Solar thermal collector

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be applied to large-scale water pre-heating. When loads are large relative to the available collector area, the bulk of the water heating can be done at low temperature, lower than swimming pool temperatures where unglazed collectors are well established in the marketplace as the right choice. Because these collectors need not withstand high temperatures, they can use less expensive materials such as plastic or rubber. Many unglazed collectors are made of polypropylene and must be drained fully to avoid freeze damage when air temperatures drop below 44 °F (7 °C) on clear nights. A smaller but growing percentage of unglazed collectors are flexible meaning they can withstand water freezing solid inside their absorber. The freeze concern only needs to be the water-filled piping and collector manifolds in a hard freeze condition. Unglazed solar hot water systems should be installed to "drainback" to a storage tank whenever solar radiation is insufficient. There are no thermal shock concerns with unglazed systems. Commonly used in swimming pool heating since solar energy's early beginnings, unglazed solar collectors heat swimming pool water directly without the need for antifreeze or heat exchangers. Hot water solar systems require heat exchangers due to contamination possibilities and in the case of unglazed collectors, the pressure difference between the solar working fluid (water) and the load (pressurized cold city water). Large-scale unglazed solar hot water heaters, like the one at the Minoru Aquatic Center in Richmond, BC operate at lower temperatures than evacuated tube or boxed and glazed collector systems. Although they require larger, more expensive heat exchangers, all other components including vented storage tanks and uninsulated plastic PVC piping reduce the costs of this alternative dramatically compared to the higher temperature collector types. When heating hot water, we are actually heating cold to warm and warm to hot. We can heat cold to warm as efficiently with unglazed collectors, just as we can heat warm to hot with high-temperature collectors.

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agencies, and Natural Resources Canada developed the feasibility tool RETScreen™ to model the energy savings from transpired solar collectors. Since that time, several thousand transpired solar collector systems have been installed in a variety of commercial, industrial, institutional, agricultural, and process applications in countries around the world. This technology was originally used primarily in industrial applications such as manufacturing and assembly plants where there were high ventilation requirements, stratified ceiling heat, and often negative pressure in the building. With the increasing drive to install renewable energy systems on buildings, transpired solar collectors are now used across the entire building stock because of high energy production (up to 750 peak thermal Watts/square metre), high solar conversion (up to 90%) and lower capital costs when compared against solar photovoltaic and solar water heating.

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plate collectors are the preferred devices for heating swimming pool water. Unglazed collectors may be suitable in tropical or subtropical environments if domestic hot water needs to be heated by less than 20 °C (36 °F) over ambient temperature. Evacuated tube collectors have less aerodynamic drag, which may allow for a simpler installation on roofs in windy locations. The gaps between the tubes may allow for snow to fall through the collector, minimizing the loss of production in some snowy conditions, though the lack of radiated heat from the tubes can also prevent effective shedding of accumulated snow. Flat plate collectors might be easier to clean. Other properties, such as appearance and ease of installation are more subjective and difficult to compare.

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between water in the collector and the ambient temperature. Q = insolation during the measurements. Firstly, as (Tm-Ta) increases the flat plate collector loses efficiency more rapidly than the evac tube collector. This means the flat plate collector is less efficient in producing water higher than 25 degrees C above ambient (i.e. to the right of the red marks on the graph). Secondly, even though the output of both collectors drop off strongly under cloudy conditions (low insolation), the evac tube collector yields significantly more energy under cloudiness than the flat plate collector. Although many factors obstruct the extrapolation from two collectors to two different technologies, above, the basic relationships between their efficiencies remain valid.

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freezing, so if they are water filled they must be carefully plumbed so they completely drain using gravity before freezing is expected so that they do not crack. Many metal collectors are installed as part of a sealed heat exchanger system. Rather than having potable water flow directly through the collectors, a mixture of water and antifreeze such as propylene glycol is used. A heat exchange fluid protects against freeze damage down to a locally determined risk temperature that depends on the proportion of propylene glycol in the mixture. The use of glycol lowers the water's heat carrying capacity marginally, while the addition of an extra heat exchanger may lower system performance at low light levels.

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cloud. Green line = solar irradiation. The top maroon line indicates the temperature of the evac tube collector for which cycling of the pump is much slower and even stopping for some 30 minutes during the cool parts of the day (irradiation low), indicating a slow rate of heat collection. The temperature of the flat plate collector fell significantly during the day (bottom purple line) but started cycling again later in the day when irradiation increased. The temperature in the water storage tank of the evac tube system (dark blue graph) increased by 8 degrees C during the day while that of the flat plate system (light blue graph) only remained constant. Courtesy ITS-solar.

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Although several European companies manufacture evacuated tube collectors (mainly glass-metal type), the evacuated tube market is dominated by manufacturers in China, with some companies having track records of 15–30 years or more. There is no unambiguous evidence that the two designs differ in long-term reliability. However, evacuated tube technology (especially for newer variants with glass-metal seals and heat pipes) still needs to demonstrate competitive lifetimes. The modularity of evacuated tubes can be advantageous in terms of extensibility and maintenance, for example, if the vacuum in one heat pipe tube is lost it can be easily be replaced with minimal effort.

1021: 856:. They consist of an (1) enclosure containing (2) a dark-colored absorber plate with fluid circulation passageways, and (3) a transparent cover to allow transmission of solar energy into the enclosure. The sides and back of the enclosure are typically insulated to reduce heat loss to the ambient. A heat transfer fluid is circulated through the absorber's fluid passageways to remove heat from the solar collector. The circulation fluid in tropical and sub-tropical climates is typically water. In climates where freezing is likely, a heat transfer fluid similar to an automotive 1132:

between each tube and its absorber inside, covering only a fraction of the installation area on a roof. If evacuated tubes are compared with flat-plate collectors on the basis of the area of roof occupied (gross area), a different conclusion might be reached than if the absorber or aperture areas were compared. The recent revision of the ISO 9806 standard states that the efficiency of solar thermal collectors should be measured in terms of gross area and this might favour flat plates in respect to evacuated tube collectors in direct comparisons.

1005: 1013: 46: 997: 71: 1753: 1611: 1144: 1807: 662: 1136: 1930: 676: 1224:. Polymers are flexible and therefore freeze-tolerant and can employ plain water instead of antifreeze, so that they may be plumbed directly into existing water tanks instead of needing heat exchangers that lower efficiency. By dispensing with a heat exchanger, temperatures need not be quite so high for the circulation system to be switched on, so such direct circulation panels, whether polymer or otherwise, can be more efficient, particularly at low 1692: 1278: 1916: 1541: 1435: 1166: 1153: 1505:

conductive heat transfer, issues with dust (fouling) can arise from passing air on the front side of the absorber which reduces absorber efficiency by limiting the amount of sunlight received. In cold climates, air passing next to the glazing will additionally cause greater heat loss, resulting in lower overall performance of the collector.

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forced circulation systems. Concentration systems may utilize phase change materials such as molten salts. The thermal energy of the heat transfer fluid can then be used directly or stored for later use. The transfer of thermal energy occurs through convection, which can be either natural or forced depending on the specific system.

980:: consisting of several layers of transparent and opaque sheets that enable absorption in a boundary layer. Because the energy is absorbed in the boundary layer, heat conversion may be more efficient than for collectors where absorbed heat is conducted through a material before being accumulated in the circulating liquid. 1496:

have the most surface area which enables relatively high conductive heat transfer rates, but significant pressure drop can require greater fan power, and deterioration of certain absorber material after many years of solar radiation exposure can additionally create problems with air quality and performance.

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absorber and is then supplied to the living or working space by either passive means or with the assistance of a fan. A pioneering figure of this type of system was George Löf, who built a solar-heated air system in 1945 for a house in Boulder, Colorado. He later included a gravel bed for heat storage.

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The shape of a parabola means that incoming light rays which are parallel to the dish's axis will be reflected toward the focus, no matter where on the dish they arrive. Light from the sun arrives at the Earth's surface almost completely parallel, and the dish is aligned with its axis pointing at the

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Unglazed transpired collectors can also be roof-mounted for applications in which there is no suitable south-facing wall or for other architectural considerations. Matrix Energy Inc. has patented a roof-mounted product called the "Delta", a modular, roof-mounted solar air heating system where south-,

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The term "unglazed air collector" refers to a solar air heating system that consists of a metal absorber without any glass or glazing over top. The most common type of unglazed collector on the market is the transpired solar collector. The technology has been extensively monitored by these government

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systems are most likely to be cost effective for facilities with water heating systems that are expensive to operate, or with operations such as laundries or kitchens that require large quantities of hot water. Unglazed liquid collectors are commonly used to heat water for swimming pools but can also

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as a pilot facility. The bowl had a diameter of 65 ft (20 m), tilted at a 15° angle to optimize the cost/yield relation (33° would have maximized yield). The rim of the hemisphere was "trimmed" to 60°, creating a maximum aperture of 3,318 square feet (308.3 m). This pilot bowl produced

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Evacuated flat plate solar collectors require both a glass-metal seal to join the glass plate to the rest of the metal envelope and an internal structure to support such plate against atmospheric pressure. The absorber has to be segmented or provided with suitable holes to accommodate such structure.

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A field trial illustrating the differences discussed in the figure on the left. A flat plate collector and a similar-sized evacuated tube collector were installed adjacently on a roof, each with a pump, controller and storage tank. Several variables were logged during a day with intermittent rain and

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The collector absorbs the incoming solar radiation, converting it into thermal energy. This thermal energy is then transferred to a heat transfer fluid circulating within the collector. The heat transfer fluid can be air, water, oil, or a mixture including glycol (an antifreeze fluid), especially in

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Solar air heating is a renewable energy heating technology used to heat or condition air for buildings or process heat applications. It is typically the most cost-effective of all the solar technologies, especially in large scale applications, and it addresses the largest usage of building energy in

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In back-pass, front-pass, and combination type configurations the air is directed on either the back, the front, or on both sides of the absorber to be heated from the return to the supply ducting headers. Although passing the air on both sides of the absorber will provide a greater surface area for

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Evacuated flat plate solar collectors provide all the advantages of both flat plate and evacuated tube collectors combined together. They surround a large area metal sheet absorber with high vacuum inside a flat envelope made of glass and metal. They offer the highest energy conversion efficiency of

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In most climates, flat plate collectors will generally be more cost-effective than evacuated tubes. However, evacuated tube collectors are well-suited to cold ambient temperatures and work well in situations of low solar irradiance, providing heat more consistently throughout the year. Unglazed flat

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Ventilation, fresh air or makeup air is required in most commercial, industrial and institutional buildings to meet code requirements. By drawing air through a properly designed unglazed transpired air collector or an air heater, the solar heated fresh air can reduce the heating load during daytime

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is 160 °C (320 °F), while the stagnation temperature of insulated thermal collectors can exceed 180 °C (356 °F) if control strategies are not used. For this reason, polypropylene is not often used in glazed selectively coated solar collectors. Increasingly, polymers such as high

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A longstanding argument exists between proponents of these two technologies. Some of this can be related to the structure of evacuated tube collectors which have a discontinuous absorbance area. An array of evacuated tubes collectors on a roof has space between the individual tubes and a vacuum gap

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A solar thermal collector functions as a heat exchanger that converts solar radiation into thermal energy. It differs from a conventional heat exchanger in several aspects. The solar energy flux (irradiance) incident on the Earth's surface has a variable and relatively low surface density, usually

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Unglazed systems, or transpired air systems have been used to heat make-up or ventilation air in commercial, industrial, agriculture and process applications. They consist of an absorber plate which air passes across or through as it scrubs heat from the absorber. Non-transparent glazing materials

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Offering the highest efficiency of any solar technology the through-pass configuration, air ducted onto one side of the absorber passes through a perforated material and is heated from the conductive properties of the material and the convective properties of the moving air. Through-pass absorbers

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of more than 93%. Glazed Solar Collectors (recirculating types that are usually used for space heating). Air typically passes along the front or back of the absorber plate while scrubbing heat directly from it. Heated air can then be distributed directly for applications such as space heating and

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Space heating for residential and commercial applications can be done through the use of solar air heating panels. This configuration operates by drawing air from the building envelope or from the outdoor environment and passing it through the collector where the air warms via conduction from the

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where the heated air is used for space heating or process heating needs. Functioning in a similar manner as a conventional forced-air furnace, solar-thermal-air systems provide heat by circulating air over an energy collecting surface, absorbing the sun's thermal energy, and ducting air coming in

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is typically employed to transfer heat from the solar collector fluid to a hot water storage tank. The most common absorber design consists of copper tubing joined to a high conductivity metal sheet (copper or aluminum). A dark coating is applied to the sun-facing side of the absorber assembly to

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Transpired collectors can be configured to heat the air twice to increase the delivered air temperature making it suitable for space heating applications as well as ventilation air heating. In a 2-stage system, the first stage is the typical unglazed transpired collector and the second stage has

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Flat-plate collectors usually lose more heat to the environment than evacuated tubes because there is no insulation at the glass side. Evacuated tube collectors intrinsically have a lower absorber to gross area ratio (typically 60–80% less) than flat plates because tubes have to be spaced apart.

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or dewar flask). The absorber fin is placed inside the inner tube at atmospheric pressure. Glass-glass tubes have a very reliable seal, but the two layers of glass reduce the amount of sunlight that reaches the absorber. The selective coating can be deposited on the inner borosilicate tube (high

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The extensive monitoring by Natural Resources Canada and NREL has shown that transpired solar collector systems reduce between 10-50% of the conventional heating load and that RETScreen is an accurate predictor of system performance. Transpired solar collectors act as a rainscreen and they also

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Hot air that may enter an HVAC system connected to a transpired collector that has air outlets positioned along the top of the collector, particularly if the collector is west facing. To counter this problem, Matrix Energy has patented a transpired collector with a lower air outlet position and

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The main use of this technology is in residential buildings where the demand for hot water has a large impact on energy bills. This generally means a situation with a large family or a situation in which the hot water demand is excessive due to frequent laundry washing. Commercial applications

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In areas where freezing is a possibility, freeze-tolerance (the capability to freeze repeatedly without cracking) can be achieved by the use of flexible polymers. Silicone rubber pipes have been used for this purpose in UK since 1999. Conventional metal collectors are vulnerable to damage from

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A comparison of the energy output (kW.h/day) of a flat plate collector (blue lines; Thermodynamics S42-P; absorber 2.8 m) and an evacuated tube collector (green lines; SunMaxx 20EVT; absorber 3.1 m. Data obtained from SRCC certification documents on the Internet. Tm-Ta = temperature difference

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Each ten-foot (3.05 m) module will deliver 250 CFM (425 m3/h)of preheated fresh air typically providing annual energy savings of 1100 kWh (4 GJ) annually. This unique two-stage, modular roof-mounted transpired collector operating a nearly 90% efficiency each module delivering over 118 L/s of

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Unglazed air collectors heat ambient (outside) air instead of recirculated building air. Transpired solar collectors are usually wall-mounted to capture the lower sun angle in the winter heating months as well as sun reflection off the snow and achieve their optimum performance and return on

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The exterior surface of a transpired solar collector consists of thousands of tiny micro-perforations that allow the boundary layer of heat to be captured and uniformly drawn into an air cavity behind the exterior panels. This heated ventilation air is drawn under negative pressure into the

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that is focussed on the absorber, which in most cases are the pipes carrying the working fluid. Due to the movement of the sun during the day, concentrating collectors often require some form of solar tracking system, and are sometimes referred to "active" collectors for this reason.

1818:. These mirrors align themselves and focus sunlight on the receiver at the top of the tower, collected heat is transferred to a power station below. This design reaches very high temperatures. High temperatures are suitable for electricity generation using conventional methods like 2541:

Buonomano, Annamaria; Calise, Francesco; d’Accadia, Massimo Dentice; Ferruzzi, Gabriele; Frascogna, Sabrina; Palombo, Adolfo; Russo, Roberto; Scarpellino, Marco (February 2016). "Experimental analysis and dynamic simulation of a novel high-temperature solar cooling system".

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or silicone rubber is used as an absorber. Used for pool heating, it can work quite well when the desired output temperature is near the ambient temperature (that is, when it is warm outside). As the ambient temperature gets cooler, these collectors become less effective.

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temperate silicones (which melt at over 250 °C (482 °F)) are being used. Some non polypropylene polymer based glazed solar collectors are matte black coated rather than selectively coated to reduce the stagnation temperature to 150 °C (302 °F) or less.

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preheated air per two square meter collector. Up to seven collectors may be connected in series in one row, with no limit to the number of rows connected in parallel along one central duct typically yielding 4 CFM of preheated air per square foot of available roof area.

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A simple solar air collector consists of an absorber material, sometimes having a selective surface, to capture radiation from the sun and transfers this thermal energy to air via conduction heat transfer. This heated air is then ducted to the building space or to the

1356:', solar thermal technologies are paired with photovoltaics (PV) to increase the efficiency of the system by taking heat away from the PV collectors, cooling the PV panels to improve their electrical performance while simultaneously warming air for space heating. 1273:

focuses the light in the same place independent of the sun's position. The light, however, is not directed to one point but is distributed on a line from the surface of the mirror to one half radius (along a line that runs through the sphere center and the sun).

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operation. Many applications are now being installed where the transpired collector preheats the fresh air entering a heat recovery ventilator to reduce the defrost time of HRV's. The higher your ventilation and temperature the better your payback time will be.

766:) is roughly the same as the absorber area (i.e., the area absorbing the radiation). A common example of such a system is a metal plate that is painted a dark color to maximize the absorption of sunlight. The energy is then collected by cooling the plate with a 1292:

The sunlight concentrated at the focal line of a spherical reflector is collected using a tracking receiver. This receiver is pivoted around the focal line and is usually counterbalanced. The receiver may consist of pipes carrying fluid for thermal transfer or

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any non-concentrating solar thermal collector, but require sophisticated technology for manufacturing. They should not be confused with flat plate collectors featuring low vacuum inside. The first collector making use of high vacuum insulation was developed at

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or a direct high-temperature chemical reaction such as liquid salt. By concentrating sunlight, current systems can get better efficiency than simple solar cells. A larger area can be covered by using relatively inexpensive mirrors rather than using expensive

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Many applications can utilize solar air heat technologies to reduce the carbon footprint from the use of conventional heat sources, such as fossil fuels, to create a sustainable means to produce thermal energy. Applications such as space heating, greenhouse

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stable through time. This getter pump technology has the advantage of providing some regeneration in-situ by exposure to sunlight. Evacuated flat plate solar collectors have been studied for solar air condition and compared to compact solar concentrators.

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capture heat loss escaping from the building envelope which is collected in the collector air cavity and drawn back into the ventilation system. There is no maintenance required with solar air heating systems and the expected lifespan is over 30 years.

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tube. An anti-reflective coating can be deposited on the inner and outer surfaces of such tubes to improve transparency. Both selective and anti-reflective coating (inner tube surface) will not degrade until the vacuum is lost. A high vacuum-tight

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A fixed parabolic mirror creates a variously shaped image of the sun as it moves across the sky. Only when the mirror is pointed directly at the sun does the light focus on one point. That is why parabolic dish systems track the sun. A fixed

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not exceeding 1100 W/m without concentration systems. Moreover, the wavelength of incident solar radiation falls between 0.3 and 3 μm, which is significantly shorter than the wavelength of radiation emitted by most radiative surfaces.

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International Code Council / Solar Rating & Certification Corporation: Testing is performed by independent laboratories and typically includes selection of a collector to be tested from a sample group of at least six solar

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include laundromats, car washes, military laundry facilities and eating establishments. The technology can also be used for space heating if the building is located off-grid or if utility power is subject to frequent outages.

821:. In contrast to solar hot water panels, they use a circulating fluid to displace heat to a separated reservoir. The first solar thermal collector designed for building roofs was patented by William H. Goettl and called the " 1527:

are less expensive and decrease expected payback periods. Transpired collectors are considered "unglazed" because their collector surfaces are exposed to the elements, are often not transparent and not hermetically sealed.

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Losses due to atmospheric scattering are generally minimal. However, on a hazy or foggy day, light is diffused in all directions through the atmosphere, which significantly reduces the efficiency of a parabolic dish. In

1381:. tea, corn, coffee) and other drying applications. Air heated through a solar collector and then passed over a medium to be dried can provide an efficient means by which to reduce the moisture content of the material. 1261:, but instead of using a tracking parabolic mirror with a fixed receiver, it has a fixed spherical mirror with a tracking receiver. This reduces efficiency but makes it cheaper to build and operate. Designers call it a 1846:

conditions. Solar cells are able to provide some output even if the sky becomes cloudy, but power output from concentrating systems drops drastically in cloudy conditions as diffused light cannot be concentrated well.

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The solar bowl design resulted from a project of the Electrical Engineering Department of the Texas Technical University, headed by Edwin O'Hair, to develop a 5 MWe power plant. A solar bowl was built for the town of

2138: 1052:. The absorber can be either metallic as in the case of flat plate collectors or being a second concentric glass tube ("Sydney Tube"). Heat transfer fluid can flow in and out of each tube or being in contact with a 2323: 1679:

systems. Although simple, these solar concentrators are quite far from the theoretical maximum concentration. For example, the parabolic trough concentration is about 1/3 of the theoretical maximum for the same

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reaching inside the tube. For the latter, heat pipes transfer heat to the fluid in a heat exchanger called a "manifold" placed transversely with respect to the tubes. The manifold is wrapped in insulation

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glazing covering the transpired collector. The glazing allows all of that heated air from the first stage to be directed through a second set of transpired collectors for a second stage of solar heating.

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Water heating system deployed on a flat roof. The pipes that carry the heat away can be seen embedded in the absorber, a flat plate painted black. In this example the heat is stored in the tank above the

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sun, allowing almost all incoming radiation to be reflected towards the focal point of the dish. Most losses in such collectors are due to imperfections in the parabolic shape and imperfect reflection.

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levels. Some early selectively coated polymer collectors suffered from overheating when insulated, as stagnation temperatures can exceed the polymer's melting point. For example, the melting point of

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Chart showing flat-plate collectors outperforming evacuated tubes up until 67 °C (120 °F) above ambient and, shaded in gray, the normal operating range for solar domestic hot water systems.

2254: 1313:. That test showed the use of the solar bowl in the production of steam for cooking. The full-scale project to build a solar bowl and kitchen ran from 1996 and was fully operational by 2001. 1085:

is however required at one or both sides of each evacuated tube. This seal is cycled between ambient and fluid temperature each day of collector operation and might lead to failures in time.

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This cutaway view shows the MatrixAir transpired solar collector components and air flow. The lower air inlet mitigates the intake of heated air to the HVAC system during summer operation.

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for such uses as illuminating buildings. Heat storage for power production during cloudy and overnight conditions can be accomplished, often by underground tank storage of heated fluids.

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Mendes, João Farinha; Horta, Pedro; Carvalho, Maria João; Silva, Paulo (2008). "Solar Thermal Collectors in Polymeric Materials: A Novel Approach Towards Higher Operating Temperatures".

1199:. Glass-metal seal technology can be based either on metallized glass or vitrified metal and defines the type of collector. Different from evacuated tube collectors, they make use of 3121: 3111: 1513:

Glazed systems usually have a transparent top sheet and insulated side and back panels to minimize heat loss to ambient air. The absorber plates in modern panels can have

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of power output. Proponents of the solar bowl design claim the reduction in overall power output compared with tracking parabolic mirrors is offset by lower system costs.

832:(SAC), where temperature in excess of 100 °C (212 °F) are required. These non-concentrating collectors harvest both diffuse and direct light and can make use of 2312: 1123:

that acts as a safety feature. Evacuated tubes collectors can also be provided with low concentrating reflectors at the back of the tubes realising a CPC collector.

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As the sun moves across the sky, the aperture of any fixed collector changes. This causes changes in the amount of captured sunlight, producing what is called the

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In locations with average available solar energy, flat plate collectors are sized approximately 1.2 to 2.4 square decimeter per liter of one day's hot water use.

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to reduce heat loss also at the glass side too has also been made available commercially. Most flat plate collectors have a life expectancy of over 25 years..

1684:, that is, for the same overall tolerances for the system. Approaching the theoretical maximum may be achieved by using more elaborate concentrators based on 4370: 762:

Solar thermal collectors are either non-concentrating or concentrating. In non-concentrating collectors, the aperture area (i.e., the area that receives the

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Solar air heating is a solar thermal technology in which the energy from the sun, solar insolation, is captured by an absorbing medium and used to heat air.

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drying or may be stored for later use. Payback for glazed solar air heating panels can be less than 9–15 years depending on the fuel being replaced.

3028:"ISO 9806-1:1994 - Test methods for solar collectors -- Part 1: Thermal performance of glazed liquid heating collectors including pressure drop" 2295: 1835:

have been used to good effect. Other working fluids, such as liquid metals, have also been proposed due to their superior thermal properties.

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A 15-metre (49 ft) diameter Auroville solar bowl was developed from an earlier test of a 3.5-metre (11 ft) bowl in 1979–1982 by the

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vacuum side) to avoid this, but heat has then to flow through the poorly conducting glass thickness of the inner tube in this case. Moreover,

4415: 707: 2393:"Performance and operational effectiveness of evacuated flat plate solar collectors compared with conventional thermal, PVT and PV panels" 1265:. The main reason for its development was to eliminate the cost of moving a large mirror to track the sun as with parabolic dish systems. 2811: 1072:

Glass-metal evacuated tubes are made with flat or curved metal absorber sheets same as those of flat plates. These sheets are joined to

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welded to the absorber sheet to reduce damage to the selective coating, which is typically applied prior to joining to large coils in a

892:. The absorber coating is typically a selective coating, where selective stands for having the special optical property to combine high 3908: 3157: 1884: 1878: 1872: 828:

Evacuated flat-plate solar collectors are a more recent innovation and can be used for Solar Heat for Industrial Cooling (SHIC) and

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but not total energy yield in variable flow systems, used in compact solar domestic hot water only systems (no space heating role);

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coupled to a dynamo is placed at the focus of the dish. This absorbs the energy focused onto it and converts it into electricity.

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A pool or unglazed collector is a simple form of flat-plate collector without a transparent cover. Typically, polypropylene or

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Solar Keymark: Thermal solar systems and components. Higher level EN 1297X series certification which includes factory visits.

1119:. Some evacuated tube collectors work as a thermal one-way valve due to their heat pipes. This gives them an inherent maximum 4215: 3011: 2961: 2936: 2911: 2883: 2706: 2659: 2637: 2594: 2044: 1681: 4375: 4337: 1959: 1688:. Solar thermal collectors may also be used in conjunction with photovoltaic collectors to obtain combined heat and power. 1636:

perforated cavity framing to perpetrate increased air turbulence behind the perforated absorber for increased performance.

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pump is commonly evaporated inside the high vacuum gap in between tubes to keep the internal pressure stable through time.

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contact with it. Simple and effective collectors can be made for a variety of air conditioning and process applications.

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Flat-plate and evacuated-tube solar collectors are mainly used to collect heat for space heating, domestic hot water, or

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Concentrating collectors have a much larger aperture than the absorber area. The aperture is typically in the form of a

4198: 2730: 1187:, while TVP SOLAR SA of Switzerland was the first company to commercialise Solar Keymark certified collectors in 2012. 1628:

investment when operating at flow rates of between 4 and 8 CFM per square foot (72 to 144 m3/h.m2) of collector area.

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Glass-glass evacuated tubes are made with two borosilicate glass tubes fused together at one or both ends (similar a

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Kim, Yong; Han, GuiYoung; Seo, Taebeom (April 2008). "An evaluation on thermal performance of CPC solar collector".

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building's ventilation system where it is then distributed via conventional means or using a solar ducting system.

1352:, pre-heating ventilation makeup air, or process heat can be addressed by solar air heat devices. In the field of ' 700: 137: 2103:"Investigation on influence of antimony tin oxide/silver nanofluid on direct absorption parabolic solar collector" 4390: 4204: 3584: 2836:

Boerema (2012). "Liquid sodium versus Hitec as a heat transfer fluid in solar thermal central receiver systems".

2364:"Performance of Vacuum Tube and Flat Plate Collectors Concerning Domestic Hot Water Preparation and Room Heating" 1979: 1785: 393: 2363: 1949: 3148: 1969: 1964: 1672: 1566: 1460: 1310: 4531: 4352: 4296: 4291: 3868: 3396: 1619:

heating climates, which is space heating and industrial process heating. They are either glazed or unglazed.

889: 844: 222: 2577:(2005). "Polymeric Absorbers for Flat Plate Collectors: Can Venting Provide Adequate Overheat Protection?". 3913: 3464: 3385: 3344: 1049: 4256: 4058: 3569: 3504: 3422: 3334: 3198: 693: 1028:

Evacuated tube collectors are the most common solar thermal technology in the world. They make use of a

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Non-concentrating collectors are typically used in residential, industrial and commercial buildings for

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solution may be used instead of water, or in a mixture with water. If a heat transfer fluid is used, a

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The high temperatures that can occur inside evacuated tubes may require special design to prevent

4500: 4425: 4347: 4276: 4220: 4152: 4048: 3963: 3873: 3838: 3314: 2525:, "Vacuum solar thermal panel with a vacuum-tight glass-metal sealing", issued 2009-07-08 1935: 1555: 1449: 1073: 932: 885: 680: 558: 548: 252: 187: 4490: 4452: 4332: 4043: 3474: 1676: 829: 740: 644: 453: 438: 386: 247: 167: 2742:

Mojiri (2013). "Spectral beam splitting for efficient conversion of solar energy — A review".

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to maintain sunlight focus at the collector. They are unable to provide significant power in

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increase its absorption of solar energy. A common absorber coating is black enamel paint.

8: 4178: 4168: 4142: 3928: 3590: 3499: 3469: 3369: 3339: 3233: 3193: 2373:. CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE FOR SOLAR ENGINEERING at Ingolstadt University of Applied Sciences 2227: 1828: 1715: 1326: 1082: 985: 869: 729: 443: 309: 292: 237: 92: 80: 2849: 2786: 2449: 2408: 4441: 4385: 4322: 4099: 3978: 3973: 3763: 3574: 3559: 3141: 2481: 2391:

Moss, R.W.; Henshall, P.; Arya, F.; Shire, G.S.F.; Hyde, T.; Eames, P.C. (2018-04-15).

1995: 1843: 1396:

Collectors are commonly classified by their air-ducting methods as one of three types:

1353: 1102: 1077: 818: 324: 152: 62: 2523: 2505: 1281:

Typical energy density along the 1/2 radius length focal line of a spherical reflector

1220:, or they may include metal plates in front of freeze-tolerant water channels made of 4013: 3968: 3723: 3718: 3648: 3544: 3380: 3183: 3007: 2957: 2932: 2907: 2879: 2726: 2702: 2633: 2590: 2463: 2083: 2073: 2050: 2040: 1985: 1974: 1954: 1801: 1685: 1045: 967: 913: 744: 398: 314: 4480: 4235: 4230: 3813: 3519: 3417: 3412: 3407: 3324: 3087: 2853: 2790: 2751: 2625: 2582: 2570: 2555: 2551: 2453: 2417: 2412: 2392: 2277: 2250: 2114: 1705: 1668: 1377:

Solar air heat is also used in process applications such as drying laundry, crops (

1349: 1302: 1225: 956: 905: 897: 505: 500: 334: 319: 280: 232: 207: 147: 2857: 2629: 2136:, "Solar heat collector and radiator for building roof", issued 1977-02-07 2134: 2119: 2102: 4475: 4447: 4089: 4003: 3998: 3943: 3933: 3923: 3853: 3793: 3708: 3693: 3514: 3509: 3484: 3479: 3349: 3273: 2692: 1789: 1221: 868:

In higher performance solar collector designs, the transparent cover is tempered

763: 257: 212: 142: 3122:

Feasibility of photovoltaic Cells on a Fixed Mirror Distributed Focus Solar Bowl

4225: 4122: 3898: 3878: 3843: 3778: 3698: 3539: 3529: 3438: 3288: 3258: 3213: 3208: 2755: 2362:

Trinkl, Christoph; Wilfried Zörner; Claus Alt; Christian Stadler (2005-06-21).

2361: 1727: 1675:

or for research purposes. Parabolic troughs have been used for some commercial

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An array of evacuated flat plate collectors next to compact solar concentrators

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dishes concentrate solar energy at a single focal point, similar to the way a

4525: 4307: 4158: 4053: 4018: 3788: 3783: 3738: 3733: 3579: 3554: 3549: 3524: 3494: 3364: 3263: 3243: 3223: 3134: 2665: 2574: 2467: 2087: 2054: 1921: 1839: 1819: 1773: 1747: 1671:, dishes and towers described in this section are used almost exclusively in 1385: 1270: 1229: 1216:

These collectors are an alternative to metal collectors. These may be wholly

1191:

Joining of all parts has to be high vacuum-tight and only materials with low

1116: 1089: 971: 767: 639: 605: 512: 495: 376: 366: 217: 39: 996: 4485: 4163: 4063: 4038: 4033: 4028: 3958: 3893: 3773: 3743: 3683: 3678: 3653: 3564: 3443: 3359: 3283: 3268: 3253: 2586: 1990: 1769: 1610: 950: 752: 578: 463: 132: 97: 45: 2458: 2433: 1903:

ICC 902/APSP 902/ICC-SRCC™ 400: Solar Pool and Spa Heating System Standard

1752: 1143: 1126: 1097:

may enter the non-evacuated area inside the inner tube and cause absorber

4495: 4137: 4094: 4068: 4008: 3988: 3983: 3858: 3818: 3803: 3748: 3673: 3643: 3638: 3454: 3319: 3238: 2010: 1832: 1806: 1711: 1241: 960: 877: 794: 583: 458: 408: 371: 354: 339: 157: 31: 3053: 2795: 2770: 4251: 4173: 4104: 4073: 3948: 3918: 3848: 3798: 3768: 3753: 3728: 3633: 3433: 3329: 3248: 3188: 1824: 1719: 1514: 1294: 1277: 1196: 1135: 1058: 1041: 1029: 928: 917: 873: 857: 593: 418: 413: 381: 344: 329: 112: 35: 3080:"SRCC is the principal certification program within the United States" 2294:

ISO 9806:2017. Solar energy – Solar thermal collectors – Test methods

852:

Flat-plate collectors are the most common solar thermal technology in

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Sreekumar, S.; Joseph, A.; Kumar C. S., S.; Thomas, S. (2020-03-10).

1815: 1814:

A power tower is a large tower surrounded by tracking mirrors called

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Tom Lane, Solar Hot Water Systems, Lessons Learned 1977 to Today p7

2507:, "Evacuable flat panel solar collector", issued 2004-01-22 1761: 1691: 1204: 1094: 923:

emission from the absorber and improves performance. Piping can be

909: 732: 588: 473: 468: 122: 117: 87: 1827:. Concentrated light can be redirected to a suitable location via 1257:

is a type of solar thermal collector that operates similarly to a

1165: 3703: 3375: 2015: 1915: 1735: 1731: 1217: 1066: 814: 798: 610: 568: 304: 287: 2540: 2100: 739:, but may refer to large power generating installations such as 4380: 4132: 3938: 3688: 1109: 1033: 939: 920: 853: 778: 771: 299: 3156: 2771:"Nanofluid-based optical filter optimization for PV/T systems" 2252:, "Heat pipe for a solar collector", issued 2008-04-07 4395: 3828: 3054:"The Solar Keymark, The main quality label for solar thermal" 2371:

2nd European Solar Thermal Energy Conference 2005 (estec2005)

2176: 2152: 1887:: Thermal solar systems and components. Custom-made systems. 1881:: Thermal solar systems and components. Factory-made systems. 1152: 1062: 924: 833: 748: 735:. The term "solar collector" commonly refers to a device for 534: 1646: 3903: 3823: 1184: 946: 725: 632: 1413:

Collectors can also be classified by their outer surface:

2622:

Proceedings of ISES World Congress 2007 (Vol. I – Vol. V)

1875:: Thermal solar systems and components. Solar collectors. 1040:. The vacuum that surrounds the absorber greatly reduces 2619: 1652:

east-, or west-facing facades are simply not available.

1076:

or heat pipes to make "fins" and placed inside a single

2349:

Solar Hot Water Systems: Lessons Learned, 1977 to Today

1897:

ICC 901/ICC-SRCC™ 100: Solar Thermal Collector Standard

1530: 1127:

Comparisons of flat plate and evacuated tube collectors

2926: 2568: 2270:

International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer

1718:

is used to concentrate sunlight on an insulated tube (

2812:"Secret Ingredient To Making Solar Energy Work: Salt" 2390: 1911: 1900:

ICC 900/ICC-SRCC™ 300: Solar Thermal System Standard

1391: 30:

For producing electricity from solar radiation, see

2313:"Flat plate versus Evacuated tube solar collectors" 1384:High temperature process heat can be produced by a 1101:

in particular when made from dissimilar materials (

823:

Solar heat collector and radiator for building roof

1850: 1772:focuses radio waves. This geometry may be used in 1500:Back, front, and combination passage air collector 1177: 2929:Concentrating Solar Power and Desalination Plants 2694:Introduction to Nonimaging Optics, Second Edition 2306: 2304: 1263:fixed mirror distributed focus solar power system 970:to produce a wide circulation zone that improves 4523: 2897: 2895: 1734:which transfers heat from the collectors to the 1359: 1211: 3112:Canadian government ratings of solar collectors 2970: 2954:Solar Energy Engineering: Processes and Systems 2904:Solar Energy Engineering: Processes and Systems 1297:for direct conversion of light to electricity. 1024:An array of evacuated tube collectors on a roof 2927:Müller-Steinhagen, Hans; Trieb, Frank (2004). 2301: 2296:International Organization for Standardization 2070:Active solar collectors and their applications 959:: one continuous S-shaped pipe that maximises 3142: 3002:Duffie, John A.; Beckman, William A. (2013). 3001: 2945: 2892: 2874:Duffie, John A.; Beckman, William A. (2013). 2873: 2869: 2867: 2686: 2684: 2320:Go Green Heat Solutions, via Internet Archive 2034: 1760:With a parabolic dish collector, one or more 1424: 701: 2978:"Sửa chữa máy nước nóng năng lượng mặt trời" 2653: 2651: 2649: 1950:Cross-linked polyethylene § PEX-AL-PEX 1710:This type of collector is generally used in 991: 848:Two flat plate solar collectors side-by-side 797:by heating a heat-transfer fluid to drive a 1569:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1463:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 966:flooded: consisting of two sheets of metal 3909:High efficiency glandless circulating pump 3158:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning 3149: 3135: 2995: 2920: 2864: 2681: 2310: 2177:"IEA SHC || Task 48 || IEA SHC || Task 48" 2153:"IEA SHC || Task 49 || IEA SHC || Task 49" 2067: 1409:combination front and back pass collectors 1306:electricity at a rate of 10 kW peak. 708: 694: 69: 2951: 2901: 2794: 2646: 2457: 2431: 2416: 2267: 2118: 1663: 1647:Variations of transpired solar collectors 1589:Learn how and when to remove this message 1483:Learn how and when to remove this message 4343:Mold growth, assessment, and remediation 2744:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2482:"DIN CERTCO - Register-Nr. 011-7S1890 F" 2282:10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2007.09.007 1805: 1751: 1690: 1609: 1276: 1164: 1151: 1142: 1134: 1019: 1011: 1003: 995: 843: 839: 774:running in pipes attached to the plate. 44: 2835: 2657: 1838:However, concentrating systems require 1069:case also used for fixing to supports. 1048:heat loss, therefore achieving greater 984:A flat plate collector making use of a 14: 4524: 3004:Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes 2876:Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes 2768: 2741: 2690: 1869:ISO test methods for solar collectors. 1622: 203:List of low-energy building techniques 4216:Programmable communicating thermostat 3130: 2072:. New York: Oxford University Press. 4338:Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing 2346: 2198: 2196: 1960:List of solar thermal power stations 1567:adding citations to reliable sources 1534: 1531:Unglazed transpired solar collectors 1461:adding citations to reliable sources 1428: 789:, while concentrating collectors in 2329:from the original on 4 October 2017 2311:Honeyborne, Riaan (14 April 2009). 1699: 1521: 1258: 24: 4199:Minimum efficiency reporting value 1372: 1248: 25: 4548: 4241:Standard temperature and pressure 3954:Packaged terminal air conditioner 3490:Passive daytime radiative cooling 3219:Heat pump and refrigeration cycle 3105: 2809: 2775:Light: Science & Applications 2228:"Solar Evacuated Tube Collectors" 2193: 1741: 1508: 1392:Solar air heating collector types 1203:(NEG) pumps to keep the internal 3310:Absorption-compression heat pump 2658:Calhoun, Fryor (November 1983). 2544:Energy Conversion and Management 1928: 1914: 1539: 1433: 808: 674: 661: 660: 138:Energy efficiency implementation 4205:Normal temperature and pressure 3585:Vapor-compression refrigeration 3072: 3046: 3020: 2956:. Academic Press. p. 270. 2906:. Academic Press. p. 240. 2829: 2803: 2762: 2735: 2715: 2672: 2613: 2562: 2534: 2516: 2498: 2474: 2425: 2384: 2355: 2340: 2288: 2261: 1980:Seasonal thermal energy storage 1851:General principles of operation 1673:solar power generating stations 1319: 1178:Evacuated flat plate collectors 394:Ocean thermal energy conversion 3117:Crosbyton Inventory of Records 2952:Kalogirou, Soteris A. (2004). 2902:Kalogirou, Soteris A. (2004). 2556:10.1016/j.enconman.2015.11.047 2418:10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.01.001 2243: 2220: 2169: 2145: 2127: 2094: 2061: 2028: 1970:Nanofluids in solar collectors 1965:List of thermal conductivities 1795: 1333: 1311:Tata Energy Research Institute 1061:) and covered by a protective 1032:to surround the absorber with 13: 1: 4353:Testing, adjusting, balancing 4297:Building information modeling 4292:Building services engineering 3869:Ground-coupled heat exchanger 3397:Demand controlled ventilation 3345:Building insulation materials 2858:10.1016/j.solener.2012.05.001 2630:10.1007/978-3-540-75997-3_118 2434:"The SRB solar thermal panel" 2120:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119378 2107:Journal of Cleaner Production 2022: 1601: 1360:Space heating and ventilating 1212:Polymer flat plate collectors 223:Passive solar building design 3914:High-pressure cut-off switch 3465:Ice storage air conditioning 3386:Dedicated outdoor air system 2035:Norton, Brian (2013-10-11). 1863: 1050:energy conversion efficiency 880:. The glass may also have a 7: 4257:Thermostatic radiator valve 4059:Thermostatic radiator valve 3570:Underfloor air distribution 3505:Radiant heating and cooling 3423:Energy recovery ventilation 3335:Automobile air conditioning 3199:Domestic energy consumption 1907: 836:instead of water as fluid. 681:Renewable energy portal 399:Renewable energy transition 10: 4553: 4406:Institute of Refrigeration 4287:Architectural technologist 3759:Electrostatic precipitator 2756:10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.026 2432:Benvenuti, C. (May 2013). 1799: 1745: 1703: 1425:Through-pass air collector 1008:Direct flow evacuated tube 29: 4468: 4459:Volatile organic compound 4434: 4361: 4318:Environmental engineering 4282:Architectural engineering 4265: 4113: 4084:Ultra-low particulate air 3669:Automatic balancing valve 3616: 3597:Variable refrigerant flow 3449:Heat recovery ventilation 3392:Deep water source cooling 3302: 3164: 992:Evacuated tube collectors 878:photovoltaic solar panels 243:Sustainable refurbishment 27:Device that collects heat 4506:Template:Home automation 4328:Kitchen exhaust cleaning 4024:Solar-assisted heat pump 3624:Air conditioner inverter 3403:Displacement ventilation 3294:Vapour pressure of water 3279:Thermal destratification 2006:Solar-assisted heat pump 1945:Concentrated solar power 1776:and solar power plants. 1768:focuses starlight, or a 1714:plants. A trough-shaped 1016:Heat pipe evacuated tube 1000:Evacuated tube collector 942:configurations include: 902:electromagnetic spectrum 886:anti-reflective coatings 791:concentrated solar power 751:heating devices such as 228:Sustainable architecture 183:Glass in green buildings 173:Environmental technology 103:Compact fluorescent lamp 18:Evacuated tube collector 4501:World Refrigeration Day 4348:Refrigerant reclamation 4277:Architectural acoustics 4221:Programmable thermostat 4153:Clean air delivery rate 4049:Thermal expansion valve 3964:Pressurisation ductwork 3874:Ground source heat pump 3315:Absorption refrigerator 2725:, Academic Press, 2004 2721:Roland Winston et al., 2039:. Dordrecht: Springer. 1936:Renewable energy portal 1788:power plant designs, a 1400:through-pass collectors 1195:can be used to prevent 1036:and effectively resist 884:pattern and one or two 741:solar parabolic troughs 737:solar hot water heating 722:solar thermal collector 549:Human-powered transport 253:Tropical green building 188:Green building and wood 4491:Glossary of HVAC terms 4453:Sick building syndrome 4333:Mechanical engineering 4044:Smoke exhaust ductwork 3475:Mixed-mode ventilation 3086:. 2018. Archived from 3006:. Wiley. p. 478. 2878:. Wiley. p. 236. 2691:Chaves, Julio (2015). 2587:10.1115/ISEC2005-76005 1811: 1757: 1738:in the power station. 1696: 1677:solar air conditioning 1664:Generating electricity 1615: 1282: 1170: 1158: 1149: 1140: 1025: 1017: 1009: 1001: 849: 830:Solar Air Conditioning 645:Personal rapid transit 387:Tidal stream generator 248:Thermal energy storage 168:Environmental planning 51: 4511:Template:Solar energy 4189:Intelligent buildings 4148:Carbon dioxide sensor 3535:Room air distribution 3355:Central solar heating 2769:Taylor, R.A. (2012). 2486:www.dincertco.tuv.com 2298:, Geneva, Switzerland 2037:Harnessing solar heat 1809: 1755: 1694: 1613: 1280: 1201:non-evaporable getter 1168: 1155: 1146: 1138: 1121:operating temperature 1023: 1015: 1007: 999: 847: 840:Flat plate collectors 489:Sustainable transport 434:Floating wind turbine 263:Zero heating building 178:Fossil fuel phase-out 48: 4532:Solar thermal energy 4313:Duct leakage testing 4303:Deep energy retrofit 4247:Thermographic camera 4184:Infrared thermometer 3659:Air source heat pump 3608:Water heat recycling 3174:Air changes per hour 2624:. pp. 640–643. 2581:. pp. 253–257. 2001:Solar thermal energy 1766:reflecting telescope 1756:Solar parabolic dish 1563:improve this section 1457:improve this section 1038:atmospheric pressure 933:roll-to-roll process 912:one. This creates a 876:content same as for 803:electrical generator 623:Personal transporter 518:Wind-powered vehicle 362:Marine current power 268:Zero-energy building 128:Efficient energy use 4179:HVAC control system 4169:Home energy monitor 4143:Building automation 3929:Inverter compressor 3591:Variable air volume 3500:Passive ventilation 3470:Kitchen ventilation 3370:Constant air volume 3340:Autonomous building 2982:hoanggiangsolar.com 2850:2012SoEn...86.2293B 2796:10.1038/lsa.2012.34 2787:2012LSA.....1E..34T 2459:10.1051/epn/2013301 2450:2013ENews..44c..16B 2409:2018ApEn..216..588M 2068:Rabl, Ari. (1985). 1829:optical fiber cable 1716:parabolic reflector 1623:Method of operation 1354:solar co-generation 1327:Solar water heating 1110:Barium flash getter 986:honeycomb structure 953:and pumped systems; 888:to further enhance 310:Carbon-neutral fuel 238:Sustainable habitat 93:Building insulation 81:Energy conservation 57:Part of a series on 4442:Indoor air quality 4386:ASTM International 4323:Hydronic balancing 4100:Wood-burning stove 3979:Radiator reflector 3764:Evaporative cooler 3575:Underfloor heating 3560:Thermal insulation 2181:task48.iea-shc.org 2157:task49.iea-shc.org 1996:Solar Flower Tower 1812: 1758: 1697: 1616: 1295:photovoltaic cells 1283: 1171: 1159: 1150: 1141: 1103:galvanic corrosion 1078:borosilicate glass 1026: 1018: 1010: 1002: 850: 819:absorption chiller 325:Geothermal heating 153:Energy saving lamp 63:Sustainable energy 52: 4519: 4518: 4435:Health and safety 4014:Scroll compressor 3969:Process duct work 3724:Convection heater 3719:Condensing boiler 3649:Air-mixing plenum 3545:Solar combisystem 3381:Cross ventilation 3184:Building envelope 3013:978-1-118-41280-0 2963:978-0-12-397270-5 2938:978-0-08-044495-6 2913:978-0-12-397270-5 2885:978-1-118-41280-0 2723:Nonimaging Optics 2708:978-1-4822-0673-9 2639:978-3-540-75996-6 2596:978-0-7918-4737-4 2571:Davidson, Jane H. 2569:Kearney, Meghan; 2046:978-94-007-7275-5 1986:Selective surface 1975:Particle receiver 1955:Insulated glazing 1810:Solar power tower 1802:Solar power tower 1686:nonimaging optics 1669:Parabolic troughs 1599: 1598: 1591: 1493: 1492: 1485: 914:selective surface 770:, often water or 757:solar air heaters 718: 717: 315:Geothermal energy 16:(Redirected from 4544: 4537:Renewable energy 4481:Building science 4236:Smart thermostat 4231:Room temperature 3814:Fireplace insert 3520:Radon mitigation 3418:Electric heating 3413:District heating 3408:District cooling 3325:Air conditioning 3151: 3144: 3137: 3128: 3127: 3100: 3099: 3097: 3095: 3090:on April 1, 2018 3084:solar-rating.org 3076: 3070: 3069: 3067: 3065: 3050: 3044: 3043: 3041: 3039: 3024: 3018: 3017: 2999: 2993: 2992: 2990: 2988: 2974: 2968: 2967: 2949: 2943: 2942: 2924: 2918: 2917: 2899: 2890: 2889: 2871: 2862: 2861: 2844:(9): 2293–2305. 2833: 2827: 2826: 2824: 2822: 2807: 2801: 2800: 2798: 2766: 2760: 2759: 2739: 2733: 2719: 2713: 2712: 2688: 2679: 2676: 2670: 2669: 2661:Duel for the Sun 2655: 2644: 2643: 2617: 2611: 2610: 2605: 2566: 2560: 2559: 2538: 2532: 2531: 2530: 2526: 2520: 2514: 2513: 2512: 2508: 2502: 2496: 2495: 2493: 2492: 2478: 2472: 2471: 2461: 2438:Europhysics News 2429: 2423: 2422: 2420: 2388: 2382: 2381: 2379: 2378: 2368: 2359: 2353: 2352: 2344: 2338: 2337: 2335: 2334: 2328: 2317: 2308: 2299: 2292: 2286: 2285: 2265: 2259: 2258: 2257: 2253: 2247: 2241: 2240: 2238: 2237: 2232: 2224: 2218: 2217: 2215: 2214: 2200: 2191: 2190: 2188: 2187: 2173: 2167: 2166: 2164: 2163: 2149: 2143: 2142: 2141: 2137: 2131: 2125: 2124: 2122: 2098: 2092: 2091: 2065: 2059: 2058: 2032: 1938: 1933: 1932: 1924: 1919: 1918: 1726:, placed at the 1706:Parabolic trough 1700:Parabolic trough 1695:Parabolic trough 1682:acceptance angle 1594: 1587: 1583: 1580: 1574: 1543: 1535: 1522:Unglazed systems 1488: 1481: 1477: 1474: 1468: 1437: 1429: 1350:season extension 1303:Crosbyton, Texas 1271:spherical mirror 1226:solar irradiance 1083:glass-metal seal 916:, which reduces 801:connected to an 793:plants generate 710: 703: 696: 683: 679: 678: 669: 664: 663: 501:Electric vehicle 350:Run-of-the-river 335:Hydroelectricity 320:Geothermal power 281:Renewable energy 233:Sustainable city 208:Low-energy house 148:Energy recycling 73: 54: 53: 21: 4552: 4551: 4547: 4546: 4545: 4543: 4542: 4541: 4522: 4521: 4520: 4515: 4476:ASHRAE Handbook 4464: 4448:Passive smoking 4430: 4363: 4357: 4269: 4267: 4261: 4115: 4109: 4090:Whole-house fan 4004:Run-around coil 3999:Reversing valve 3944:Mechanical room 3934:Kerosene heater 3924:Infrared heater 3854:Gasoline heater 3794:Fan filter unit 3709:Condensate pump 3694:Centrifugal fan 3612: 3515:Radiant heating 3510:Radiant cooling 3485:Passive cooling 3480:Microgeneration 3350:Central heating 3298: 3274:Thermal comfort 3166: 3160: 3155: 3108: 3103: 3093: 3091: 3078: 3077: 3073: 3063: 3061: 3052: 3051: 3047: 3037: 3035: 3026: 3025: 3021: 3014: 3000: 2996: 2986: 2984: 2976: 2975: 2971: 2964: 2950: 2946: 2939: 2925: 2921: 2914: 2900: 2893: 2886: 2872: 2865: 2834: 2830: 2820: 2818: 2816:Forbes magazine 2808: 2804: 2767: 2763: 2740: 2736: 2720: 2716: 2709: 2689: 2682: 2677: 2673: 2656: 2647: 2640: 2618: 2614: 2603: 2597: 2567: 2563: 2539: 2535: 2528: 2522: 2521: 2517: 2510: 2504: 2503: 2499: 2490: 2488: 2480: 2479: 2475: 2430: 2426: 2389: 2385: 2376: 2374: 2366: 2360: 2356: 2345: 2341: 2332: 2330: 2326: 2315: 2309: 2302: 2293: 2289: 2266: 2262: 2255: 2249: 2248: 2244: 2235: 2233: 2230: 2226: 2225: 2221: 2212: 2210: 2208:www.iea-shc.org 2202: 2201: 2194: 2185: 2183: 2175: 2174: 2170: 2161: 2159: 2151: 2150: 2146: 2139: 2133: 2132: 2128: 2099: 2095: 2080: 2066: 2062: 2047: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2020: 1934: 1927: 1920: 1913: 1910: 1866: 1853: 1804: 1798: 1790:stirling engine 1750: 1744: 1708: 1702: 1666: 1649: 1625: 1604: 1595: 1584: 1578: 1575: 1560: 1544: 1533: 1524: 1511: 1502: 1489: 1478: 1472: 1469: 1454: 1438: 1427: 1394: 1375: 1373:Process heating 1362: 1336: 1322: 1251: 1249:Bowl collectors 1222:silicone rubber 1214: 1193:vapour pressure 1180: 1129: 994: 904:coupled to low 872:having reduced 870:soda-lime glass 842: 811: 764:solar radiation 714: 673: 672: 659: 652: 651: 491: 481: 480: 283: 273: 272: 258:Waste-to-energy 213:Microgeneration 143:Energy recovery 83: 43: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4550: 4540: 4539: 4534: 4517: 4516: 4514: 4513: 4508: 4503: 4498: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4478: 4472: 4470: 4466: 4465: 4463: 4462: 4456: 4450: 4445: 4438: 4436: 4432: 4431: 4429: 4428: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4367: 4365: 4359: 4358: 4356: 4355: 4350: 4345: 4340: 4335: 4330: 4325: 4320: 4315: 4310: 4305: 4300: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4273: 4271: 4263: 4262: 4260: 4259: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4238: 4233: 4228: 4226:Psychrometrics 4223: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4202: 4196: 4191: 4186: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4150: 4145: 4140: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4123:Air flow meter 4119: 4117: 4111: 4110: 4108: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4081: 4076: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4001: 3996: 3991: 3986: 3981: 3976: 3971: 3966: 3961: 3956: 3951: 3946: 3941: 3936: 3931: 3926: 3921: 3916: 3911: 3906: 3901: 3899:Heating system 3896: 3891: 3886: 3881: 3879:Heat exchanger 3876: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3844:Gas compressor 3841: 3836: 3831: 3826: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3796: 3791: 3786: 3781: 3779:Expansion tank 3776: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3746: 3741: 3736: 3731: 3726: 3721: 3716: 3711: 3706: 3701: 3699:Ceramic heater 3696: 3691: 3686: 3681: 3676: 3671: 3666: 3661: 3656: 3651: 3646: 3641: 3636: 3631: 3626: 3620: 3618: 3614: 3613: 3611: 3610: 3605: 3600: 3594: 3588: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3552: 3547: 3542: 3540:Solar air heat 3537: 3532: 3530:Renewable heat 3527: 3522: 3517: 3512: 3507: 3502: 3497: 3492: 3487: 3482: 3477: 3472: 3467: 3462: 3457: 3452: 3446: 3441: 3439:Forced-air gas 3436: 3431: 3426: 3420: 3415: 3410: 3405: 3400: 3394: 3389: 3383: 3378: 3373: 3367: 3362: 3357: 3352: 3347: 3342: 3337: 3332: 3327: 3322: 3317: 3312: 3306: 3304: 3300: 3299: 3297: 3296: 3291: 3289:Thermodynamics 3286: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3266: 3261: 3259:Psychrometrics 3256: 3251: 3246: 3241: 3236: 3231: 3226: 3221: 3216: 3214:Gas compressor 3211: 3209:Fluid dynamics 3206: 3201: 3196: 3191: 3186: 3181: 3176: 3170: 3168: 3162: 3161: 3154: 3153: 3146: 3139: 3131: 3125: 3124: 3119: 3114: 3107: 3106:External links 3104: 3102: 3101: 3071: 3045: 3019: 3012: 2994: 2969: 2962: 2944: 2937: 2919: 2912: 2891: 2884: 2863: 2828: 2802: 2761: 2734: 2731:978-0127597515 2714: 2707: 2680: 2671: 2645: 2638: 2612: 2595: 2575:Mantell, Susan 2561: 2533: 2515: 2497: 2473: 2424: 2397:Applied Energy 2383: 2354: 2339: 2300: 2287: 2276:(4): 446–457. 2260: 2242: 2219: 2192: 2168: 2144: 2126: 2093: 2078: 2060: 2045: 2026: 2024: 2021: 2019: 2018: 2013: 2008: 2003: 1998: 1993: 1988: 1983: 1977: 1972: 1967: 1962: 1957: 1952: 1947: 1941: 1940: 1939: 1925: 1909: 1906: 1905: 1904: 1901: 1898: 1895: 1891: 1888: 1882: 1876: 1870: 1865: 1862: 1852: 1849: 1844:diffused light 1800:Main article: 1797: 1794: 1774:solar furnaces 1746:Main article: 1743: 1742:Parabolic dish 1740: 1704:Main article: 1701: 1698: 1665: 1662: 1648: 1645: 1624: 1621: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1596: 1547: 1545: 1538: 1532: 1529: 1523: 1520: 1510: 1509:Glazed systems 1507: 1501: 1498: 1491: 1490: 1441: 1439: 1432: 1426: 1423: 1422: 1421: 1418: 1411: 1410: 1407: 1404: 1401: 1393: 1390: 1374: 1371: 1361: 1358: 1335: 1332: 1321: 1318: 1259:parabolic dish 1250: 1247: 1213: 1210: 1179: 1176: 1128: 1125: 993: 990: 982: 981: 978:boundary layer 975: 964: 954: 862:heat exchanger 841: 838: 810: 807: 716: 715: 713: 712: 705: 698: 690: 687: 686: 685: 684: 670: 654: 653: 650: 649: 648: 647: 637: 636: 635: 628:Rail transport 625: 620: 619: 618: 613: 608: 603: 601:Roller skating 598: 597: 596: 591: 586: 581: 576: 574:Cycle rickshaw 571: 561: 556: 546: 545: 544: 539: 538: 537: 530:Human-electric 525:Hybrid vehicle 522: 521: 520: 515: 510: 509: 508: 492: 487: 486: 483: 482: 479: 478: 477: 476: 471: 466: 461: 456: 451: 446: 441: 436: 431: 426: 416: 411: 406: 404:Renewable heat 401: 396: 391: 390: 389: 384: 379: 369: 364: 359: 358: 357: 352: 347: 342: 337: 327: 322: 317: 312: 307: 302: 297: 296: 295: 284: 279: 278: 275: 274: 271: 270: 265: 260: 255: 250: 245: 240: 235: 230: 225: 220: 215: 210: 205: 200: 195: 193:Green building 190: 185: 180: 175: 170: 165: 163:Energy storage 160: 155: 150: 145: 140: 135: 130: 125: 120: 115: 110: 105: 100: 95: 90: 84: 79: 78: 75: 74: 66: 65: 59: 58: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4549: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4530: 4529: 4527: 4512: 4509: 4507: 4504: 4502: 4499: 4497: 4494: 4492: 4489: 4487: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4473: 4471: 4467: 4460: 4457: 4454: 4451: 4449: 4446: 4443: 4440: 4439: 4437: 4433: 4427: 4424: 4422: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4404: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4368: 4366: 4364:organizations 4360: 4354: 4351: 4349: 4346: 4344: 4341: 4339: 4336: 4334: 4331: 4329: 4326: 4324: 4321: 4319: 4316: 4314: 4311: 4309: 4308:Duct cleaning 4306: 4304: 4301: 4298: 4295: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4285: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4275: 4274: 4272: 4264: 4258: 4255: 4253: 4250: 4248: 4245: 4242: 4239: 4237: 4234: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4206: 4203: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4192: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4159:Control valve 4157: 4154: 4151: 4149: 4146: 4144: 4141: 4139: 4136: 4134: 4131: 4129: 4126: 4124: 4121: 4120: 4118: 4112: 4106: 4103: 4101: 4098: 4096: 4093: 4091: 4088: 4085: 4082: 4080: 4079:Turning vanes 4077: 4075: 4072: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4054:Thermal wheel 4052: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4042: 4040: 4037: 4035: 4032: 4030: 4027: 4025: 4022: 4020: 4019:Solar chimney 4017: 4015: 4012: 4010: 4007: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3997: 3995: 3992: 3990: 3987: 3985: 3982: 3980: 3977: 3975: 3972: 3970: 3967: 3965: 3962: 3960: 3957: 3955: 3952: 3950: 3947: 3945: 3942: 3940: 3937: 3935: 3932: 3930: 3927: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3917: 3915: 3912: 3910: 3907: 3905: 3902: 3900: 3897: 3895: 3892: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3852: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3830: 3827: 3825: 3822: 3820: 3817: 3815: 3812: 3810: 3807: 3805: 3802: 3800: 3797: 3795: 3792: 3790: 3789:Fan coil unit 3787: 3785: 3782: 3780: 3777: 3775: 3772: 3770: 3767: 3765: 3762: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3750: 3747: 3745: 3742: 3740: 3737: 3735: 3734:Cooling tower 3732: 3730: 3727: 3725: 3722: 3720: 3717: 3715: 3712: 3710: 3707: 3705: 3702: 3700: 3697: 3695: 3692: 3690: 3687: 3685: 3682: 3680: 3677: 3675: 3672: 3670: 3667: 3665: 3662: 3660: 3657: 3655: 3652: 3650: 3647: 3645: 3642: 3640: 3637: 3635: 3632: 3630: 3627: 3625: 3622: 3621: 3619: 3615: 3609: 3606: 3604: 3601: 3598: 3595: 3592: 3589: 3586: 3583: 3581: 3580:Vapor barrier 3578: 3576: 3573: 3571: 3568: 3566: 3563: 3561: 3558: 3556: 3555:Solar heating 3553: 3551: 3550:Solar cooling 3548: 3546: 3543: 3541: 3538: 3536: 3533: 3531: 3528: 3526: 3525:Refrigeration 3523: 3521: 3518: 3516: 3513: 3511: 3508: 3506: 3503: 3501: 3498: 3496: 3495:Passive house 3493: 3491: 3488: 3486: 3483: 3481: 3478: 3476: 3473: 3471: 3468: 3466: 3463: 3461: 3458: 3456: 3453: 3450: 3447: 3445: 3442: 3440: 3437: 3435: 3432: 3430: 3427: 3424: 3421: 3419: 3416: 3414: 3411: 3409: 3406: 3404: 3401: 3398: 3395: 3393: 3390: 3387: 3384: 3382: 3379: 3377: 3374: 3371: 3368: 3366: 3365:Chilled water 3363: 3361: 3358: 3356: 3353: 3351: 3348: 3346: 3343: 3341: 3338: 3336: 3333: 3331: 3328: 3326: 3323: 3321: 3318: 3316: 3313: 3311: 3308: 3307: 3305: 3301: 3295: 3292: 3290: 3287: 3285: 3282: 3280: 3277: 3275: 3272: 3270: 3267: 3265: 3264:Sensible heat 3262: 3260: 3257: 3255: 3252: 3250: 3247: 3245: 3244:Noise control 3242: 3240: 3237: 3235: 3232: 3230: 3227: 3225: 3224:Heat transfer 3222: 3220: 3217: 3215: 3212: 3210: 3207: 3205: 3202: 3200: 3197: 3195: 3192: 3190: 3187: 3185: 3182: 3180: 3177: 3175: 3172: 3171: 3169: 3163: 3159: 3152: 3147: 3145: 3140: 3138: 3133: 3132: 3129: 3123: 3120: 3118: 3115: 3113: 3110: 3109: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3075: 3064:September 17, 3059: 3055: 3049: 3038:September 17, 3033: 3029: 3023: 3015: 3009: 3005: 2998: 2983: 2979: 2973: 2965: 2959: 2955: 2948: 2940: 2934: 2930: 2923: 2915: 2909: 2905: 2898: 2896: 2887: 2881: 2877: 2870: 2868: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2832: 2817: 2813: 2810:Woody, Todd. 2806: 2797: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2765: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2738: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2718: 2710: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2695: 2687: 2685: 2675: 2667: 2666:Texas Monthly 2663: 2662: 2654: 2652: 2650: 2641: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2616: 2608: 2602: 2598: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2565: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2537: 2524: 2519: 2506: 2501: 2487: 2483: 2477: 2469: 2465: 2460: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2428: 2419: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2387: 2372: 2365: 2358: 2350: 2343: 2325: 2321: 2314: 2307: 2305: 2297: 2291: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2264: 2251: 2246: 2229: 2223: 2209: 2205: 2199: 2197: 2182: 2178: 2172: 2158: 2154: 2148: 2135: 2130: 2121: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2097: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2079:1-4294-0091-9 2075: 2071: 2064: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2042: 2038: 2031: 2027: 2017: 2014: 2012: 2009: 2007: 2004: 2002: 1999: 1997: 1994: 1992: 1989: 1987: 1984: 1981: 1978: 1976: 1973: 1971: 1968: 1966: 1963: 1961: 1958: 1956: 1953: 1951: 1948: 1946: 1943: 1942: 1937: 1931: 1926: 1923: 1922:Energy portal 1917: 1912: 1902: 1899: 1896: 1892: 1889: 1886: 1883: 1880: 1877: 1874: 1871: 1868: 1867: 1861: 1857: 1848: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1821: 1820:steam turbine 1817: 1808: 1803: 1793: 1791: 1787: 1786:dish stirling 1781: 1777: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1754: 1749: 1748:Dish Stirling 1739: 1737: 1733: 1730:, containing 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1707: 1693: 1689: 1687: 1683: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1644: 1640: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1620: 1612: 1608: 1593: 1590: 1582: 1579:December 2022 1572: 1568: 1564: 1558: 1557: 1553: 1548:This section 1546: 1542: 1537: 1536: 1528: 1519: 1516: 1506: 1497: 1487: 1484: 1476: 1473:December 2022 1466: 1462: 1458: 1452: 1451: 1447: 1442:This section 1440: 1436: 1431: 1430: 1419: 1416: 1415: 1414: 1408: 1405: 1402: 1399: 1398: 1397: 1389: 1387: 1386:solar furnace 1382: 1380: 1370: 1366: 1357: 1355: 1351: 1345: 1342: 1331: 1328: 1317: 1314: 1312: 1307: 1304: 1298: 1296: 1290: 1288: 1279: 1275: 1272: 1266: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1246: 1243: 1238: 1234: 1231: 1230:polypropylene 1227: 1223: 1219: 1209: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1188: 1186: 1175: 1167: 1163: 1154: 1145: 1137: 1133: 1124: 1122: 1118: 1113: 1111: 1106: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1091: 1090:vacuum bottle 1086: 1084: 1079: 1075: 1070: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1022: 1014: 1006: 998: 989: 987: 979: 976: 973: 972:heat transfer 969: 965: 962: 958: 955: 952: 948: 945: 944: 943: 941: 936: 934: 930: 926: 922: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 899: 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 871: 866: 863: 859: 855: 846: 837: 835: 831: 826: 824: 820: 816: 809:Heating water 806: 804: 800: 796: 792: 788: 787:space heating 783: 780: 775: 773: 769: 768:working fluid 765: 760: 758: 754: 753:solar cookers 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 731: 727: 723: 711: 706: 704: 699: 697: 692: 691: 689: 688: 682: 677: 671: 668: 658: 657: 656: 655: 646: 643: 642: 641: 640:Rapid transit 638: 634: 631: 630: 629: 626: 624: 621: 617: 614: 612: 609: 607: 606:Skateboarding 604: 602: 599: 595: 592: 590: 587: 585: 582: 580: 577: 575: 572: 570: 567: 566: 565: 562: 560: 557: 555: 552: 551: 550: 547: 543: 540: 536: 533: 532: 531: 528: 527: 526: 523: 519: 516: 514: 513:Solar vehicle 511: 507: 504: 503: 502: 499: 498: 497: 496:Green vehicle 494: 493: 490: 485: 484: 475: 472: 470: 467: 465: 462: 460: 457: 455: 452: 450: 447: 445: 442: 440: 437: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 421: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 400: 397: 395: 392: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 377:Tidal barrage 375: 374: 373: 370: 368: 367:Marine energy 365: 363: 360: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 341: 338: 336: 333: 332: 331: 328: 326: 323: 321: 318: 316: 313: 311: 308: 306: 303: 301: 298: 294: 291: 290: 289: 286: 285: 282: 277: 276: 269: 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 234: 231: 229: 226: 224: 221: 219: 218:Passive house 216: 214: 211: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169: 166: 164: 161: 159: 156: 154: 151: 149: 146: 144: 141: 139: 136: 134: 131: 129: 126: 124: 121: 119: 116: 114: 111: 109: 106: 104: 101: 99: 96: 94: 91: 89: 86: 85: 82: 77: 76: 72: 68: 67: 64: 61: 60: 56: 55: 47: 41: 40:photovoltaics 37: 33: 19: 4486:Fireproofing 4270:and services 4266:Professions, 4164:Gas detector 4064:Trickle vent 4039:Smoke damper 4034:Smoke canopy 4029:Space heater 3959:Plenum space 3894:Heating film 3774:Exhaust hood 3744:Dehumidifier 3684:Blast damper 3679:Barrier pipe 3654:Air purifier 3565:Thermosiphon 3444:Free cooling 3360:Chilled beam 3284:Thermal mass 3269:Stack effect 3254:Particulates 3234:Infiltration 3165:Fundamental 3092:. Retrieved 3088:the original 3083: 3074: 3062:. Retrieved 3057: 3048: 3036:. Retrieved 3031: 3022: 3003: 2997: 2985:. Retrieved 2981: 2972: 2953: 2947: 2931:. Elsevier. 2928: 2922: 2903: 2875: 2841: 2838:Solar Energy 2837: 2831: 2819:. Retrieved 2815: 2805: 2778: 2774: 2764: 2747: 2743: 2737: 2722: 2717: 2693: 2674: 2660: 2621: 2615: 2579:Solar Energy 2578: 2564: 2547: 2543: 2536: 2518: 2500: 2489:. Retrieved 2485: 2476: 2444:(3): 16–18. 2441: 2437: 2427: 2400: 2396: 2386: 2375:. Retrieved 2370: 2357: 2351:. p. 5. 2348: 2342: 2331:. Retrieved 2319: 2290: 2273: 2269: 2263: 2245: 2234:. Retrieved 2222: 2211:. Retrieved 2207: 2184:. Retrieved 2180: 2171: 2160:. Retrieved 2156: 2147: 2129: 2110: 2106: 2096: 2069: 2063: 2036: 2030: 1991:Solar cooker 1858: 1854: 1840:sun tracking 1837: 1833:Molten salts 1813: 1782: 1778: 1770:dish antenna 1759: 1709: 1667: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1641: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1617: 1605: 1585: 1576: 1561:Please help 1549: 1525: 1515:absorptivity 1512: 1503: 1494: 1479: 1470: 1455:Please help 1443: 1412: 1395: 1383: 1378: 1376: 1367: 1363: 1346: 1341:process area 1337: 1323: 1320:Applications 1315: 1308: 1299: 1291: 1287:sinus effect 1286: 1284: 1267: 1262: 1254: 1252: 1239: 1235: 1215: 1189: 1181: 1172: 1160: 1130: 1114: 1107: 1087: 1071: 1027: 983: 951:thermosyphon 937: 900:part of the 890:transparency 867: 851: 827: 812: 784: 776: 761: 745:solar towers 721: 719: 579:Kick scooter 564:Land vehicle 133:Energy audit 98:Cogeneration 4496:Warm Spaces 4138:Blower door 4116:and control 4114:Measurement 4095:Windcatcher 4069:Trombe wall 4009:Sail switch 3989:Refrigerant 3984:Recuperator 3859:Grease duct 3819:Freeze stat 3804:Fire damper 3674:Back boiler 3644:Air ionizer 3639:Air handler 3603:Ventilation 3455:Hybrid heat 3320:Air barrier 3239:Latent heat 2781:(10): e34. 2750:: 654–663. 2403:: 588–601. 2113:: 588–601. 2011:Trombe wall 1894:collectors. 1825:solar cells 1796:Power tower 1728:focal point 1712:solar power 1334:Heating air 1242:EPDM rubber 1117:overheating 1034:high vacuum 961:temperature 795:electricity 584:Quadracycle 439:Forecasting 372:Tidal power 355:Small hydro 340:Micro hydro 293:Sustainable 158:Energy Star 32:solar panel 4526:Categories 4252:Thermostat 4174:Humidistat 4105:Zone valve 4074:TurboSwing 3949:Oil heater 3919:Humidifier 3849:Gas heater 3799:Fan heater 3769:Evaporator 3754:Economizer 3729:Compressor 3634:Air filter 3617:Components 3434:Forced-air 3330:Antifreeze 3303:Technology 3249:Outgassing 3189:Convection 2491:2019-04-28 2377:2010-08-25 2347:Tom Lane. 2333:2017-10-04 2236:2013-10-06 2213:2019-04-28 2186:2019-04-28 2162:2019-04-28 2023:References 1816:heliostats 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