:
299:
253:
223:
182:
49:
33:
2675:
2655:
2634:
2603:
2583:
2354:
2332:
2312:
2277:
2254:
2234:
2182:
2160:
2127:
2101:
2081:
2055:
2028:
1969:
1928:
1863:
1748:
1710:
1690:Longitudinal profile
1662:
1575:
1517:
1474:
1424:
1376:
1288:
1195:
1062:
1016:
950:
930:
846:
776:
747:
727:
700:
670:
615:
584:
561:
510:Air shower formation
468:
408:
375:
334:
263:
236:
206:
164:
18:Extensive air shower
3607:1960ARNPS..10...63G
3562:1958PThPS...6...93K
3515:2005APh....22..387M
3431:1995ApJ...441..144B
3362:1977PhRvL..39..847B
3326:1960ARNPS..10...63G
3240:1957Natur.180..353C
3195:1958PThPS...6...93K
3148:1941RvMP...13..240R
3103:1938RSPSA.166..213L
3056:1937PhRv...51..220C
3011:1937RSPSA.159..432B
2964:1939RvMP...11..288A
2913:1936ZPhy...99..353H
2862:1933ZPhy...82..151R
2827:1930PhRv...36..606R
2792:1939RvMP...11..288A
2721:Cherenkov detectors
2398:
2116:{\displaystyle s=1}
1910:
1727:
1459:
1441:
1393:
1263:
1125:
1033:
549:, and some heavier
3694:Milagro Animations
3391:Oh-My-God particle
2921:10.1007/bf01330786
2870:10.1007/bf01341486
2716:fluorescence light
2688:
2661:
2640:
2616:
2589:
2567:
2421:
2384:
2338:
2318:
2290:
2260:
2240:
2217:
2166:
2146:
2113:
2087:
2067:
2041:
2014:
1955:
1914:
1896:
1847:
1826:
1728:
1713:
1704:
1675:
1645:
1559:
1503:
1460:
1445:
1427:
1406:
1379:
1357:
1274:
1249:
1179:
1154:
1111:
1046:
1019:
1002:
936:
913:
827:
760:
733:
713:
696:charged pions and
686:
663:
628:
597:
567:
520:
504:Oh-My-God particle
492:
427:
394:
346:
294:
248:
232:at an altitude of
218:
202:at an altitude of
177:
56:
44:
3706:SPASE2 Experiment
3700:CASSIM Animations
3571:10.1143/ptps.6.93
3204:10.1143/ptps.6.93
2685:
2664:{\displaystyle s}
2643:{\displaystyle N}
2613:
2599:, Molière radius
2592:{\displaystyle N}
2537:
2534:
2491:
2488:
2469:
2454:
2420:
2400:
2391:
2341:{\displaystyle r}
2321:{\displaystyle s}
2287:
2263:{\displaystyle t}
2243:{\displaystyle X}
2215:
2169:{\displaystyle s}
2156:, the shower age
2090:{\displaystyle s}
2003:
1992:
1903:
1825:
1783:
1776:
1775:
1720:
1639:
1638:
1585:
1551:
1540:
1501:
1452:
1434:
1404:
1386:
1337:
1310:
1256:
1223:
1208:
1173:
1164:
1153:
1118:
1072:
1044:
1026:
981:
939:{\displaystyle n}
886:
805:
736:{\displaystyle n}
710:
683:
490:
392:
344:
321:Manhattan project
292:
280:
246:
216:
16:(Redirected from
3745:
3712:GAMMA Experiment
3619:
3618:
3590:
3584:
3583:
3573:
3541:
3535:
3534:
3498:
3492:
3491:
3474:Rao, M. (1998).
3471:
3462:
3459:
3453:
3452:
3442:
3424:
3422:astro-ph/9410067
3399:
3393:
3388:
3382:
3381:
3344:
3338:
3337:
3309:
3303:
3302:
3274:
3268:
3267:
3248:10.1038/180353a0
3223:
3217:
3216:
3206:
3174:
3168:
3167:
3131:
3125:
3124:
3114:
3082:
3076:
3075:
3039:
3033:
3032:
3022:
2990:
2984:
2983:
2947:
2941:
2940:
2896:
2890:
2889:
2845:
2839:
2838:
2810:
2804:
2803:
2786:(3–4): 288–291,
2775:
2712:Cherenkov effect
2697:
2695:
2694:
2689:
2687:
2686:
2683:
2670:
2668:
2667:
2662:
2649:
2647:
2646:
2641:
2625:
2623:
2622:
2617:
2615:
2614:
2611:
2598:
2596:
2595:
2590:
2576:
2574:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2562:
2558:
2543:
2539:
2538:
2536:
2535:
2532:
2523:
2508:
2507:
2496:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2486:
2477:
2470:
2468:
2455:
2447:
2426:
2422:
2413:
2403:
2401:
2399:
2397:
2392:
2389:
2373:
2347:
2345:
2344:
2339:
2327:
2325:
2324:
2319:
2299:
2297:
2296:
2291:
2289:
2288:
2285:
2269:
2267:
2266:
2261:
2249:
2247:
2246:
2241:
2226:
2224:
2223:
2218:
2216:
2214:
2200:
2192:
2175:
2173:
2172:
2167:
2155:
2153:
2152:
2147:
2139:
2138:
2122:
2120:
2119:
2114:
2096:
2094:
2093:
2088:
2076:
2074:
2073:
2068:
2050:
2048:
2047:
2042:
2040:
2039:
2023:
2021:
2020:
2015:
2013:
2012:
2004:
2001:
1998:
1993:
1990:
1981:
1980:
1964:
1962:
1961:
1956:
1954:
1953:
1944:
1923:
1921:
1920:
1915:
1909:
1904:
1901:
1895:
1890:
1889:
1856:
1854:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1842:
1841:
1837:
1827:
1818:
1809:
1808:
1784:
1781:
1777:
1771:
1767:
1737:
1735:
1734:
1729:
1726:
1721:
1718:
1684:
1682:
1681:
1676:
1674:
1673:
1654:
1652:
1651:
1646:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1635:
1634:
1625:
1613:
1612:
1600:
1599:
1587:
1586:
1583:
1568:
1566:
1565:
1560:
1558:
1557:
1552:
1549:
1546:
1541:
1538:
1529:
1528:
1512:
1510:
1509:
1504:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1492:
1491:
1469:
1467:
1466:
1461:
1458:
1453:
1450:
1440:
1435:
1432:
1415:
1413:
1412:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1392:
1387:
1384:
1366:
1364:
1363:
1358:
1344:
1339:
1338:
1335:
1317:
1312:
1311:
1308:
1283:
1281:
1280:
1275:
1273:
1272:
1262:
1257:
1254:
1248:
1243:
1242:
1227:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1221:
1210:
1209:
1206:
1188:
1186:
1185:
1180:
1178:
1174:
1172:
1171:
1167:
1166:
1165:
1162:
1155:
1146:
1131:
1130:
1126:
1124:
1119:
1116:
1110:
1105:
1104:
1083:
1074:
1073:
1070:
1055:
1053:
1052:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1032:
1027:
1024:
1011:
1009:
1008:
1003:
1001:
1000:
988:
983:
982:
979:
967:
962:
961:
945:
943:
942:
937:
922:
920:
919:
914:
912:
911:
902:
898:
897:
896:
891:
887:
879:
858:
857:
836:
834:
833:
828:
826:
825:
816:
815:
810:
806:
798:
788:
787:
769:
767:
766:
761:
759:
758:
742:
740:
739:
734:
722:
720:
719:
714:
712:
711:
708:
695:
693:
692:
687:
685:
684:
681:
652:invisible energy
648:weak interaction
637:
635:
634:
629:
627:
626:
606:
604:
603:
598:
596:
595:
576:
574:
573:
568:
501:
499:
498:
493:
491:
488:
486:
485:
436:
434:
433:
428:
426:
425:
403:
401:
400:
395:
393:
390:
387:
386:
355:
353:
352:
347:
345:
342:
303:
301:
300:
295:
293:
290:
281:
278:
275:
274:
257:
255:
254:
249:
247:
244:
227:
225:
224:
219:
217:
214:
186:
184:
183:
178:
176:
175:
145:cosmic radiation
21:
3753:
3752:
3748:
3747:
3746:
3744:
3743:
3742:
3733:Earth phenomena
3718:
3717:
3628:
3623:
3622:
3591:
3587:
3542:
3538:
3499:
3495:
3488:
3472:
3465:
3460:
3456:
3400:
3396:
3389:
3385:
3345:
3341:
3310:
3306:
3275:
3271:
3224:
3220:
3175:
3171:
3132:
3128:
3083:
3079:
3044:Physical Review
3040:
3036:
2991:
2987:
2948:
2944:
2897:
2893:
2846:
2842:
2815:Physical Review
2811:
2807:
2776:
2772:
2767:
2759:Particle shower
2750:
2704:
2682:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2672:
2656:
2653:
2652:
2635:
2632:
2631:
2626:and the common
2610:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2600:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2554:
2544:
2531:
2527:
2522:
2515:
2511:
2510:
2497:
2485:
2481:
2476:
2472:
2471:
2446:
2427:
2411:
2404:
2402:
2393:
2388:
2377:
2372:
2355:
2352:
2351:
2333:
2330:
2329:
2313:
2310:
2309:
2306:
2304:Lateral profile
2284:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2274:
2255:
2252:
2251:
2235:
2232:
2231:
2201:
2193:
2191:
2183:
2180:
2179:
2161:
2158:
2157:
2134:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2124:
2102:
2099:
2098:
2082:
2079:
2078:
2056:
2053:
2052:
2035:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2025:
2005:
2000:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1976:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1966:
1949:
1945:
1940:
1929:
1926:
1925:
1905:
1900:
1891:
1885:
1881:
1864:
1861:
1860:
1816:
1804:
1800:
1790:
1786:
1785:
1780:
1779:
1766:
1749:
1746:
1745:
1722:
1717:
1711:
1708:
1707:
1692:
1669:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1659:
1630:
1626:
1624:
1620:
1608:
1604:
1595:
1591:
1582:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1572:
1553:
1548:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1524:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1514:
1498:
1493:
1487:
1483:
1475:
1472:
1471:
1454:
1449:
1436:
1431:
1425:
1422:
1421:
1401:
1388:
1383:
1377:
1374:
1373:
1340:
1334:
1330:
1313:
1307:
1303:
1289:
1286:
1285:
1268:
1264:
1258:
1253:
1244:
1238:
1234:
1220:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1205:
1201:
1196:
1193:
1192:
1161:
1157:
1144:
1143:
1139:
1132:
1120:
1115:
1106:
1100:
1096:
1095:
1091:
1084:
1082:
1078:
1069:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1059:
1041:
1028:
1023:
1017:
1014:
1013:
996:
992:
984:
978:
974:
963:
957:
953:
951:
948:
947:
931:
928:
927:
907:
903:
892:
878:
874:
873:
866:
862:
853:
849:
847:
844:
843:
821:
817:
811:
797:
793:
792:
783:
779:
777:
774:
773:
754:
750:
748:
745:
744:
728:
725:
724:
707:
703:
701:
698:
697:
680:
676:
671:
668:
667:
654:of the shower.
622:
618:
616:
613:
612:
607:, decay by the
591:
587:
585:
582:
581:
580:Neutral pions,
562:
559:
558:
537:
529:electromagnetic
512:
487:
481:
477:
469:
466:
465:
439:Kenneth Greisen
421:
417:
409:
406:
405:
389:
382:
378:
376:
373:
372:
341:
335:
332:
331:
289:
277:
270:
266:
264:
261:
260:
243:
237:
234:
233:
213:
207:
204:
203:
171:
167:
165:
162:
161:
141:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3751:
3741:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3716:
3715:
3709:
3703:
3697:
3691:
3685:
3671:
3661:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3627:
3626:External links
3624:
3621:
3620:
3585:
3536:
3493:
3486:
3463:
3454:
3440:10.1086/175344
3394:
3383:
3339:
3304:
3269:
3218:
3169:
3126:
3077:
3034:
2985:
2942:
2891:
2840:
2805:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2762:
2761:
2756:
2749:
2746:
2708:speed of light
2703:
2700:
2681:
2660:
2639:
2628:Gamma function
2609:
2588:
2566:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2550:
2547:
2542:
2530:
2526:
2521:
2518:
2514:
2506:
2503:
2500:
2495:
2484:
2480:
2475:
2467:
2464:
2461:
2458:
2453:
2450:
2445:
2442:
2439:
2436:
2433:
2430:
2425:
2419:
2416:
2410:
2407:
2396:
2387:
2383:
2380:
2376:
2371:
2368:
2365:
2362:
2359:
2337:
2317:
2305:
2302:
2283:
2259:
2239:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2204:
2199:
2196:
2190:
2187:
2165:
2145:
2142:
2137:
2133:
2112:
2109:
2106:
2086:
2066:
2063:
2060:
2038:
2034:
2011:
2008:
1997:
1987:
1984:
1979:
1975:
1952:
1948:
1943:
1939:
1936:
1933:
1913:
1908:
1899:
1894:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1877:
1874:
1871:
1868:
1846:
1840:
1836:
1833:
1830:
1824:
1821:
1815:
1812:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1796:
1793:
1789:
1774:
1770:
1765:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1753:
1725:
1716:
1691:
1688:
1672:
1668:
1643:
1633:
1629:
1623:
1619:
1616:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1581:
1556:
1545:
1535:
1532:
1527:
1523:
1496:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1479:
1457:
1448:
1444:
1439:
1430:
1399:
1396:
1391:
1382:
1369:bremsstrahlung
1356:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1343:
1333:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1320:
1316:
1306:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1271:
1267:
1261:
1252:
1247:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1230:
1219:
1214:
1204:
1200:
1177:
1170:
1160:
1152:
1149:
1142:
1138:
1135:
1129:
1123:
1114:
1109:
1103:
1099:
1094:
1090:
1087:
1081:
1077:
1068:
1039:
1036:
1031:
1022:
999:
995:
991:
987:
977:
973:
970:
966:
960:
956:
935:
926:A pion in the
910:
906:
901:
895:
890:
885:
882:
877:
872:
869:
865:
861:
856:
852:
824:
820:
814:
809:
804:
801:
796:
791:
786:
782:
757:
753:
732:
706:
679:
675:
625:
621:
594:
590:
566:
536:
533:
531:interactions.
511:
508:
484:
480:
476:
473:
424:
420:
416:
413:
385:
381:
339:
287:
284:
273:
269:
241:
211:
174:
170:
140:
137:
92:, or (rarely)
61:are extensive
26:
9:
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2903:(in German).
2902:
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2859:
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2852:(in German).
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455:
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383:
379:
370:
366:
362:
361:Volcano Ranch
357:
337:
329:
324:
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318:
314:
310:
305:
285:
282:
271:
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239:
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209:
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68:
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60:
53:
52:cloud chamber
48:
41:
37:
32:
19:
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1190:
1058:
925:
842:
839:
772:
664:
651:
579:
538:
521:
447:
443:
365:John Linsley
358:
325:
306:
200:Jungfraujoch
196:Pierre Auger
193:
142:
118:
114:Pierre Auger
107:
70:
58:
57:
3738:Cosmic rays
3670:, Argentina
313:Oppenheimer
230:Pic du Midi
153:Bruno Rossi
149:Victor Hess
110:Bruno Rossi
59:Air showers
3728:Atmosphere
3722:Categories
3601:: 63–108.
3320:: 63–108.
2821:(3): 606.
2765:References
1418:scattering
642:and (anti)
553:, such as
189:Heidelberg
74:cosmic ray
67:atmosphere
3684:, Germany
3580:0375-9687
3531:0927-6505
3449:0004-637X
3378:0031-9007
3299:0031-9007
3256:0028-0836
3213:0375-9687
3164:0034-6861
3121:0080-4630
3072:0031-899X
3029:0080-4630
2980:0034-6861
2937:119935508
2929:1434-6001
2886:121427439
2878:1434-6001
2740:, or the
2702:Detection
2549:−
2502:−
2457:−
2441:Γ
2429:Γ
2406:Γ
2382:π
2358:ϱ
2212:β
2062:≈
2059:ϵ
2007:−
1907:γ
1898:ϵ
1876:
1867:β
1832:
1814:−
1798:−
1773:β
1769:ϵ
1724:γ
1715:ϵ
1618:
1589:≃
1531:≃
1481:≃
1456:π
1447:ϵ
1443:≪
1438:γ
1429:ϵ
1395:≃
1390:γ
1381:ϵ
1352:≃
1322:
1301:
1292:β
1270:β
1260:π
1251:ϵ
1137:
1122:π
1113:ϵ
1089:
1035:≃
1030:π
1021:ϵ
871:−
855:γ
785:π
644:neutrinos
624:±
620:π
589:π
565:ϱ
475:×
462:Fly's Eye
415:×
173:∘
94:positrons
86:electrons
2748:See also
1176:⌉
1080:⌈
646:via the
577:mesons.
525:hadronic
131:and the
63:cascades
3678:CORSIKA
3674:CORSIKA
3658:HiSPARC
3603:Bibcode
3558:Bibcode
3511:Bibcode
3427:Bibcode
3358:Bibcode
3322:Bibcode
3264:4173505
3236:Bibcode
3191:Bibcode
3144:Bibcode
3099:Bibcode
3052:Bibcode
3007:Bibcode
2960:Bibcode
2909:Bibcode
2858:Bibcode
2823:Bibcode
2788:Bibcode
542:hadrons
450:KASCADE
139:History
90:photons
78:protons
71:primary
69:when a
3688:COSMUS
3578:
3529:
3484:
3447:
3376:
3297:
3262:
3254:
3228:Nature
3211:
3162:
3119:
3070:
3027:
2978:
2935:
2927:
2884:
2876:
1658:where
551:mesons
456:, and
317:Landau
309:Bhabha
127:, the
125:LHAASO
82:nuclei
40:COSMUS
3664:AIRES
3417:arXiv
3260:S2CID
2933:S2CID
2882:S2CID
2738:LOFAR
2734:TAIGA
1859:Here
640:muons
555:kaons
547:pions
458:HIRES
454:AGASA
158:muons
102:kaons
98:pions
36:AIRES
3576:ISSN
3527:ISSN
3482:ISBN
3445:ISSN
3374:ISSN
3295:ISSN
3252:ISSN
3209:ISSN
3160:ISSN
3117:ISSN
3068:ISSN
3025:ISSN
2976:ISSN
2925:ISSN
2874:ISSN
2671:and
2065:0.31
1924:and
1355:0.95
557:and
359:The
240:2900
210:3500
121:HAWC
100:and
3611:doi
3566:doi
3519:doi
3435:doi
3413:441
3366:doi
3330:doi
3287:doi
3244:doi
3232:180
3199:doi
3152:doi
3107:doi
3095:166
3060:doi
3015:doi
3003:159
2968:doi
2917:doi
2866:doi
2831:doi
2796:doi
2729:PMT
2723:or
2286:max
2270:.
1637:GeV
1584:max
1500:GeV
1403:MeV
1043:GeV
527:or
472:3.2
338:460
328:MIT
291:PeV
147:by
3724::
3676:,
3609:.
3599:10
3597:.
3574:.
3564:.
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3548:.
3525:.
3517:.
3507:22
3505:.
3466:^
3443:.
3433:.
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3105:.
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3058:.
3048:51
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3023:.
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2905:99
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2794:,
2784:11
2782:,
2736:,
2698:.
2630:.
2227:.
2024:.
2002:cm
1986:37
1873:ln
1829:ln
1655:,
1615:ln
1550:cm
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1398:87
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489:eV
483:20
479:10
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423:10
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391:eV
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311:,
304:.
279:eV
272:15
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169:60
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1991:g
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