Extended producer responsibility

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environmental standards from suppliers and ensuring that raw materials are extracted or produced in an environmentally conscious way provides a start." A life-cycle perspective is also taken in EPR frameworks: "Producers of products should bear a significant degree of responsibility (physical and/or financial) not only for the environmental impacts of their products downstream from the treatment and disposal of their product, but also for their upstream activities inherent in the selection of materials and in the design of products." "The major impetus for EPR came from northern European countries in the late 1980s and early 1990s, as they were facing severe landfill shortages. EPR is generally applied to post-consumer wastes which place increasing physical and financial demands on municipal waste management."

367:, because it financially encourages manufacturers to design for recycling and make products last longer. In addition to fighting planned obsolescence, by allocating part of the financial responsibility for paying for and managing waste on the producer, the pressures placed on governments may be alleviated. Currently, many governments bear the weight of disposal and spend millions of dollars on collecting and removing electronic waste. However, these plans usually fail because governments do not have enough money to create and enforce them properly. Placing responsibility on producers to dispose of their products can give governments more freedom to create legislation which benefits sustainability with little cost to both parties, while also raising awareness about the issues EPR seeks to solve. 269:, the President's Council on Sustainable Development suggested EPR in order to target different participants in the cycle of a product's life. This can, however, make the product more expensive since the cost must be taken into consideration before being put on the market, which is why it is not widely used in the United States currently. Instead, there is banning or taxation of plastic bags, which puts the responsibility on the consumers. In the United States, EPR is voluntary. What has been recommended is a comprehensive program which combines taxation, producer responsibility, and recycling to combat pollution. 520:, researchers have attempted for decades to account for both producers and consumers in an economy in a consistent way. Gallego and Lenzen demonstrate and discuss a method of consistently delineating producers' supply chains, into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive responsibilities to be shared by all agents in an economy. Their method is an approach to allocating responsibility across agents in a fully inter-connected circular system. Upstream and downstream environmental impacts are shared between all agents of a supply chain—producers and consumers. 3389: 371:

adopt these policies it restricts other countries from ignoring the issues. For example, when China stopped importing E-waste from the U.S., a build-up of waste was formed at ports. The lack of infrastructure around recycling E-waste in the US has been possible because of the ability to export and the negligence of producers. The pressure of this growing dump of E-waste forces countries to have their own infrastructure and will force more regulations from the government, state and federal, to be placed on producers.

383:. Others worry that such laws could increase the cost of electronics because producers would add recycling costs into the initial price tag. When companies are required to transport their products to a recycling facility, it can be expensive if the product contains hazardous materials and does not have a scrap value, such as with CRT televisions, which can contain up to five pounds of lead. Organizations and researchers against EPR claim that the mandate would slow innovation and impede technological progress. 4696: 4620: 20: 4684: 4631: 3814: 3112: 249:. The purpose of this directive is to prevent the production of waste electronics and also to encourage reuse and recycling of such waste. The directive requires the Member States to encourage design and production methods that take into account the future dismantling and recovery of their products. These take-back programs have been adopted in nearly every OECD country. In the United States, most of these policies have been implemented at the state level. 3804: 3102: 2588: 312:. Lead is found in the screens of phones, TVs and computer monitors and can damage kidneys, nerves, blood, bones, reproductive organs, and muscles. Mercury is found in flat screen TVs, laptop screens, and fluorescent bulbs, and can cause damage to the kidneys and the nervous system. Brominated flame-retardants found in cables and plastic cases can cause cancer, disruption of liver function, and nerve damage. Cadmium is found in 479:

commodities can have a considerable influence on national greenhouse gas balance sheets. Assuming consumer responsibility, exports have to be subtracted from, and imports added to national greenhouse gas inventories. In Denmark, for example, Munksgaard and Pedersen (2001) report that a significant amount of power and other energy-intensive commodities are traded across Danish borders, and that between 1966 and 1994 the Danish

4048: 3824: 3149: 101:. In subsequent reports prepared for the Ministry, the following definition emerged: " is an environmental protection strategy to reach an environmental objective of a decreased total environmental impact of a product, by making the manufacturer of the product responsible for the entire life-cycle of the product and especially for the take-back, recycling and final disposal." 567:, EPR was launched in 2015 but financing of waste management facilities still largely relies on taxes paid by the Russian population. In 2022, all packaging was supposed to be recycled or else products from companies not respecting the regulation would have been withdrawn from shelves. But the country postponed the reform as several ministers found it unfeasible. 222:, or due to the high costs to local governments of providing such collection services. The primary goals of these take-back laws therefore are to partner with the private sector to ensure that all waste is managed in a way that protects public health and the environment. The goals of take-back laws are to 1520: 570:

In the United Kingdom an extended producer responsibility system is going to be implemented over the coming years. The government has already shared guidance with those most affected. The core issue is with identifying a way to encourage polluters to take on the responsibility rather than pass on the

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Other critics are concerned that manufacturers may use takeback programs to take secondhand electronics off the reuse market, by shredding rather than reusing or repairing goods that come in for recycling. Another argument against EPR is that EPR policies are not accelerating environmentally friendly

186:

and recycling schemes. Product stewardship organizations like PRO Europe are intended to relieve industrial companies and commercial enterprises of their individual obligation to take back used products through the operation of an organization which fulfills these obligations on a nationwide basis on

603:

In the United States, EPR is gaining popularity "with 40 such laws enacted since 2008. In 2010 alone, 38 such EPR bills were introduced in state legislatures across the United States, and 12 were signed into law." However, these laws are at the state level: there are no federal laws for EPR. So far,

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was reduced from 94.7 kg to 82 kg, resulting in a reduction of 13.4%". Furthermore, due to Germany's influence in EPR, the "European Commission developed one waste directive" for all EU member states (Hanisch 2000). One major goal was to have all member states recycle "25% of all packaging material"

574:

In India, the E-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011 introduced the concept of EPR for the first time, while the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2016 set more stringent targets for collection of end-of-life products and simplified the process of applying for EPR authorization. In 2016, government

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reporting include only impacts that arise out of operations controlled by the reporting company, and not supply-chain impacts According to this world view, "upstream and downstream impacts are ... allocated to their immediate producers. The institutional setting and the different actors' spheres of

370:

One of the advantages of EPR is that it becomes more and more effective as the EPR policy puts pressure on countries that export their E-waste. The regulation of this E-waste forces infrastructure to deal with the waste or implement new ways of creating products from the producers. As more countries

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have enforced legislation or restrictions on a wider range of products and materials under EPR programs. "Nine out of ten provinces have EPR programs or requirements in place... As a result of these new programs or requirements and expansion of existing ones, almost half of the product categories

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The Canada-Wide Action Plan for Extended Producer Responsibility (CAP-EPR) was adopted in Canada in 2009 under the guidance of the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. The CAP-EPR followed years of waste and recycling efforts in Canada that remained largely ineffective as the diversion

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as contributions of producing industries located in a particular country rather than as embodiments in products consumed by a particular population, irrespective of productive origin. However, especially for open economies, taking into account the greenhouse gases embodied in internationally traded

320:

In the United States, 25 states have implemented laws that require the recycling of electronic waste. Of those, 23 have incorporated some form of extended producer responsibility into their laws. According to analysis done by the Product Stewardship Institute, some states have not enacted EPR laws

457:

not to interfere with consumers' preferences that the producer-centric representation is the dominant form of viewing the environmental impacts of industrial production: in statistics on energy, emissions, water, etc., impacts are almost always presented as attributes of industries ("on-site" or

244:

Take-back programs help promote these goals by creating incentives for companies to design products that minimize waste management costs, to design products that contain safer materials (so they do not need to be managed separately), or to design products that are easier to recycle and reuse (so

504:

management system stated in for example ISO 14001, it is insufficient to merely report on the carbon dioxide emissions limited to the judicial borders of the company". 7 "Companies must recognise their wider responsibility and manage the entire life-cycle of their products ... Insisting on high

61:

Extended producer responsibility legislation is a driving force behind the adoption of remanufacturing initiatives because it "focuses on the end-of-use treatment of consumer products and has the primary aim to increase the amount and degree of product recovery and to minimize the environmental

332:

Advocates for EPR also argue that including "high expectations for performance" into the laws, and ensuring that those are only minimum requirements, contribute to making the laws successful. The larger the scope of products that can be collected, the more e-waste will be disposed of properly.

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On the other hand, a number of studies have highlighted that final consumption and affluence, especially in the industrialised world, are the main drivers for the level and growth of environmental pressure. Even though these studies provide a clear incentive for complementing producer-focused

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argues that EPR is not clear in the way fees are established for the particular recycling processes. Fees are set in place to help incentivize recycling, but this may deter the use of manufacturing with better materials for the different electronic products. There are not set fees for certain

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and can cause kidney damage and cancer. Poorer countries are dumping grounds for e-waste as many governments accept money for disposing of this waste on their lands. This causes increased health risks for people in these countries, especially ones who work or live close to these dumps.

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developed from a 7 Mt deficit to a 7 Mt surplus, compared to total emissions of approximately 60 Mt. In particular, electricity traded between Norway, Sweden and Denmark is subject to large annual fluctuations due to varying rainfall in Norway and Sweden. In wet years Denmark imports

245:

recycling becomes more profitable). The earliest take-back activity began in Europe, where government-sponsored take-back initiatives arose from concerns about scarce landfill space and potentially hazardous substances in component parts. The European Union adopted a directive on

1514: 172:, obliging producers, importers and/or sellers to internalise waste management costs in their product prices and ensure the safe handling of their products. However, different stakeholders perceive the concept and the role of producers in various ways. 217:

their products from end users at the end of the products' useful life, or partially financing a collection and recycling infrastructure. These policies were adopted due to the lack of collection infrastructure for certain products that contain

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through the Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016. In the Indian system, the trading mechanism is similar to the carbon trading mechanism, where EPR certificates are generated and traded further between the producers and brand owners.

823:

Tasaki, Tomohiro; Tojo, Naoko; Lindhqvist, Thomas (2019). "Differences in Perception of Extended Producer Responsibility and Product Stewardship among Stakeholders: An International Questionnaire Survey and Statistical Analysis".

363:, and more easily recyclable electronics. Using fewer materials and designing products to last longer can directly reduce producers' end-of-life costs. Thus, extended producer responsibility is often cited as one way to fight 204:

published a guidance manual about EPR in 2001 after several years of discussion by experts in this field, and updated it in 2016 to include developing countries' perspectives, based on experiences and policy changes.

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trademark of which PRO Europe is the general licensor. In twenty-five nations, companies are now using the Green Dot as the financing symbol for the organization of recovery, sorting and recycling of sales packaging.

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whereas electricity from coal-fired power plants is exported in dry years. The official Danish emissions inventory includes a correction for electricity trade and thus applies the consumer responsibility principle.

187:

behalf of their member companies. The aim is to ensure the recovery and recycling of packaging waste in the most economically efficient and ecologically sound manner. In many countries, this is done through the

607:

From 2022, if the product is sold in France or Germany, Marketplaces must confirm that the manufacturer complies with the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) rules in the country where it sells the product.

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designs because "manufacturers are already starting to moving toward reduced material-use per unit of output, reduced energy use in making and delivering each product, and improved environmental performance."

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Spangenberg, J. H. and S. Lorek (2002). Environmentally sustainable household consumption: from aggregate environmental pressures to priority fields of action. Ecological Economics, 43, pp. 127-140.

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China banned the import of e-waste in 2000, and adopted EPR in 2012. This has proven to be difficult, however, because illegal smuggling of waste still occurs in the country. In order to dispose of

532:. An advanced recycling fee is charged to those who purchase a new vehicle and is used to fund the recycling of it at the end of its useful life. The PRO was set up to satisfy the European Union's 1576: 1246: 470:

The nexus created by the different views on impacts caused by industrial production is exemplified by several contributions to the discussion about producer or consumer responsibility for

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has taken steps to address some electronic waste management issues. They have restricted the use of harmful substances in member countries and have made it illegal to export waste.

322: 1151: 1041: 1115: 1489: 714:

Nakajima, N., & Vanderburg, W. H. (2006). A description and analysis of the German packaging take-back system. Bulletin of Science, Technology, & Society, 6:6.

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Gallego, B. and M. Lenzen (2005). A consistent input-output formulation of shared producer and consumer responsibility. Economic Systems Research, 17(4), pp. 365-391.

1425: 2084: 539:

The Swiss Association for Information, Communication and Organisational Technology (SWICO), an ICT industry organisation, became a PRO to address the problem of

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When producers face either the financial or physical burden of recycling their electronics after use, they may be incentivized to design more sustainable, less

329:

programs have done so because they have developed a convenient e-waste infrastructure or the state governments have instituted goals for manufacturers to meet.

1642: 4534: 1788:

Cerin, P. (2005) Environmental Strategies in Industry: Turning Business Incentives into Sustainability. Report 5455. Swedish Environmental Protection Agency.

767: 467:

environmental policy with some consideration for consumption-related aspects, demand-side measures to address environmental problems are rarely exploited.

347:

today, a license is required and plants are held responsible for treating pollution. EPR laws in the U.S. still allow e-waste to be exported to China. The

125:, which shares responsibility across the chain of custody of a product, in that it attempts to relieve local governments of the costs of managing certain 4470: 337: 2046: 1839: 213:

In response to the growing problem of excessive waste, several countries adopted waste management policies in which manufacturers are responsible for

348: 293:, TVs, computers, and printers. Many governments have partnered with corporations in creating the necessary collection and recycling infrastructure. 168:(PRO), which is paid by the producer for used-product management. In this way, EPR shifts the responsibility for waste management from government to 3664: 379:

Some people have concerns about extended producer responsibility programs for complex electronics that can be difficult to safely recycle, such as

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because of a lack of recycling infrastructure and funds for proper e-waste disposal. In contrast, according to a study of EPR legislation by the

1452: 3274: 2139: 1720:

World Business Council on Sustainable Development a World Resources Institute (2001). The Greenhouse Gas Protocol. Conches-Geneva, Switzerland.

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A good example of a producer responsibility organization is PRO Europe S.P.R.L. (Packaging Recovery Organisation Europe), founded in 1995, the

4455: 1395: 1213: 958: 458:"direct" allocation) rather than as attributes of the supply chains of products for consumers. On a smaller scale, most existing schemes for 1312: 3834: 2184: 1616: 55: 1779:

Cerin, P. and L. Karlson (2002). Business incentives for sustainability: a property rights approach. Ecological Economics, 40, pp. 13-22.

1597:

Gattuso, Dana, and Joel Schwartz. "Extended Producer Responsibility." Reason Foundation. Reason Foundation, 1 June 2002. Web. 5 May 2015.

688:

Johnson, Michael R.; McCarthy, Ian P. (2014-10-01). "Product recovery decisions within the context of Extended Producer Responsibility".

587:, the polluter-pays principle was introduced on January 1, 2023. Thus, the costs of recycling are paid by the companies that produce it. 4302: 3565: 1760:

Danish Environmental Protection Agency (1998). Denmark's Second National Communication on Climate Change submitted under the UN FCCC.

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Hanisch, Carola. "Is Extended Producer Responsibility Effective?" Environmental Science & Technology 34.7 (2000): 170A-75A. Web.

1140: 2414: 929:

Linda Roeder, Hazardous Waste: Advocacy Group Recommendations Promote Manufacturer Responsibility, DAILY ENV"T REP., March 16, 2004

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rates from landfills and incineration persisted. Despite three decades worth of recycling efforts, Canada fell short of many other

1076:

Reagan, Robert (March 15, 2015). "A Comparison of E-Waste Extended Producer Responsibility Laws in the European Union and China".

982: 4564: 3548: 1516:

Extended Producer Responsibility in Cleaner Production: Policy Principle to Promote Environmental Improvements of Product Systems

1344: 1111: 3828: 3388: 3270: 3240: 1545: 1481: 1020: 4721: 4465: 4312: 3528: 3333: 2024: 1285: 4579: 2788: 2758: 1907: 809:

International Survey on Stakeholders' Perception of the Concept of Extended Producer Responsibility and Product Stewardship

98: 1893: 1048: 742: 3180: 2482: 4322: 1421: 1268:

Zhong, Hua; Zhao, Chen (2012-07-30). "E-waste Deposit system under EPR in China: A view from closed-loop supply chain".

4731: 4645: 4640: 3561: 3512: 2232: 528:

Auto Recycling Nederland (ARN) is a producer responsibility organisation (PRO) that organises vehicle recycling in the

2081: 4297: 3900: 3278: 2113: 1864: 905: 672: 2014: 277:

Many governments and companies have adopted extended producer responsibility to help address the growing problem of

3135: 2177: 860:"PRO EUROPE is the umbrella organisation for European packaging and packaging waste recovery and recycling schemes" 164:, or recycling program. The producer may also choose to delegate this responsibility to a third party, a so-called 775: 4362: 4352: 4267: 4117: 3867: 3524: 3520: 3502: 3431: 3248: 2798: 2242: 2237: 286: 281:—used electrical and electronic equipment that contains materials that cannot be safely thrown away with regular 796:

Hanisch, C. (2000). Is Extended Producer Responsibility Effective?. Environ Sci Technol, 34 (7), pp.170 A-175 A.

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The kinds of chemicals found in e-waste that are particularly dangerous to human health and the environment are

4460: 4337: 4292: 3817: 3774: 3769: 3262: 3173: 3125: 2810: 1738:

Princen, T. (1999). Consumption and environment: some conceptual issues. Ecological Economics, 31, pp. 347-363.

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Directive 2002/96/EC of 27 January 2003 on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), 203 O.J. (l 37) 46

604:"only a handful of states have imposed five to six EPR laws as well as 32 states having at least one EPR law". 533: 265:. An alternative to these policies would be to increase extended producer responsibility. In the US, under the 23:

Tires are an example the products subject to extended producer responsibility in many industrialized countries.

867: 4357: 4317: 4282: 3764: 3378: 3130: 3120: 3022: 2803: 2373: 1369: 395:

materials, so confusion occurs when companies do not know what design features to include in their devices.

4655: 4650: 4445: 4382: 4372: 3709: 3196: 2831: 2783: 2313: 1828: 513: 723:

Thomas Lindhqvist and Karl Lidgren, "Models for Extended Producer Responsibility" in Sweden, October 1990.

74: 4716: 4569: 4539: 4392: 4287: 4277: 4272: 4122: 3940: 3739: 3632: 3595: 3569: 3472: 3142: 2717: 2257: 2170: 380: 161: 4726: 4674: 4423: 4397: 4387: 4377: 4347: 4327: 4157: 3679: 3623: 3557: 3457: 3436: 3153: 2738: 2641: 2409: 2323: 420: 412: 305: 4440: 4367: 4332: 4307: 3704: 3553: 3417: 2702: 2212: 1672:

Jenkins, Stuart; Kuijper, Margriet; Helferty, Hugh; Girardin, Cécile; Allen, Myles (1 January 2023).

633: 3734: 3642: 3605: 3574: 3487: 3441: 3244: 3200: 2609: 2424: 2333: 2272: 952:"Extended Producer Responsibility An examination of its impact on innovation and greening products" 471: 459: 114: 1205: 951: 419:; in particular, authors suggested the responsibility could be used to establish the financing of 237:

correct market signals to the consumer by incorporating waste management costs into product price;

4482: 3789: 3779: 3729: 3373: 3368: 3047: 2557: 2475: 2439: 2429: 2368: 2363: 2308: 1751:

accounts for open economies: producer or consumer responsibility. Energy Policy, 29, pp. 327-334.

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Nash, Jennifer, and Christopher Bosso. "Extended Producer Responsibility in the United States."

1764: 1608: 4192: 3783: 3754: 3516: 3323: 3087: 2931: 2886: 2743: 2651: 2277: 2252: 428: 313: 3992: 3972: 3744: 3543: 3462: 3353: 3318: 2876: 2871: 2778: 2773: 2512: 2499: 2353: 2267: 2098:

Extended producer responsibility policies in the United States and Canada: history and status

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In Germany, since the adoption of EPR, "between 1991 and 1998, the per capita consumption of

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EPR has been implemented in many forms, which may be classified into three major approaches:

176: 118: 2106:

Governance of integrated product policy: in search of sustainable production and consumption

4594: 4342: 4187: 4092: 3749: 3684: 3258: 3082: 3072: 2624: 2596: 2419: 2358: 2338: 2287: 2227: 2144: 1975: 1685: 1348: 1175: 1013:"Extending Producer Responsibility: An Evaluation Framework for Product Take-Back Policies" 404: 364: 70: 3165: 8: 4554: 4142: 4062: 4007: 3905: 3892: 3860: 3845: 3719: 3669: 3628: 3363: 3236: 3032: 2896: 2846: 2793: 2763: 2753: 2748: 2712: 2604: 2507: 2328: 556: 501: 122: 35: 16:

Strategy designed to promote the integration of environmental costs associated with goods

1979: 1689: 4700: 4624: 4599: 4544: 4450: 4239: 4209: 3925: 3807: 3579: 3507: 3412: 3358: 3115: 3105: 2976: 2955: 2921: 2866: 2768: 2631: 2517: 2468: 2404: 2388: 2383: 2193: 1291: 1093: 990: 841: 807: 560:

for Phase 1 are now covered by legislated EPR programs or requirements across Canada."

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products by holding producers responsible for the costs of managing their products at

4503: 4433: 4428: 4413: 4204: 4172: 4167: 4147: 4087: 4012: 3803: 3759: 3497: 3427: 3397: 3343: 3222: 3101: 2916: 2906: 2851: 2676: 2666: 2614: 2552: 2207: 2109: 2096: 2069: 2020: 2001: 1993: 1865:"Progress Report on the Canada-Wide Action Plan for Extender Producer Responsibility" 1703: 1281: 1097: 901: 845: 701: 668: 489: 391: 326: 301: 183: 94: 1541: 1295: 732:

Thomas Lindhqvist, "Towards an - analysis of experiences and proposals", April 1992.

620:, when sellers or manufacturers accept returns of products at the end of their lives 403:

A study suggests that applying the principle of extended producer responsibility to

133:

within the product price. EPR is based on the principle that manufacturers (usually

4487: 4418: 4259: 4229: 4219: 4177: 4152: 4132: 4127: 3967: 3935: 3930: 3910: 3884: 3308: 3077: 3067: 2951: 2926: 2826: 2646: 2619: 2567: 2542: 2532: 2527: 2449: 2303: 2065: 2061: 1983: 1693: 1273: 1085: 1012: 893: 833: 697: 660: 540: 360: 344: 278: 169: 126: 47: 1089: 4589: 4513: 4249: 4244: 4214: 4112: 4097: 4002: 3997: 3957: 3477: 3407: 3313: 3283: 3232: 3227: 3211: 3062: 3027: 2971: 2966: 2946: 2707: 2656: 2577: 2547: 2537: 2434: 2378: 2088: 1768: 890:

Extended Producer Responsibility: Updated Guidance for Efficient Waste Management

408: 258: 180: 1277: 4635: 4508: 4182: 4162: 4072: 4032: 3920: 3853: 3348: 3203: 3007: 2901: 2881: 2671: 2636: 2318: 2140:

Reforming Water Use Rights in Canterbury: A Shared Responsibilities Perspective

1698: 1673: 750: 548: 497: 454: 138: 692:. Engineering and Technology Management for Sustainable Business Development. 4710: 4695: 4619: 4574: 4234: 3982: 3694: 3052: 3042: 2911: 2861: 2722: 2692: 2661: 2572: 2444: 2073: 1997: 1707: 897: 664: 576: 512:, and assigning environmental impacts to producers and consumers can lead to 508:

EPR has rarely been consistently quantified. Moreover, applying conventional

231: 51: 19: 2149: 1643:"Fossil fuel producers must be forced to 'take back' carbon, say scientists" 920:

James Sallzman, Sustainable Consumption and the Law, 27ENVTL. L. 1274 (1997)

4518: 4224: 4102: 4082: 4027: 3674: 3288: 3012: 2981: 2841: 2005: 1638: 1234: 262: 43: 2091:, published by the Grocery Manufacturers Association (US), September 2012. 351:(IEEE) has also proposed a deposit-refund system dealt with by producers. 4549: 4199: 4037: 3952: 3915: 3298: 3253: 2986: 2936: 2836: 2522: 2016:

Extended Producer Responsibility: A Materials Policy for the 21st Century

1042:"Public Policy Approaches for the Reduction of Plastic Bag Marine Debris" 771: 529: 1239:"Eight Million Tons of Illegal E-Waste is Smuggled into China Each Year" 4688: 4604: 3962: 3947: 3638: 3422: 3037: 2991: 2891: 2282: 1482:"Could the Chinese National Sword inspire global recycling innovation?" 1011:

Toffel, Michael W.; Stein, Antoinette; Lee, Katharine L. (2008-01-01).

837: 336:

Similar laws have been passed in other parts of the world as well. The

290: 2134: 1988: 1963: 4584: 4137: 3876: 3724: 3648: 3538: 3533: 3452: 3447: 3328: 2961: 2491: 2262: 2162: 2082:

Evaluation of Extended Producer Responsibility for Consumer Packaging

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Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development 2001, p. 21-22

596: 214: 142: 130: 110: 4683: 4107: 4067: 3987: 3699: 3689: 2697: 2587: 2222: 2047:"Shared producer and consumer responsibility — Theory and practice" 859: 657:

Extended Producer Responsibility: A Guidance Manual for Governments

617: 146: 66: 1373: 261:, and taxation fails to adequately reduce the pollution caused by 4077: 3017: 2247: 584: 309: 282: 4047: 2129: 4022: 3977: 3467: 3338: 2343: 1908:"Packaging waste: prepare for extended producer responsibility" 564: 496:

Similarly, at the company level, "when adopting the concept of

90: 46:

of that product, contemporarily mainly applied in the field of

2044: 1829:"Canada-Wide Action Plan for Extended Producer Responsibility" 1671: 1422:"Annie Leonard interview & "Story of Electronics" release" 1396:"The Light Bulb Conspiracy: The Story of Planned Obsolescence" 4017: 3880: 3615: 3057: 2941: 2562: 2217: 1806:

Environment Protection Authority New South Wales 2003, p. 2-4

227: 157: 134: 2460: 1313:"Basic Information | Product Stewardship | US EPA" 453:

It is perhaps because of the tendency of economic policy in

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Fishbein, Bette; Ehrenfeld, John; Young, John (June 2000).

552: 475: 416: 297: 246: 201: 145:

and have the greatest ability and responsibility to reduce

3875: 1964:"Assessing Extended Producer Responsibility Laws in Japan" 806:

Tasaki, Tomohiro; Tojo, Naoko; Lindhqvist, Thomas (2015).

3600: 1894:"Russia postpones recycling and waste management reform" 2145:

Extended Producer Responsibility (in the EEE industry)

2012: 1961: 129:

by requiring manufacturers to internalize the cost of

73:

but also the most effective means of achieving higher

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countries. Since the CAP-EPR's 2009 inception, most

2103: 1929: 1927: 1674:"Extended producer responsibility for fossil fuels" 4535:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future 1569:"Mayor Calls Electronics Recycling Bill 'Illegal'" 54:to market mechanisms, with a common example being 349:Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers 4708: 2045:Lenzen, M; J Murray; F Sack; T Wiedmann (2007). 1924: 1872:Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment 1836:Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment 1345:"Reason Foundation Commentary: E-Waste Politics" 690:Journal of Engineering and Technology Management 247:Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) 109:Extended producer responsibility uses financial 3715:Environmental, social, and corporate governance 983:"Proceedings - Extended Product Responsibility" 687: 325:(ETBC), states that have seen success in their 1010: 3861: 3181: 2476: 2178: 2154: 2094: 1941: 1939: 1141:"Ten Lessons Learned from State E-Waste Laws" 762: 760: 89:The concept was first formally introduced in 1747:Munksgaard, J. and K. A. Pedersen (2001). CO 34:) is a strategy to add all of the estimated 1962:Ogushi, Yasuhiko; Milind Kandlikar (2007). 240:promote innovation in recycling technology. 226:encourage companies to design products for 3868: 3854: 3188: 3174: 2483: 2469: 2185: 2171: 1936: 1512: 757: 1987: 1823: 1821: 1762:Danish Ministry of Environment and Energy 1697: 1267: 38:associated with a product throughout the 2415:Earth systems engineering and management 1606: 1339: 1337: 1335: 1333: 1203: 289:, people threw away 2.5 million tons of 195: 18: 4565:High-level radioactive waste management 3549:Pollutant release and transfer register 137:owners) have the greatest control over 65:Passing responsibility to producers as 4709: 2192: 1968:Environmental Science & Technology 1818: 1637: 1566: 1307: 1305: 1075: 1017:Harvard Business School Working Papers 3849: 3334:Principles for Responsible Investment 3169: 2464: 2166: 2153: 1653:from the original on 17 February 2023 1508: 1506: 1453:"Building capacity for EPR in the US" 1447: 1445: 1443: 1330: 1233: 1135: 1133: 1071: 1069: 946: 944: 474:. Emissions data are reported to the 113:to encourage manufacturers to design 4580:Sewage regulation and administration 3823: 3148: 2104:Scheer, Dirk; Frieder Rubik (2006). 1402:from the original on 30 January 2012 1078:Vermont Journal of Environmental Law 887: 659:. Paris: OECD Publications Service. 654: 650: 648: 600:and the goal has been accomplished. 575:expanded the EPR approach to tackle 166:producer responsibility organization 121:. This policy approach differs from 50:. Such societal costs are typically 1619:from the original on August 4, 2016 1542:"Why do CRT monitors contain lead?" 1393: 1362: 1302: 768:"Producer Responsibility Recycling" 571:cost to suppliers or end consumers 13: 3513:Environmental full-cost accounting 2233:Environmental full-cost accounting 2095:Sheehan, Bill; Spiegelman, Helen, 1955: 1845:from the original on March 6, 2018 1609:"Extended Producer Responsibility" 1579:from the original on 19 April 2012 1503: 1440: 1130: 1114:. Electronics Takeback Coalition. 1066: 941: 743:"Extended Producer Responsibility" 14: 4743: 2123: 1544:. How Stuff Works. 12 July 2001. 1249:from the original on May 21, 2016 1204:Toothman, Jessika (4 June 2008). 645: 434: 4694: 4682: 4630: 4629: 4618: 4560:Extended producer responsibility 4046: 3822: 3813: 3812: 3802: 3387: 3294:Extended producer responsibility 3147: 3111: 3110: 3100: 2857:Extended producer responsibility 2586: 2349:Extended producer responsibility 1567:Rivera, Ray (15 February 2008). 1118:from the original on 5 June 2012 1112:"Manufacturer Takeback Programs" 702:10.1016/j.jengtecman.2013.11.002 374: 97:in a 1990 report to the Swedish 28:Extended producer responsibility 4118:Mechanical biological treatment 3503:Eco-Management and Audit Scheme 2243:Environmental management system 2238:Environmental impact assessment 1900: 1886: 1857: 1809: 1800: 1791: 1782: 1773: 1754: 1741: 1732: 1723: 1714: 1665: 1631: 1607:Schwartz, Joel (June 1, 2002). 1600: 1591: 1560: 1548:from the original on 3 May 2012 1534: 1523:from the original on 2020-03-02 1492:from the original on 2020-03-02 1474: 1463:from the original on 2019-12-08 1428:from the original on 9 May 2013 1414: 1387: 1261: 1227: 1216:from the original on 2016-06-01 1197: 1186:from the original on 2016-06-23 1168: 1157:from the original on 2021-03-23 1104: 1034: 1023:from the original on 2019-02-21 1004: 975: 964:from the original on 2017-08-29 932: 923: 914: 881: 870:from the original on 2021-01-28 852: 816: 398: 287:Environmental Protection Agency 252: 3775:Socially responsible marketing 3770:Socially responsible investing 2066:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2006.05.018 1678:Environmental Research Letters 1148:Electronics TakeBack Coalition 799: 790: 735: 726: 717: 708: 681: 534:End of Life Vehicles Directive 463:influence are not reflected". 323:Electronics TakeBack Coalition 272: 1: 3765:Socially responsible business 3023:Container-deposit legislation 2490: 2135:Container Recycling Institute 2130:Product Stewardship Institute 1947:Journal of Industrial Ecology 1180:Product Stewardship Institute 1090:10.2307/vermjenvilaw.16.4.662 826:Journal of Industrial Ecology 639: 381:lithium-ion polymer batteries 354: 104: 4722:Products and the environment 3710:Environmental pricing reform 3241:environmental responsibility 285:. In 2007, according to the 208: 62:impact of waste materials". 7: 4570:History of waste management 3740:Market governance mechanism 3596:Global Reporting Initiative 3566:standards and certification 3473:Social return on investment 2718:Materials recovery facility 2258:Integrated chain management 1519:(Thesis). Lund University. 1513:Lindhqvist, Thomas (2000). 1278:10.1109/ICSSSM.2012.6252228 1019:. Harvard Business School. 611: 523: 306:brominated flame-retardants 179:for European packaging and 156:EPR may take the form of a 99:Ministry of the Environment 10: 4748: 4158:fluorescent lamp recycling 3680:Community interest company 3624:Community-based monitoring 3458:Genuine progress indicator 2324:Eco-industrial development 892:. Paris: OECD Publishing. 590: 234:, and materials reduction; 4732:Waste management concepts 4613: 4527: 4496: 4406: 4258: 4055: 4044: 3891: 3798: 3705:Environmental degradation 3657: 3614: 3588: 3554:Sustainability accounting 3486: 3418:Ethical positioning index 3396: 3385: 3210: 3096: 3000: 2819: 2731: 2685: 2595: 2584: 2498: 2397: 2296: 2200: 2160: 2155:Links to related articles 1949:17.2 (2013): 175-85. Web. 1615:. The Reason Foundation. 634:Personal carbon allowance 84: 4540:China's waste import ban 3735:Health impact assessment 3606:Sustainability reporting 3575:Toxics Release Inventory 3369:Transparency (behavioral 3344:Social impact assessment 3233:Corporate accountability 2425:Ecological modernization 2334:Ecological modernization 2273:Life-cycle cost analysis 2108:. Greenleaf Publishing. 1699:10.1088/1748-9326/aca4e8 898:10.1787/9789264256385-en 665:10.1787/9789264189867-en 472:greenhouse gas emissions 460:corporate sustainability 115:environmentally friendly 69:is not only a matter of 3901:Agricultural wastewater 3790:Supply chain management 3730:Global justice movement 3529:profit-and-loss account 3048:Reverse vending machine 2440:Sustainable development 2430:Environmental economics 2369:Precautionary principle 2364:Polluter pays principle 2309:Cradle-to-cradle design 1176:"Map of State EPR Laws" 455:market-driven economies 75:environmental standards 4625:Environment portal 4303:Bosnia and Herzegovina 4193:water recycling shower 3755:SDG Publishers Compact 3517:Environmental conflict 3324:Organizational justice 3088:Water recycling shower 2932:Reuse of human excreta 2902:Recycling (ecological) 2887:Material flow analysis 2410:Design for environment 2278:Material flow analysis 1575:. The New York Times. 1424:. Nourish the Spirit. 429:nature-based solutions 314:rechargeable batteries 24: 3993:Municipal solid waste 3973:Industrial wastewater 3745:Product certification 3544:Life-cycle assessment 3463:Performance indicator 3354:Social responsibility 3319:Organizational ethics 3249:social responsibility 2877:Interchangeable parts 2872:Industrial metabolism 2354:Industrial metabolism 2268:Life-cycle assessment 2213:Cost–benefit analysis 1398:. Eco Walk the Talk. 1237:(February 28, 2014). 1098:vermjenvilaw.16.4.662 629:Environmental justice 624:Life-cycle assessment 518:input-output analysis 510:life cycle assessment 481:foreign trade balance 196:OECD guidance manuals 177:umbrella organization 22: 4188:water heat recycling 4093:Garden waste dumping 3750:Public participation 3685:Conflict of interest 3275:inequality in the UK 3267:in the United States 3259:Environmental racism 3083:Water heat recycling 3073:Waste management law 2420:Ecological economics 2359:Industrial symbiosis 2339:Efficient energy use 2288:Stakeholder analysis 2228:Ecological footprint 2054:Ecological Economics 1272:. pp. 239–243. 500:and the scope of an 365:planned obsolescence 71:environmental policy 4555:Eco-industrial park 4143:appliance recycling 4063:Anaerobic digestion 4008:Post-consumer waste 3906:Biodegradable waste 3720:Ethical consumerism 3670:Benefit corporation 3562:metrics and indices 3364:Sullivan principles 3279:injustice in Europe 3033:Ethical consumerism 2967:Urban lumberjacking 2897:Product stewardship 2847:Eco-industrial park 2329:Eco-industrial park 1980:2007EnST...41.4502O 1896:. 10 December 2021. 1690:2023ERL....18a1005J 1641:(12 January 2023). 1486:recycling.tomra.com 1370:"EPR Working Group" 1206:"How E-waste Works" 220:hazardous materials 123:product stewardship 36:environmental costs 4717:Industrial ecology 4600:Waste minimisation 4545:Cleaner production 4210:Reusable packaging 4123:Mechanical sorting 3926:Construction waste 3808:Environment portal 3580:Triple bottom line 3508:Emission inventory 3413:Double bottom line 3359:Stakeholder theory 3106:Environment portal 2977:Waste minimisation 2922:Reusable packaging 2867:Industrial ecology 2405:Cleaner production 2389:Waste valorization 2384:Waste minimisation 2253:Input–output model 2194:Industrial ecology 2087:2016-08-08 at the 1767:2009-09-08 at the 1394:Prakash, Bhavani. 838:10.1111/jiec.12815 267:Clinton presidency 56:the impact of cars 40:product life cycle 25: 4727:Waste legislation 4670: 4669: 4664: 4663: 4595:Waste legislation 4504:Sanitation worker 4478:London Convention 4414:Bamako Convention 4205:Resource recovery 4173:textile recycling 4168:plastic recycling 4148:battery recycling 4088:Ecological design 4013:Radioactive waste 3843: 3842: 3760:Social enterprise 3665:Bangladesh Accord 3525:management system 3521:impact assessment 3498:Carbon accounting 3428:Impact assessment 3379:UN Global Compact 3271:in Western Europe 3223:Aarhus Convention 3163: 3162: 2917:Resource recovery 2907:Refill (campaign) 2852:Ecological design 2832:Dematerialization 2642:Fluorescent lamps 2458: 2457: 2314:Dematerialization 2208:Agent-based model 2026:978-0-918780-73-7 1989:10.1021/es072561x 1974:(13): 4502–4508. 1613:Reason Foundation 1287:978-1-4577-2025-3 987:clinton2.nara.gov 490:hydro-electricity 415:at an affordable 407:could deconflict 392:Reason Foundation 327:e-waste recycling 127:priority products 95:Thomas Lindhqvist 4739: 4699: 4698: 4687: 4686: 4678: 4633: 4632: 4623: 4622: 4488:OSPAR Convention 4419:Basel Convention 4230:Waste collection 4220:Sewage treatment 4178:timber recycling 4153:bottle recycling 4133:Reclaimed lumber 4128:Photodegradation 4050: 3968:Industrial waste 3936:Electronic waste 3931:Demolition waste 3911:Biomedical waste 3885:waste management 3870: 3863: 3856: 3847: 3846: 3826: 3825: 3816: 3815: 3806: 3391: 3309:Little Eichmanns 3190: 3183: 3176: 3167: 3166: 3151: 3150: 3114: 3113: 3104: 3078:Waste management 3068:Waste collection 2927:Reuse of bottles 2827:Circular economy 2804:Northern Ireland 2590: 2485: 2478: 2471: 2462: 2461: 2450:Urban metabolism 2304:Circular economy 2187: 2180: 2173: 2164: 2163: 2151: 2150: 2119: 2101: 2077: 2051: 2041: 2039: 2038: 2029:. Archived from 2009: 1991: 1950: 1943: 1934: 1931: 1922: 1921: 1919: 1918: 1904: 1898: 1897: 1890: 1884: 1883: 1881: 1879: 1869: 1861: 1855: 1854: 1852: 1850: 1844: 1838:. October 2009. 1833: 1825: 1816: 1813: 1807: 1804: 1798: 1795: 1789: 1786: 1780: 1777: 1771: 1758: 1752: 1745: 1739: 1736: 1730: 1727: 1721: 1718: 1712: 1711: 1701: 1669: 1663: 1662: 1660: 1658: 1635: 1629: 1628: 1626: 1624: 1604: 1598: 1595: 1589: 1588: 1586: 1584: 1564: 1558: 1557: 1555: 1553: 1538: 1532: 1531: 1529: 1528: 1510: 1501: 1500: 1498: 1497: 1478: 1472: 1471: 1469: 1468: 1449: 1438: 1437: 1435: 1433: 1418: 1412: 1411: 1409: 1407: 1391: 1385: 1384: 1382: 1381: 1372:. Archived from 1366: 1360: 1359: 1357: 1356: 1347:. Archived from 1341: 1328: 1327: 1325: 1324: 1315:. Archived from 1309: 1300: 1299: 1265: 1259: 1258: 1256: 1254: 1231: 1225: 1224: 1222: 1221: 1201: 1195: 1194: 1192: 1191: 1172: 1166: 1165: 1163: 1162: 1156: 1145: 1137: 1128: 1127: 1125: 1123: 1108: 1102: 1101: 1073: 1064: 1063: 1061: 1059: 1054:on June 24, 2016 1053: 1047:. Archived from 1046: 1038: 1032: 1031: 1029: 1028: 1008: 1002: 1001: 999: 998: 989:. Archived from 979: 973: 972: 970: 969: 963: 956: 948: 939: 936: 930: 927: 921: 918: 912: 911: 885: 879: 878: 876: 875: 856: 850: 849: 820: 814: 813: 803: 797: 794: 788: 787: 785: 783: 774:. Archived from 764: 755: 754: 749:. Archived from 739: 733: 730: 724: 721: 715: 712: 706: 705: 685: 679: 678: 652: 541:electronic waste 345:e-waste in China 170:private industry 48:waste management 4747: 4746: 4742: 4741: 4740: 4738: 4737: 4736: 4707: 4706: 4705: 4693: 4681: 4673: 4671: 4666: 4665: 4660: 4636:Category: Waste 4617: 4609: 4590:Waste hierarchy 4523: 4514:Waste collector 4492: 4483:Oslo Convention 4402: 4254: 4250:Waste-to-energy 4245:Waste treatment 4215:Right to repair 4113:Landfill mining 4098:Illegal dumping 4051: 4042: 4003:Packaging waste 3998:Open defecation 3958:Hazardous waste 3887: 3874: 3844: 3839: 3794: 3653: 3610: 3584: 3489: 3482: 3478:Whole-life cost 3408:Corporate crime 3399: 3392: 3383: 3314:Loss and damage 3284:Ethical banking 3228:Climate justice 3215: 3206: 3194: 3164: 3159: 3092: 3063:Waste-to-energy 3028:Dumpster diving 2996: 2972:Waste hierarchy 2947:Right to repair 2815: 2784:The Netherlands 2739:Rate by country 2727: 2681: 2591: 2582: 2494: 2489: 2459: 2454: 2435:Green chemistry 2393: 2379:Waste hierarchy 2292: 2196: 2191: 2156: 2126: 2116: 2089:Wayback Machine 2049: 2036: 2034: 2027: 1958: 1956:Further reading 1953: 1944: 1937: 1932: 1925: 1916: 1914: 1906: 1905: 1901: 1892: 1891: 1887: 1877: 1875: 1867: 1863: 1862: 1858: 1848: 1846: 1842: 1831: 1827: 1826: 1819: 1814: 1810: 1805: 1801: 1796: 1792: 1787: 1783: 1778: 1774: 1769:Wayback Machine 1759: 1755: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1737: 1733: 1728: 1724: 1719: 1715: 1670: 1666: 1656: 1654: 1636: 1632: 1622: 1620: 1605: 1601: 1596: 1592: 1582: 1580: 1565: 1561: 1551: 1549: 1540: 1539: 1535: 1526: 1524: 1511: 1504: 1495: 1493: 1488:. 6 July 2018. 1480: 1479: 1475: 1466: 1464: 1451: 1450: 1441: 1431: 1429: 1420: 1419: 1415: 1405: 1403: 1392: 1388: 1379: 1377: 1368: 1367: 1363: 1354: 1352: 1343: 1342: 1331: 1322: 1320: 1311: 1310: 1303: 1288: 1266: 1262: 1252: 1250: 1232: 1228: 1219: 1217: 1210:How Stuff Works 1202: 1198: 1189: 1187: 1174: 1173: 1169: 1160: 1158: 1154: 1143: 1139: 1138: 1131: 1121: 1119: 1110: 1109: 1105: 1074: 1067: 1057: 1055: 1051: 1044: 1040: 1039: 1035: 1026: 1024: 1009: 1005: 996: 994: 981: 980: 976: 967: 965: 961: 954: 950: 949: 942: 937: 933: 928: 924: 919: 915: 908: 886: 882: 873: 871: 858: 857: 853: 821: 817: 804: 800: 795: 791: 781: 779: 766: 765: 758: 747:Waste to Wealth 741: 740: 736: 731: 727: 722: 718: 713: 709: 686: 682: 675: 653: 646: 642: 614: 593: 526: 514:double-counting 486: 437: 424: 409:energy security 401: 377: 357: 283:household trash 275: 255: 211: 198: 181:packaging waste 107: 87: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4745: 4735: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4704: 4703: 4691: 4668: 4667: 4662: 4661: 4659: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4643: 4638: 4627: 4614: 4611: 4610: 4608: 4607: 4602: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4582: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4562: 4557: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4531: 4529: 4525: 4524: 4522: 4521: 4516: 4511: 4509:Street sweeper 4506: 4500: 4498: 4494: 4493: 4491: 4490: 4485: 4480: 4475: 4474: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4437: 4436: 4421: 4416: 4410: 4408: 4404: 4403: 4401: 4400: 4395: 4393:United Kingdom 4390: 4385: 4380: 4375: 4370: 4365: 4360: 4355: 4350: 4345: 4340: 4335: 4330: 4325: 4320: 4315: 4310: 4305: 4300: 4295: 4290: 4285: 4280: 4275: 4270: 4264: 4262: 4256: 4255: 4253: 4252: 4247: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4227: 4222: 4217: 4212: 4207: 4202: 4197: 4196: 4195: 4190: 4185: 4183:tire recycling 4180: 4175: 4170: 4165: 4163:land recycling 4160: 4155: 4150: 4145: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4120: 4115: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4095: 4090: 4085: 4080: 4075: 4073:Biodegradation 4070: 4065: 4059: 4057: 4053: 4052: 4045: 4043: 4041: 4040: 4035: 4033:Surface runoff 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4005: 4000: 3995: 3990: 3985: 3980: 3975: 3970: 3965: 3960: 3955: 3950: 3945: 3944: 3943: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3921:Chemical waste 3918: 3913: 3908: 3903: 3897: 3895: 3889: 3888: 3873: 3872: 3865: 3858: 3850: 3841: 3840: 3838: 3837: 3832: 3820: 3810: 3799: 3796: 3795: 3793: 3792: 3787: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3747: 3742: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3697: 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2924: 2919: 2914: 2909: 2904: 2899: 2894: 2889: 2884: 2882:Land recycling 2879: 2874: 2869: 2864: 2859: 2854: 2849: 2844: 2839: 2834: 2829: 2823: 2821: 2817: 2816: 2814: 2813: 2808: 2807: 2806: 2799:United Kingdom 2796: 2791: 2786: 2781: 2776: 2771: 2766: 2761: 2756: 2751: 2746: 2741: 2735: 2733: 2729: 2728: 2726: 2725: 2720: 2715: 2710: 2705: 2700: 2695: 2689: 2687: 2683: 2682: 2680: 2679: 2674: 2669: 2664: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2644: 2639: 2634: 2629: 2628: 2627: 2617: 2612: 2610:Automotive oil 2607: 2601: 2599: 2593: 2592: 2585: 2583: 2581: 2580: 2575: 2570: 2565: 2560: 2555: 2550: 2545: 2540: 2535: 2530: 2525: 2520: 2515: 2510: 2504: 2502: 2496: 2495: 2488: 2487: 2480: 2473: 2465: 2456: 2455: 2453: 2452: 2447: 2442: 2437: 2432: 2427: 2422: 2417: 2412: 2407: 2401: 2399: 2398:Related fields 2395: 2394: 2392: 2391: 2386: 2381: 2376: 2374:Rebound effect 2371: 2366: 2361: 2356: 2351: 2346: 2341: 2336: 2331: 2326: 2321: 2319:Eco-efficiency 2316: 2311: 2306: 2300: 2298: 2294: 2293: 2291: 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