Environmental impact of concrete

2424:, which provides a level of automatic stormwater management. Pervious concrete is created by careful laying of concrete with specifically designed aggregate proportions, which allows for surface runoff to seep through and return to the groundwater. This both prevents flooding and contributes to groundwater replenishment. If designed and layered properly, pervious concrete and other discreetly paved areas can also function as an automatic water filter by preventing certain harmful substances like oils and other chemicals from passing through. Unfortunately there are still downsides to large scale applications of pervious concrete: its reduced strength relative to conventional concrete limits use to low-load areas, and it must be laid properly to reduce susceptibility to freeze-thaw damage and sediment buildup. 2140:, which uses excess generated electricity to pump water up a dam and then allowed to fall and turn turbines that produce electricity when the demand exceeds generation. The problem with pumped hydro, however, is that the setup requires specific geographies that can be difficult to find. A similar concept that uses cement instead of water has been realized by Energy Vault, a Swiss startup. They created a setup that uses an electric crane surrounded by stacks of 35-ton concrete blocks, which can be produced using waste products, to store energy by using excess energy generation to power the crane to lift and stack the concrete blocks. When energy is needed, the blocks are allowed to fall and the rotated motor would send energy back to the grid. The setup would have a storage capacity of 25-80 MWh. 230: 534: 2466:

interactions in the northern Italian city of Milan. By calculating the "Mediterranean Outdoor Comfort Index" (MOCI) in presence of a heat wave, where high albedo materials was used in all surfaces. The study identified a deterioration of the microclimate where high amounts of high albedo materials were located. The use of the high albedo materials was found to "lead to the establishment of multiple inter-reflections and a consequent increase in micrometeorological variables such as average radiant temperatures and air temperatures. To be more detailed, these changes lead to an increase in the MOCI that in the afternoon hours can even reach 0.45 units".

2298: 165: 418:). Belite is also a mineral already used in concrete. It has a roasting temperature of 1,200 °C, which is significantly lower than that of alite. Furthermore, belite is actually stronger once concrete cures. However, belite takes on the order of days or months to set completely, which leaves concrete weak for longer. Current research is focusing on finding possible impurity additives, like magnesium, that might speed up the curing process. It is also worthwhile to consider that belite takes more energy to grind, which may make its full life of impact similar to or even higher than alite. 2522: 2124:

be a thin layer of dye-sensitized solar cells. Dye-sensitized solar cells are particularly attractive due to its ease of mass production, either via roll-printing or painting, and a reasonably high efficiency of 10%. One example of the commercialization of this concept is the German company Discrete, which produces a dye-sensitized solar cell embedded concrete product. Their process uses a spray-coating method to apply organic dyes that generate electricity onto concrete.

2245: 2182: 198: 133: 6132: 5467: 234: 274:. Dust from rubble or broken concrete upon demolition or crumbling may cause serious health concerns depending also on what had been incorporated in the concrete. However, embedding harmful materials in concrete is not always dangerous and may in fact be beneficial. In some cases, incorporating certain compounds such as metals in the hydration process of cement immobilizes them in a harmless state and prevents them from being released freely elsewhere. 238: 236: 233: 231: 2212:

recycling old concrete rubble to use as aggregate in new concrete mixtures to reduce these emissions. Concrete has immersed from natural resources into man-made processes; evidence of the use of concrete dates back over 8,000 years ago. Today, many construction companies and concrete manufacturers have cut the use of Portland cement in their mixtures due to its production process emitting significant amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

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around our cities on almost a daily basis). A major development in the infrastructure industry involves the use of recycled petroleum waste to protect the concrete from damage and enable infrastructure to become dynamic, able to be easily maintained and updated without disturbance to the existing foundations. This simple innovation preserves the foundations for the entire lifespan of a development.

2309: 342:, lower per unit mass than most common building materials besides wood. However, concrete structures often have high masses, so this comparison is not always directly relevant to decision making. Additionally, this value is based only on mix proportions of up to 20% fly ash. It is estimated that a 1% replacement of cement with fly ash represents a 0.7% reduction in 2169:

have similar densities, can be used with currently existing metal reinforcement, and they actually gain strength faster than normal concrete This application has yet to be explored on Earth, but with concrete production representing as much as two-thirds of the total energy usage of some developing countries, any improvement is worth considering.

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The Design Trust for Public Space found that by slightly raising the albedo value in New York City, beneficial effects such as energy savings could be achieved., by replacement of black asphalt with light-colored concrete. However, in winter this may be a disadvantage as ice will form more easily and

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Depending on the amounts required or used overall and the amounts needed, in combination with other materials, for structural stability per building, many other materials also have a substantial negative impact on the environment. For instance, while research and development to reduce these emissions

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There are in fact many alternatives to concrete. One being Green concrete that is produced by recycled waste materials from various industries , another being Ashcrete, a material made from a mix of lime and water that acts similar to cement. Black furnace slag is also a strong alternative made from

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There are many other improvements to concrete that do not deal directly with emissions. Recently, much research has gone into "smart" concretes: concretes that use electrical and mechanical signals to respond to changes in loading conditions. One variety uses carbon fiber reinforcement which provides

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embedded in concrete has been proposed as a method of reducing the carbon and energy footprints of buildings. The usage of embedded solar cells allows for on-site energy generation, which when coupled with batteries, would provide constant power throughout the day. The top layer of the concrete would

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effect. According to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs 55% of the world’s population reside in urban areas and 68% of the world’s population is projected to be urban by 2050; also, "the world is projected to add 230 billion m2 (2.5 trillion ft2) of buildings by 2060, or an

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gravel is laid down as the lowest layer in a road, with fresh concrete or asphalt placed over it. Crushed recycled concrete can sometimes be used as the dry aggregate for brand new concrete if it is free of contaminants, though the use of recycled concrete limits strength and is not allowed in many

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concrete every day to secure road-side and urban infrastructure. As populations grow this infrastructure is becoming increasingly vulnerable to impact from vehicles, creating an ever increasing cycle of damage and waste and ever increasing consumption of concrete for repairs (roadworks are now seen

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pavements, can reduce the flow of heat into the urban environment and moderate the UHIE. Albedos range from about 0.05 to about 0.35 for currently used pavement material surfaces. Over a typical life service, pavement materials that begin with high albedo tend to lose reflectance, while those with

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The potential of energy saving within an area is also high. With lower temperatures, the demand for air conditioning theoretically decreases, saving energy. However, research into the interaction between reflective pavements and buildings has found that, unless the nearby buildings are fitted with

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The main obstacle to wider implementation of fly ash and slag may be largely due to the risk of construction with new technology that has not been exposed to long field testing. Until a carbon tax is implemented, companies are unwilling to take the chance with new concrete mix recipes even if this

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Overall urban configurations should remain of concern when making decisions as people are exposed to weather and thermal confort conditions. The use of high albedo materials within an urban environment can be of positive effect with proper combination of other technologies and strategies such as:

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for use in extraplanetary colonization. Most commonly, these concretes use sulfur to act as a non-reactive binder, allowing for construction of concrete structures in environments with no or very little water. These concretes are in many ways indistinguishable from normal hydraulic concrete: they

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Concrete is one of the world's oldest man-made building materials. Over the years, significant environmental limitations have been placed on the creation and use of concrete due to its carbon footprint. Manufacturers responded to these limitations by altering concrete's production processes, and

270:) can be present in various concentration in concrete dwellings, depending on the source of the raw materials used. For example, some stones naturally emit Radon, and Uranium was once common in mine refuse. Toxic substances may also be unintentionally used as the result of contamination from a 2441:

area equal to the entire current global building stock. This is the equivalent of adding an entire New York City to the planet every 34 days for the next 40 years". As a result, paved surfaces represent a major concern because of the additional energy consumption and air pollution they cause.

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effect, as well as the need for more mitigation strategies, which don’t threat the health and wellbeing of pedestrians particularly during heat waves. A study that appeared in Building and Environment in 2019 performed experiments to project the impact of heat waves and high albedo materials

2316: 406:), a mineral in concrete that cures within hours of pouring and is therefore responsible for much of its initial strength. However, alite also has to be heated to 1,500 °C in the clinker-forming process. Some research suggests that alite can be replaced by a different mineral, such as 2135:

has become an important consideration for many renewable energy generation methods, especially for popular methods such as solar or wind energy, both of which are intermittent energy producers that require storage for constant use. Currently, 96% of the world’s energy storage comes from

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in 2018 predicts that concrete production will in the future increase pressure on water resources in regions susceptible to drought conditions, writing, "In 2050, 75% of the water demand for concrete production will likely occur in regions that are expected to experience water stress".

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Falasca, Serena; Ciancio, Virgilio; Salata, Ferdinando; Golasi, Iacopo; Rosso, Federica; Curci, Gabriele (October 2019). "High albedo materials to counteract heat waves in cities: An assessment of meteorology, buildings energy needs and pedestrian thermal comfort".

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Moreover, heat transfer from pavements, which cover about one-third of a typical U.S. city, can also influence local temperatures and air quality. Hot surfaces warm the city air through convection, so using materials that absorb less solar energy, such as

334:, and water, are relatively plentiful and can often be drawn from local sources. This means that transportation only accounts for 7% of the embodied energy of concrete, while cement production accounts for 70%. Concrete has a total embodied energy of 1.69 3592:

Vakifahmetoglu, Cekdar; Anger, Jean Francois; Atakan, Vahit; Quinn, Sean; Gupta, Surojit; Li, Qinghua; Tang, Ling; Riman, Richard E. (2016). "Reactive Hydrothermal Liquid-Phase Densification (rHLPD) of Ceramics – A Study of the BaTiO3 Composite System".

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reduces carbon emissions. However, there are some examples of "green" concrete and its implementation. One instance is a concrete company called Ceratech that has started manufacturing concrete with 95% fly ash and 5% liquid additives. Another is the

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proficiencies, some authors have argued that the effect of early-age carbonation curing may succumb to weathering carbonation later on. For example, a 2020 article writes, "Experimental results suggest that early-age carbonated concretes with high

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Furthermore, the production of concrete requires large amounts of water, and global production accounts for almost a tenth of worldwide industrial water use. This amounts to 1.7 percent of total global water withdrawal. A study that appeared in

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are emitted for the fabrication of every ton of cement, accounting for 88% of the emissions associated with the average concrete mix. Cement manufacture contributes greenhouse gases both directly through the production of carbon dioxide when

1762:). Concrete produced by carbonation curing also shows superior performance when subject to physical degradations, e.g., freeze-thaw damage, particularly due to a pore densification effect enabled by the precipitation of carbonation products 2900:

P.K. Mehta: Concrete technology for sustainable development – overview of essential elements, O.E. Gjorv, K. Sakai (Eds.), Concrete technology for a sustainable development in the 21st century, E&FN Spon, London (2000), pp.

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has been demonstrated to cause a wide variety of adverse health and environmental effects, including triggering respiratory distress, reacting with other atmospheric chemicals to form harmful products such as

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Akbari, Hashem; Cartalis, Constantinos; Kolokotsa, Denia; Muscio, Alberto; Pisello, Anna Laura; Rossi, Federico; Santamouris, Matheos; Synnef, Afroditi; WONG, Nyuk Hien; Zinzi, Michele (18 December 2015).

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concrete emissions of 400 kg/m. The most effective method of production of this concrete would use the exhaust gas of a power plant, where an isolated chamber could control temperature and humidity.

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and recycled elsewhere. The remaining aggregate chunks are sorted by size. Larger chunks may go through the crusher again. Smaller pieces of concrete are used as gravel for new construction projects.

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in the ironworks industry. These materials are slowly gaining popularity as additives, especially since they can potentially increase strength, decrease density, and prolong durability of concrete.

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is introduced to the early stages of fresh premix concrete or upon initial curing, which can occur both naturally through exposure or be artificially accelerated by augmenting a direct intake of CO

2796: 449:, fly ash, and slag depending on the portion of the bridge and its material properties requirements. Several startup companies are developing and testing alternative cement production methods. 2409:, the impervious cover in a typical urban area limits groundwater percolation and causes five times the amount of runoff generated by a typical woodland of the same size. A 2008 report by the 741: 4465:

Gilbert, Haley E.; Rosado, Pablo J.; Ban-Weiss, George; Harvey, John T.; Li, Hui; Mandel, Benjamin H.; Millstein, Dev; Mohegh, Arash; Saboori, Arash; Levinson, Ronnen M. (15 December 2017).

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Kim, H.; Lee, H. (2013). "Effects of High Volumes of Fly Ash, Blast Furnace Slag, and Bottom Ash on Flow Characteristics, Density, and Compressive Strength of High-Strength Mortar".

4194: 1732:(>0.65) are more likely to be affected by weathering carbonation". The article cautions that this may weaken its strength abilities in the corrosion stages during life service. 290:

produced for the manufacture of structural concrete (using ~14% cement) is estimated at 410 kg/m (~180 kg/tonne @ density of 2.3 g/cm) (reduced to 290 kg/m with 30%

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jurisdictions. On 3 March 1983, a government-funded research team (the VIRL research.codep) approximated that almost 17% of worldwide landfill was by-products of concrete-based

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emissions from concrete come from cement manufacturing. Therefore, methods to reduce cement materials in each concrete mix are the only known methods to reduce the emissions.

1439: 3037: 3567: 947: 609: 574: 115:, legislation, and economic considerations. Conversely, the use of concrete mitigates the use of alternative building materials such as wood, which is a natural form of 378:

There is a growing interest in reducing carbon emissions related to concrete from both the academic and industrial sectors, especially with the possibility of future

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in solution (pH ~ 13.5). Eyes, hands and feet must be correctly protected to avoid any direct contact with wet concrete and washed without delay if necessary.

99:. The presence of some substances in concrete, including useful and unwanted additives, can cause health concerns due to toxicity and (usually naturally occurring) 2996:

Mahasenan, Natesan; Steve Smith; Kenneth Humphreys; Y. Kaya (2003). "The Cement Industry and Global Climate Change: Current and Potential Future Cement Industry CO

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designed a kind of cement that is supposedly alleviating air pollution by breaking down pollutants that come in contact with the concrete, through the use of

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Ademola, J. A.; Oguneletu, P. O. (2005). "Radionuclide content of concrete building blocks and radiation dose rates in some dwellings in Ibadan, Nigeria".

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an electrical response that can be used to measure strain. This allows for monitoring the structural integrity of the concrete without installing sensors.

4829: 1747:. Some environmental experts nevertheless remain skeptical and wonder if the special material can "eat" enough pollutants to make it financially viable. 3111: 2639: 1758:

Another aspect to consider in carbon concrete is surface scaling due to cold climatic conditions and exposure to de-icing salt and freeze-thaw cycles (

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is then chemically mineralized, sequestering the greenhouse gas pollutant in concrete infrastructure, buildings, roads, etc. for long periods of time.

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Selected Contributions of the 6th European Meeting on Solar Chemistry and Photocatalysis: Environmental Applications (SPEA 6), 13th to 16th June 2010

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Ballari, M.M.; Yu, Q.L.; Brouwers, H.J.H. (17 March 2011). "Experimental study of the NO and NO2 degradation by photocatalytically active concrete".

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vegetation, reflective materials, etc. Urban heat mitigation measures could minimize impacts on microclimate as well as human and wildlife habitats.

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Monkman, Sean; MacDonald, Mark (November 2017). "On carbon dioxide utilization as a means to improve the sustainability of ready-mixed concrete".

4583: 177: 4903: 4898: 4871: 2887: 952: 286:), creating up to 5% of worldwide man-made emissions of this gas, of which 50% is from the chemical process and 40% from burning fuel. The CO 1845: 484:

systems at hundreds of concrete plants around the world, injecting and permanently storing carbon dioxide in concrete as it is being mixed.

4856: 4804: 2768: 24:, its manufacture, and its applications, are complex, driven in part by direct impacts of construction and infrastructure, as well as by CO 3756:

Chen, Haihan; Nanayakkara, Charith E.; Grassian, Vicki H. (14 November 2012). "Titanium Dioxide Photocatalysis in Atmospheric Chemistry".

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Zhang, Duo; Liu, Tianlu; Shao, Yixin (April 2020). "Weathering Carbonation Behavior of Concrete Subject to Early-Age Carbonation Curing".

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remain longer on light colored surfaces as they will be colder due to less energy absorbed from the reduced amount of sunlight in winter.

4878: 4851: 4824: 4799: 1442: 6091: 2529:

Concrete recycling is an increasingly common method of disposing of concrete structures. Concrete debris was once routinely shipped to

6161: 5808: 5518: 5210: 4950: 514:) by chemical reaction, which, if used in concrete, can sequester carbon dioxide. The speed of carbonation depends primarily on the 5480: 5475: 5195: 4819: 3930: 3380:

Ahmad, Shamsad (May 2003). "Reinforcement corrosion in concrete structures, its monitoring and service life prediction––a review".

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reflective glass, solar radiation reflected off pavements can increase building temperatures, increasing air conditioning demands.

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Concrete, which must be free of trash, wood, paper and other such materials, is collected from demolition sites and put through a

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emission from the concrete production is directly proportional to the cement content used in the concrete mix; 900 kg of CO

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Young, J. F.; Berger, R. L.; Breese, J. (1974). "Accelerated Curing of Compacted Calcium Silicate Mortars on Exposure to CO2".

3629: 2587: 5459: 5215: 4893: 4541: 4299: 4188: 4164: 3950:"Carbon Fiber Reinforced Concrete as an Intrinsically Smart Concrete for Damage Assessment during Static and Dynamic Loading" 3453: 3268: 3017: 2656: 2533:

for disposal, but recycling is increasing due to improved environmental awareness, governmental laws and economic benefits.

1643: 1587:). The patented process of reduced-emissions concrete manufacture begins with the bonding of particles through liquid phase 526:(RH) of 40-90%—when RH is higher than 90%, carbon dioxide cannot enter the concrete pores, and when RH is lower than 40%, CO 5633: 5310: 5158: 2363:

could be very inexpensive, well-insulated, stable and weatherproof, climate-adaptable, customizable, get produced rapidly,

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PRODUCTION OF LUNAR CONCRETE USING MOLTEN SULFUR Final Research Report for JoVe NASA Grant NAG8 - 278 by Dr. Husam A. Omar

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One reason why the carbon emissions are so high is because cement has to be heated to very high temperatures in order for

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Non-destructive evaluation of reinforced concrete structures. Volume 1, Deterioration processes and standard test methods

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The presence of some substances in concrete, including useful and unwanted additives, can cause health concerns. Natural

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Handling of wet concrete must always be done with proper protective equipment. Contact with wet concrete can cause skin

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into the local atmosphere. Concrete dust was concluded to be the major source of dangerous air pollution following the

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Exploiting wastes in concrete: proceedings of the international seminar held at the University of Dundee, Scotland, UK

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emissions, thus allowing for a cement loading reduction while also having a "4.6% reduction in the carbon footprint".

629: 5485: 5094: 5079: 4913: 4861: 4666: 3417: 2981: 2925: 2812:"Activity Concentration Index Values for Concrete Multistory Residences in Greece Due to Fly Ash Addition in Cement" 2782: 2420:

In an attempt to counteract the negative effects of impervious concrete, many new paving projects have begun to use

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are an alternative construction material to concrete that have a lower environmental footprint. In 2021, the first

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and these carbonated calcium silicate concrete (CSC-C) lies in the final curing process reaction between a water-CO

442: 5275: 5024: 5002: 4960: 4930: 4883: 4766: 4749: 4732: 4708: 3539:

Higuchi, Takayuki (30 September 2014). "Development of a new ecological concrete with CO2 emissions below zero".

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in 𝛾 phase—as the concrete cures. The use of fly ash or another suitable substitute could theoretically bring CO

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A Canadian company patented and commercialized a novel technology that uses early age carbonation to sequester CO

346:. With some proposed mixes containing as much as 80% fly ash, this could represent a considerable energy saving. 3242: 2495:

nature of the mixture of cement and water (including rainwater). Indeed, the pH of fresh cement water is highly

5548: 4980: 4975: 4072: 533: 2577: 6024: 5591: 5511: 5146: 5084: 4531: 4264: 2797:"Hong Kong watchdog arrests 49 suspects in housing renovation scam involving contracts worth HK$ 500 million" 2276:

molten iron slag into water, along with Micro Silica, Papercrete, composite cement, and post-consumer glass.

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Another approach has been the partial replacement of conventional clinker with such alternatives as fly ash,

79:, diversion, and deflection of flood waters, mud flows, and the like. Light-colored concrete can reduce the 4742: 4246: 5295: 3710: 1591:, also referred to as reactive hydrothermal liquid-phase densification (rHLPD). A solution of water and CO 6065: 6040: 5954: 5921: 5113: 4997: 4754: 4646: 3048: 2235: 1448: 1337:

from third-party industrial emitters into the concrete wet-mix stage during the manufacturing process. CO

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solution and a family of calcium-silicate. According to a study of one reduced-emissions cement, called

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Building Green. (1993). Cement and Concrete: Environmental Considerations. Retrieved 2 November 2015.

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formation only occurs at high temperatures, nitrogen oxides are typically produced as a byproduct of

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process, and Fortera captures carbon dioxide from conventional plants to make a new kind of cement.

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Concrete can be carbonated by two main methods: weathering carbonation and early age carbonation.

5828: 5435: 5373: 4776: 2713:"Dust concentration around the sites of demolition work after the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake" 2398: 1091: 473: 445:, which was constructed with a novel mixture of concrete that included different compositions of 350: 112: 5573: 930: 579: 547: 37: 5926: 5803: 5727: 5618: 5613: 5378: 5205: 2297: 1729: 327: 164: 75:. Conversely, concrete is one of the most powerful tools for proper flood control, by means of 3911: 1595:

penetrates the particles, reacting in ambient conditions to form a bond which creates reduced-

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per unit mass. This is primarily because the materials used in concrete construction, such as

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WEF Manual of Practice No. 23; ASCE Manual and Report on Engineering Practice No. 87. 1998.

2370:, require less energy, produce very little waste and reduce carbon emissions from concrete. 544:

Weathering carbonation occurs in concrete when calcium compounds react with carbon dioxide (

425:, and slag, all of which are by-products of other industries that would otherwise end up in 357:

would lead to greater greenhouse gas reductions, per dollar, than investments in many other

6045: 5946: 5941: 5901: 5813: 5676: 5363: 5131: 4771: 4737: 4727: 4611: 4478: 4413: 4372: 3857: 3663: 3338: 3201: 3152: 2724: 1724: 1723:

However, as early age carbonation methods have gained recognition due to their substantial

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Demolition of the cooling towers of a power station, Athlone, Cape Town, South Africa, 2010

17: 4217: 3568:"LafargeHolcim is selling CO2-sucking cement for precast, reduces emissions by 70 percent" 8: 5992: 5911: 5681: 5623: 5425: 5418: 5358: 5255: 5250: 4925: 4318:"Local Climate Change and Urban Heat Island Mitigation Techniques – the State of the Art" 4230: 2525:

Recycled crushed concrete being loaded into a semi-dump truck to be used as granular fill

2500: 2492: 1612: 612: 116: 92: 4615: 4482: 4417: 4376: 3861: 3342: 3156: 2728: 5906: 5823: 5440: 5398: 5393: 5353: 5305: 5069: 4965: 4841: 4627: 4512: 4447: 4180:

Stormwater Effects Handbook: A Toolbox for Watershed Managers, Scientists and Engineers

3888: 3845: 3738: 3667: 3490: 3459: 3445: 3362: 3243:"Making cement is very damaging for the climate. One solution is opening in California" 3009: 2942: 2745: 2712: 2516: 2382: 2367: 2231: 2157: 1378: 358: 343: 108: 4124:"Mario Cucinella Architects and WASP creates 3D-printed sustainable housing prototype" 3552: 3436:

Aggarwal, Paratibha; Aggarwal, Yogesh (2020). "7 - Carbonation and corrosion of SCC".

3393: 6156: 6135: 5891: 5886: 5861: 5843: 5757: 5737: 5558: 5315: 5190: 5136: 4935: 4920: 4662: 4631: 4562: 4537: 4504: 4496: 4439: 4431: 4295: 4184: 4160: 3893: 3875: 3826: 3781: 3773: 3742: 3730: 3685: 3671: 3610: 3494: 3463: 3449: 3413: 3366: 3354: 3300: 3170: 3076: 3013: 2977: 2921: 2868: 2833: 2750: 2437: 2421: 2153: 1853: 1744: 1600: 912: 754: 750: 523: 507: 304: 243: 80: 6014: 4516: 4451: 3098: 5987: 5896: 5762: 5722: 5601: 5563: 5270: 5265: 5240: 5039: 5012: 4654: 4623: 4619: 4486: 4421: 4380: 4339: 4329: 3883: 3865: 3816: 3808: 3765: 3722: 3659: 3602: 3548: 3521: 3486: 3441: 3389: 3346: 3273: 3197: 3160: 3005: 2860: 2823: 2740: 2732: 2686: 2541: 2504: 2433: 1909: 1812: 1777: 1759: 1740: 1402: 1398: 519: 458: 391: 362: 271: 4677: 4491: 4466: 4334: 4317: 3525: 2864: 2284:

accounted for ~8 % of the world's total greenhouse gas emissions as of 2021.

1599:, non-hydraulic calcium silicate cement (CSC). The difference between traditional 5931: 5782: 5686: 5596: 5403: 5320: 5300: 5280: 5180: 5029: 4533:

Green Building with Concrete: Sustainable Design and Construction, Second Edition

4156: 3812: 3083: 2969: 2521: 2462: 1849: 1596: 1492: 1386: 446: 323: 308: 68: 44: 32:

emissions come from concrete. Many depend on circumstances. A major component is

4426: 4401: 4385: 4360: 6004: 5936: 5777: 5696: 5666: 5661: 5553: 5430: 5325: 5225: 5153: 4940: 4658: 3844:

Hosseini, T.; Flores-Vivian, I.; Sobolev, K.; Kouklin, N. (25 September 2013).

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implementation. Several approaches to reducing emissions have been suggested.

6150: 5977: 5876: 5866: 5772: 5413: 5368: 5348: 5170: 4945: 4500: 4435: 3879: 3830: 3777: 3734: 3614: 3498: 3358: 3304: 3077:

EIA – Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the U.S. 2006-Carbon Dioxide Emissions

2837: 2488: 2482: 2414: 1889: 1785: 924: 746: 620: 503: 434: 282:

The cement industry is one of the two largest producers of carbon dioxide (CO

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Another pathway for the oxidation of nitrogen uses UV irradiation to form NO

5881: 5767: 5742: 5535: 5106: 5101: 5089: 5049: 5034: 4722: 3897: 3785: 3628:

Meyer, Vincent; DeCristofaro, Nick; Bryant, Jason; Sahu, Sada (June 2017).

3174: 2872: 2754: 2711:

Yamamoto, Ryoji; Nobuhiko, Nagai; Koizumi, Naoko; Ninomiya, Ruriko (1999).

2390: 2386: 2220: 1808: 1406: 354: 64: 5691: 3931:"Stacking concrete blocks is a surprisingly efficient way to store energy" 1872:

concentrations, especially in urban settings, is to use photocatalytic TiO

1370: 315:, and also through the use of energy, particularly from the combustion of 176:

and natural disasters such as earthquakes often release a large amount of

5982: 5701: 5638: 5220: 5175: 5044: 5017: 4344: 3325:

Miller, Sabbie A.; Horvath, Arpad; Monteiro, Paulo J. M. (January 2018).

2406: 2351: 2346: 2328: 1905: 1736: 316: 251: 88: 2405:

and other pollutants from sidewalks, roadways and parking lots. Without

2244: 2181: 1322:{\displaystyle {\ce {C2S + 2CO2 + H2O -> CSH + 2CaCO3 + 184 kJ/mol}}} 1205:{\displaystyle {\ce {C3S + 3CO2 + H2O -> CSH + 3CaCO3 + 347 kJ/mol}}} 1090:

and calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) in cement was described in 1974 in

246:

emitted and rising up from a building under rehabilitation in Hong Kong.

197: 132: 6086: 5871: 5851: 5643: 5285: 3821: 3606: 2828: 2811: 2736: 2356: 2165: 422: 379: 173: 4508: 4443: 3870: 3769: 6117: 5408: 5054: 4402:"Are cooler surfaces a cost-effect mitigation of urban heat islands?" 3711:"Surface scaling of CO2-cured concrete exposed to freeze-thaw cycles" 3327:"Impacts of booming concrete production on water resources worldwide" 2394: 2355:, printed from locally-sourced soil and water as well as fibers from 2343: 1816: 1588: 1083: 462: 335: 255: 55:. Concrete causes damage to the most fertile layer of the earth, the 4653:. Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy. Woodhead Publishing: 79–98. 3165: 3140: 2914:

Making Concrete Change: Innovation in Low Carbon Cement and Concrete

1823:

formation, both of which are the result of urban pollution. Since NO

611:) in the concrete pores. The reaction is as follows. First, through 6101: 6096: 5732: 5527: 4467:"Energy and environmental consequences of a cool pavement campaign" 3843: 3637:

6th International Conference on Non-Traditional Cement and Concrete

3112:"Plant-based meat by far the best climate investment, report finds" 3036:

Nisbet, Michael A.; Marceau, Medgar L.; VanGeem, Martha G. (2002).

2530: 2496: 2164:

Another area of concrete research involves the creation of certain

515: 426: 331: 104: 72: 21: 4647:"5 - The urban heat island effect: causes and potential solutions" 3002:

Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies – 6th International Conference

1866:

concentration of 40 μg/m. One proposed route of decreasing NO

6060: 5628: 5235: 5185: 4046:"Germany Ready to Spend $ 6 Billion to Clean Up Steel Production" 2844: 2537: 2481:

Further information on safety issues associated with cement:

1881: 1620: 322:

One area of the concrete life cycle worth noting is its very low

291: 263: 259: 56: 3438:

Self-Compacting Concrete: Materials, Properties and Applications

3038:"Environmental Life Cycle Inventory of Portland Cement Concrete" 1615:

in which the low-lime calcium silicates in the CSC react with CO

5787: 5747: 5581: 5059: 4176: 2710: 2556: 2450: 1628: 1608: 1542: 537:

Pore structures in fresh concrete and air entrained in concrete

450: 407: 107:

and should always be handled with proper protective equipment.

84: 59:. Concrete is used to create hard surfaces which contribute to 33: 3591: 2888:"Radioactive Concrete is Latest Scare for Fukushima Survivors" 1365:

Another proposed method of capturing emissions is to absorb CO

1086:

and can be permanently stored in concrete. The reactions of CO

901:{\displaystyle {\ce {Ca(OH)2 + H2CO3 <=> CaCO3 + 2H2O}}} 277: 5706: 5608: 4314: 4073:"Is This 3D-Printed Home Made of Clay the Future of Housing?" 3630:"Solidia Cement an Example of Carbon Capture and Utilization" 2565: 2552: 2545: 2402: 2281: 1841: 1496: 919:) has sufficiently carbonated, the main component of cement, 395: 339: 267: 4464: 4216:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, DC.

5496: 4265:"Atlanta Is Home To Largest Permeable Pavers Project In US" 3846:"Concrete Embedded Dye-Synthesized Photovoltaic Solar Cell" 3627: 2635:

The Cement Sustainability Initiative: Our agenda for action

2339: 1912:

attack. The molecule adsorption reactions are given below:

1833:. In addition to contributing to urban pollution events, NO 1820: 1792:

behavior, has been used to remove nitrogen oxides (denoted

1752: 365:

would reap considerably greater reductions than even this.

4600: 4229:

United States. National Research Council. Washington, DC.

2810:

Gavela, Stamatia; Papadakos, Georgios (20 November 2023).

2588:

Greenhouse gas emissions § Buildings and construction

2555:

and other metallic reinforcements, which are removed with

1793: 1706: 1690: 1674: 1658: 1573: 1527: 1477: 1427: 1350:, the authors created a model showing that sequestered CO 1297: 1268: 1252: 1229: 1180: 1151: 1135: 1112: 1065:{\displaystyle {\ce {H2CO3 + CaO <=> CaCO3 + H2O}}} 1055: 1039: 980: 967: 891: 871: 818: 805: 789: 729: 716: 660: 644: 594: 562: 95:

and natural disasters can be a major source of dangerous

76: 4559:

Worldchanging : a user's guide for the 21st century

2970:"Wastes in Concrete :Converting Liabilities into Assets" 4361:"Effect of reflective pavements on building energy use" 3755: 1713:{\displaystyle {\ce {CaSiO3 + CO2 -> CaCO3 + SiO2}}} 87:. However, original vegetation results in even greater 4584:"Will L.A.'s Cool Pavements Make Pedestrians Too Hot?" 4152: 3639:. Brno, Czech Republic – via SOLID Life Project. 3431: 3429: 3269:"The high-stakes race to reduce emissions from cement" 2769:"Integrated Building Rehabilitation Assistance Scheme" 1010: 842: 687: 187: 4292:

World urbanization prospects : the 2018 revision

3324: 2436:

are the primary contributors to what is known as the

1646: 1551: 1505: 1451: 1415: 1217: 1100: 955: 933: 766: 632: 582: 550: 3035: 506:, sometimes called carbonation, is the formation of 4707: 4561:(Revised & updated ed.). Harry N. Abrams. 4231:"Urban Stormwater Management in the United States." 3995:"Eco-Friendly Alternatives to Traditional Concrete" 3426: 3686:"ABC News – Breaking News, Latest News and Videos" 3293:"Concrete: the most destructive material on Earth" 2640:World Business Council for Sustainable Development 2607:"Concrete: the most destructive material on Earth" 1712: 1579: 1533: 1483: 1433: 1333:. This is achieved by directly injecting recycled 1321: 1204: 1064: 941: 900: 735: 603: 568: 522:. Carbonation in concrete pores happens only at a 4358: 4148: 3798: 3476: 3208: 3099:http://www.wbcsdcement.org/pdf/tf2/cementconc.pdf 1018: 1017: 1000: 999: 850: 849: 832: 831: 736:{\displaystyle {\ce {CO2 + H2O <=> H2CO3}}} 695: 694: 677: 676: 6148: 6071:International Federation for Structural Concrete 4064: 4024:MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology 3511: 3435: 2850: 2385:, such as non-porous concrete, can cause severe 1772: 1397:cement was announced which "reduces the overall 619:reacts with water in the concrete pores to form 4020:"One order of steel; hold the greenhouse gases" 3134: 3132: 2972:, in Ravindra K. Dhir; Trevor G. Jappy (eds.), 2809: 2413:identified urban runoff as a leading source of 1082:. Gaseous carbon dioxide is converted to solid 4289: 3217:"Concrete Is Remixed With Environment in Mind" 40:and contributes largely to those of concrete. 5512: 4693: 4220:Document No. EPA 841-F-03-003. February 2003. 4218:"Protecting Water Quality from Urban Runoff." 1405:by 70%". The base of the cement is primarily 923:(C-S-H), can be decalcified, i.e., liberated 3922: 3649: 3240: 3129: 2911:Lehne, Johanna; Preston, Felix (June 2018). 2910: 2717:Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine 385: 4352: 4322:Journal of Civil Engineering and Management 2225: 1815:, are atmospheric gases that contribute to 278:Carbon dioxide emissions and climate change 5519: 5505: 4700: 4686: 4177:G. Allen Burton, Jr.; Robert Pitt (2001). 3709:Zhang, Duo; Shao, Yixin (1 October 2018). 3266: 3187: 3109: 2967: 2691:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2651: 2649: 2156:and maintenance industry consumes tons of 28:emissions; between 4-8% of total global CO 5211:Environmental issues in the United States 4490: 4425: 4399: 4384: 4343: 4333: 3947: 3887: 3869: 3820: 3708: 3652:Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering 3440:. Woodhead Publishing. pp. 147–193. 3181: 3164: 3045:National Ready Mixed Concrete Association 2827: 2744: 1965:Generation of holes and electrons via TiO 1556: 1510: 1466: 1456: 1385:emissions below 0 kg/m, compared to 1306: 1286: 1241: 1189: 1169: 1124: 880: 5196:Effects of climate change on agriculture 4116: 3904: 3837: 3214: 2520: 2454:low initial albedo may gain reflectance 1876:mixed into concrete to oxidize NO and NO 532: 228: 163: 4556: 4098:"First 3D printed clay house completed" 4070: 3792: 3595:Journal of the American Ceramic Society 3538: 3479:Journal of the American Ceramic Society 3004:. Oxford: Pergamon. pp. 995–1000. 2646: 2630: 2628: 2476: 2411:United States National Research Council 2236:Structural engineering § Materials 2115: 993: 825: 670: 6149: 5201:Effects of climate change on livestock 4644: 4529: 2885: 2853:Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 373: 111:is increasing in response to improved 5500: 4681: 4241: 4239: 4142: 3948:Chen, Pu Woei; Chung, D.D.L. (1996). 3928: 3698:from the original on 5 December 2022. 3565: 3379: 3290: 3286: 3284: 3138: 3093: 3091: 3031: 3029: 2510: 2143: 1755:is built from this kind of concrete. 5634:Ground granulated blast-furnace slag 5455: 5311:Tropical cyclones and climate change 4359:Yaghoobian, N.; Kleissl, J. (2012). 4210: 3749: 3291:Watts, Jonathan (25 February 2019). 3241:O'Malley, Isabella (11 April 2024). 2625: 2239: 2176: 1892:that allow for NO to oxidize into NO 1619:in the presence of water to produce 1484:{\displaystyle {\ce {3CaO . 2SiO2}}} 394:to form. A major culprit of this is 191: 126: 6051:Institution of Structural Engineers 5344:Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion 4153:American Society of Civil Engineers 3966:from the original on 28 August 2017 3541:Construction and Building Materials 3412:. CRC Press. 2010. pp. 28–56. 2687:"Radiation from Building Materials" 2684: 1580:{\displaystyle {\ce {2CaO . SiO2}}} 1534:{\displaystyle {\ce {3CaO . SiO2}}} 433:plants, while slag is a waste from 429:. Fly ash and bottom ash come from 307:is thermally decomposed, producing 188:Toxic and radioactive contamination 13: 4236: 4183:. New York: CRC/Lewis Publishers. 4157:"Urban Runoff Quality Management." 3664:10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003087 3491:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1974.tb11420.x 3446:10.1016/B978-0-12-817369-5.00007-6 3281: 3202:10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0000624 3141:"Green cement: Concrete solutions" 3110:Carrington, Damian (7 July 2022). 3088: 3026: 1860:(WHO) has recommended a maximum NO 498: 14: 6178: 4991:pharmaceuticals and personal care 4581: 4400:Pomerantz, Melvin (1 June 2018). 4071:Palumbo, Jacqui (12 April 2021). 3553:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.01.029 3215:Fountain, Henry (30 March 2009). 2886:Fujita, Akiko (16 January 2012). 2373: 2172: 2127: 2092:Electron and hole recombination: 576:) from the atmosphere and water ( 6162:Environmental impact of products 6131: 6130: 5466: 5465: 5454: 5142:decline in amphibian populations 4847:Deforestation and climate change 4645:Hulley, M. E. (1 January 2012). 3929:Rathi, Akshat (18 August 2018). 3047:. PCA R&D Serial No. 2137a. 3010:10.1016/B978-008044276-1/50157-4 2643:, page 20, published 1 June 2002 2307: 2296: 2243: 2180: 1074:Early age carbonation is when CO 443:I-35W Saint Anthony Falls Bridge 196: 131: 122: 47:is one of the main producers of 38:environmental and social impacts 5276:Land surface effects on climate 4733:Environmental impact assessment 4709:Human impact on the environment 4638: 4594: 4575: 4550: 4523: 4458: 4393: 4308: 4283: 4257: 4223: 4170: 4090: 4038: 4012: 3987: 3978: 3941: 3702: 3678: 3643: 3621: 3585: 3566:Alter, Lloyd (15 August 2019). 3559: 3532: 3505: 3470: 3400: 3373: 3318: 3260: 3234: 3103: 3070: 2989: 2968:A. Samarin (7 September 1999), 2961: 2904: 2894: 2879: 2783:"Operation Building Bright 2.0" 2664:Environmental Protection Agency 2584:emissions from a cement factory 1969:activation is described below: 1884:. In the presence of light, TiO 472:to produce synthetic concrete. 470:captures emitted carbon dioxide 5549:Roman architectural revolution 4624:10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106242 3382:Cement and Concrete Composites 2803: 2789: 2775: 2761: 2704: 2678: 2599: 2461:Another aspect to consider is 1677: 1491:), in contrast to traditional 1434:{\displaystyle {\ce {CaSiO3}}} 1373:process through the use of an 1274: 1157: 1020: 995: 852: 827: 779: 773: 697: 672: 530:cannot be dissolved in water. 294:replacement of cement). The CO 1: 5147:decline in insect populations 4492:10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.03.051 4335:10.3846/13923730.2015.1111934 3526:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.08.194 3514:Journal of Cleaner Production 3394:10.1016/S0958-9465(02)00086-0 2976:, Thomas Telford, p. 8, 2865:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2004.12.002 2593: 2551:Reinforced concrete contains 2427: 2368:easily-learnable manual labor 1773:Photocatalysis to reduce smog 1358:of concrete while reducing CO 1347:Journal of Cleaner Production 368: 363:plant-based meat alternatives 5526: 4557:Steffen, Alex (April 2011). 4247:"Pervious Concrete Pavement" 4149:Water Environment Federation 3813:10.1016/j.cattod.2010.09.028 2499:due to the presence of free 2359:and a binder was completed. 1611:, "CSC-C curing is a mildly 1344:In a study published in the 921:calcium silicate hydrate gel 91:. Concrete dust released by 7: 6066:Portland Cement Association 6041:American Concrete Institute 4651:Metropolitan Sustainability 4530:Sabnis, Gajanan M. (2015). 4427:10.1016/j.uclim.2017.04.009 4386:10.1016/j.uclim.2012.09.002 4233:15 October 2008. pp. 18–20. 3267:David Abel (14 June 2023). 3049:Portland Cement Association 2571: 2483:Cement § Safety issues 2393:tends to pick up gasoline, 1993:Trapping of electron/hole: 942:{\displaystyle {\ce {CaO}}} 604:{\displaystyle {\ce {H2O}}} 569:{\displaystyle {\ce {CO2}}} 10: 6183: 5544:Ancient Roman architecture 4659:10.1533/9780857096463.1.79 3727:10.1016/j.jcou.2018.07.012 3715:Journal of CO2 Utilization 2580:, a CCS project storing CO 2514: 2480: 2229: 2214: 2121:Dye-sensitized solar cells 1852:, and contributing to the 1788:material shown to exhibit 1393:In August 2019, reduced CO 353:found that investments in 83:effect, due to its higher 6126: 6110: 6079: 6056:Indian Concrete Institute 6033: 5970: 5842: 5796: 5715: 5652: 5572: 5534: 5449: 5384:Environmental engineering 5334: 5231:Environmental degradation 5122: 5008:fishing down the food web 4785: 4715: 4536:. CRC Press. p. 12. 3351:10.1038/s41893-017-0009-5 2031:Hydroxyl radical attack: 1858:World Health Organization 1801:) from the atmosphere. NO 455:Somerville, Massachusetts 386:Cement production and use 103:. Wet concrete is highly 5389:Environmental mitigation 5246:Greenhouse gas emissions 5206:Environmental insecurity 4604:Building and Environment 2920:. Chatham House Report. 2365:require only very little 2226:Alternatives to concrete 1888:generates electrons and 518:of the concrete and its 182:Great Hanshin earthquake 5436:Sustainable consumption 4777:Social ecology (ethics) 4290:United Nations (2019). 2685:CDC (7 December 2015). 2287: 1765:The vast majority of CO 1092:cement chemist notation 474:CarbonCure Technologies 361:—though investments in 355:greener forms of cement 351:Boston Consulting Group 349:A 2022 report from the 113:environmental awareness 5834:Alkali–silica reaction 5592:Energetically modified 5379:Ecological engineering 5159:runaway climate change 4151:, Alexandria, VA; and 2657:"Cool Pavement Report" 2526: 2381:, when water runs off 2189:This section is empty. 1831:hydrocarbon combustion 1714: 1581: 1535: 1485: 1435: 1323: 1206: 1066: 943: 902: 737: 605: 570: 538: 247: 242:Substantial amount of 169: 4762:List of global issues 3957:ACI Materials Journal 3331:Nature Sustainability 2524: 2166:“waterless” concretes 1715: 1582: 1536: 1486: 1436: 1335:liquid carbon dioxide 1324: 1207: 1067: 944: 903: 738: 606: 571: 536: 491:Nature Sustainability 482:carbon mineralization 467:Los Gatos, California 241: 167: 5819:Environmental impact 5677:Reversing drum mixer 5364:Community resilience 5164:in the United States 5132:Biodiversity threats 4805:cannabis cultivation 4772:Planetary boundaries 4738:Environmental issues 4728:Ecological footprint 4471:Energy and Buildings 3139:Amato, Ivan (2013). 2477:Handling precautions 2332:eco-house as of 2021 2116:Embedded solar cells 1725:carbon sequestration 1644: 1549: 1503: 1449: 1413: 1356:compressive strength 1215: 1098: 953: 931: 764: 630: 580: 548: 480:has retrofitted its 478:Halifax, Nova Scotia 431:thermoelectric power 36:, which has its own 18:environmental impact 5426:Restoration ecology 5359:Climate engineering 5296:Ocean acidification 5286:Loss of green belts 5256:Holocene extinction 5251:Habitat destruction 4926:Environmental crime 4616:2019BuEnv.16306242F 4483:2017EneBu.157...53G 4418:2018UrbCl..24..393P 4377:2012UrbCl...2...25Y 3862:2013NatSR...3E2727H 3343:2018NatSu...1...69M 3157:2013Natur.494..300A 2729:1999EHPM....3..207Y 2540:, often along with 2383:impervious surfaces 1708: 1692: 1676: 1660: 1613:exothermic reaction 1575: 1529: 1479: 1429: 1299: 1270: 1254: 1231: 1182: 1153: 1137: 1114: 1057: 1041: 1006: 982: 969: 893: 873: 838: 820: 807: 791: 731: 718: 683: 662: 646: 613:chemical weathering 596: 564: 374:Design improvements 117:carbon sequestering 93:building demolition 5922:Self-consolidating 5614:Water–cement ratio 5441:Waste minimization 5399:Mitigation banking 5394:Industrial ecology 5354:Cleaner production 5306:Resource depletion 4842:Corporate behavior 4800:animal agriculture 3850:Scientific Reports 3607:10.1111/jace.14468 3221:The New York Times 3190:J. Mater. Civ. Eng 3082:2011-05-23 at the 2829:10.3390/eng4040164 2737:10.1007/BF02932260 2613:. 25 February 2019 2527: 2517:Concrete recycling 2511:Concrete recycling 2432:Both concrete and 2255:. You can help by 2232:Thermal insulation 2144:Other improvements 1710: 1696: 1680: 1664: 1648: 1577: 1563: 1531: 1517: 1481: 1467: 1431: 1417: 1379:dicalcium silicate 1319: 1287: 1258: 1242: 1219: 1202: 1170: 1141: 1125: 1102: 1062: 1045: 1029: 1025: 970: 957: 939: 898: 881: 861: 857: 808: 795: 771: 733: 719: 706: 702: 650: 634: 601: 584: 566: 552: 539: 359:green technologies 344:energy consumption 248: 209:. You can help by 170: 144:. You can help by 109:Concrete recycling 6144: 6143: 6136:Category:Concrete 5917:Roller-compacting 5738:Climbing formwork 5587:Calcium aluminate 5559:Roman engineering 5494: 5493: 5316:Water degradation 5191:Ecological crisis 5137:biodiversity loss 4936:Industrialisation 4921:Genetic pollution 4767:Impact assessment 4543:978-1-4987-0411-3 4301:978-92-1-148319-2 4271:. 2 November 2015 4190:978-0-87371-924-7 4165:978-1-57278-039-2 3871:10.1038/srep02727 3770:10.1021/cr3002092 3764:(11): 5919–5948. 3601:(12): 3893–3901. 3455:978-0-12-817369-5 3151:(7437): 300–301. 3019:978-0-08-044276-1 2799:. 6 January 2023. 2505:sodium hydroxides 2438:urban heat island 2422:pervious concrete 2318: 2273: 2272: 2209: 2208: 2154:road construction 1854:greenhouse effect 1745:ultraviolet light 1699: 1683: 1667: 1651: 1601:Portland concrete 1566: 1559: 1520: 1513: 1470: 1459: 1420: 1377:—specifically, a 1317: 1309: 1290: 1279: 1273: 1261: 1245: 1234: 1222: 1200: 1192: 1173: 1162: 1156: 1144: 1128: 1117: 1105: 1060: 1048: 1032: 1027: 988: 973: 960: 937: 913:calcium hydroxide 896: 884: 864: 859: 811: 798: 778: 770: 755:calcium carbonate 751:calcium hydroxide 749:then reacts with 722: 709: 704: 665: 653: 637: 599: 587: 555: 524:relative humidity 508:calcium carbonate 305:calcium carbonate 244:construction dust 239: 227: 226: 162: 161: 81:urban heat island 6174: 6134: 6133: 6046:Concrete Society 5857:Fiber-reinforced 5672:Volumetric mixer 5564:Roman technology 5521: 5514: 5507: 5498: 5497: 5469: 5468: 5458: 5457: 5291:Phosphorus cycle 5271:Land consumption 5266:Land degradation 5241:Freshwater cycle 5040:Overexploitation 5013:marine pollution 4820:cocoa production 4702: 4695: 4688: 4679: 4678: 4673: 4672: 4642: 4636: 4635: 4598: 4592: 4591: 4579: 4573: 4572: 4554: 4548: 4547: 4527: 4521: 4520: 4494: 4462: 4456: 4455: 4429: 4397: 4391: 4390: 4388: 4356: 4350: 4349: 4347: 4337: 4312: 4306: 4305: 4287: 4281: 4280: 4278: 4276: 4261: 4255: 4254: 4253:. 6 August 2014. 4243: 4234: 4227: 4221: 4214: 4208: 4206: 4204: 4202: 4193:. Archived from 4174: 4168: 4146: 4140: 4139: 4137: 4135: 4120: 4114: 4113: 4111: 4109: 4094: 4088: 4087: 4085: 4083: 4068: 4062: 4061: 4059: 4057: 4042: 4036: 4035: 4033: 4031: 4016: 4010: 4009: 4007: 4005: 3999:Specify Concrete 3991: 3985: 3982: 3976: 3975: 3973: 3971: 3965: 3954: 3945: 3939: 3938: 3926: 3920: 3919: 3908: 3902: 3901: 3891: 3873: 3841: 3835: 3834: 3824: 3796: 3790: 3789: 3758:Chemical Reviews 3753: 3747: 3746: 3706: 3700: 3699: 3682: 3676: 3675: 3647: 3641: 3640: 3634: 3625: 3619: 3618: 3589: 3583: 3582: 3580: 3578: 3563: 3557: 3556: 3536: 3530: 3529: 3509: 3503: 3502: 3474: 3468: 3467: 3433: 3424: 3423: 3404: 3398: 3397: 3388:(4–5): 459–471. 3377: 3371: 3370: 3322: 3316: 3315: 3313: 3311: 3288: 3279: 3278: 3274:The Boston Globe 3264: 3258: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3238: 3232: 3231: 3229: 3227: 3212: 3206: 3205: 3185: 3179: 3178: 3168: 3136: 3127: 3126: 3124: 3122: 3107: 3101: 3095: 3086: 3074: 3068: 3067: 3065: 3063: 3057: 3051:. Archived from 3042: 3033: 3024: 3023: 2993: 2987: 2986: 2965: 2959: 2958: 2952: 2948: 2946: 2938: 2936: 2934: 2919: 2908: 2902: 2898: 2892: 2891: 2883: 2877: 2876: 2848: 2842: 2841: 2831: 2822:(4): 2926–2940. 2807: 2801: 2800: 2793: 2787: 2786: 2779: 2773: 2772: 2765: 2759: 2758: 2748: 2708: 2702: 2701: 2699: 2697: 2682: 2676: 2675: 2673: 2671: 2661: 2653: 2644: 2632: 2623: 2622: 2620: 2618: 2603: 2538:crushing machine 2320: 2319: 2300: 2268: 2265: 2247: 2240: 2204: 2201: 2191:You can help by 2184: 2177: 2158:carbon-intensive 1910:hydroxyl radical 1900:to then form HNO 1850:nitrate radicals 1813:nitrogen dioxide 1778:Titanium dioxide 1760:frost weathering 1741:titanium dioxide 1735:Italian company 1719: 1717: 1716: 1711: 1709: 1707: 1704: 1697: 1691: 1688: 1681: 1675: 1672: 1665: 1659: 1656: 1649: 1637: 1586: 1584: 1583: 1578: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1564: 1557: 1540: 1538: 1537: 1532: 1530: 1528: 1525: 1518: 1511: 1490: 1488: 1487: 1482: 1480: 1478: 1475: 1468: 1457: 1440: 1438: 1437: 1432: 1430: 1428: 1425: 1418: 1403:precast concrete 1399:carbon footprint 1328: 1326: 1325: 1320: 1318: 1315: 1314: 1307: 1298: 1295: 1288: 1277: 1271: 1269: 1266: 1259: 1253: 1250: 1243: 1232: 1230: 1227: 1220: 1211: 1209: 1208: 1203: 1201: 1198: 1197: 1190: 1181: 1178: 1171: 1160: 1154: 1152: 1149: 1142: 1136: 1133: 1126: 1115: 1113: 1110: 1103: 1071: 1069: 1068: 1063: 1061: 1058: 1056: 1053: 1046: 1040: 1037: 1030: 1028: 1026: 1024: 1023: 1016: 1008: 1007: 1005: 998: 990: 986: 981: 978: 971: 968: 965: 958: 949:) can carbonate: 948: 946: 945: 940: 938: 935: 907: 905: 904: 899: 897: 894: 892: 889: 882: 872: 869: 862: 860: 858: 856: 855: 848: 840: 839: 837: 830: 822: 819: 816: 809: 806: 803: 796: 790: 787: 782: 776: 768: 742: 740: 739: 734: 732: 730: 727: 720: 717: 714: 707: 705: 703: 701: 700: 693: 685: 684: 682: 675: 667: 663: 661: 658: 651: 645: 642: 635: 610: 608: 607: 602: 600: 597: 595: 592: 585: 575: 573: 572: 567: 565: 563: 560: 553: 520:moisture content 272:nuclear accident 240: 222: 219: 200: 192: 157: 154: 135: 127: 6182: 6181: 6177: 6176: 6175: 6173: 6172: 6171: 6147: 6146: 6145: 6140: 6122: 6106: 6075: 6029: 5966: 5838: 5792: 5711: 5687:Flow table test 5648: 5568: 5530: 5525: 5495: 5490: 5445: 5404:Organic farming 5330: 5321:Water pollution 5301:Ozone depletion 5281:Loss and damage 5181:Desertification 5118: 5030:Overconsumption 4951:cleaning agents 4852:Energy industry 4815:meat production 4781: 4711: 4706: 4676: 4669: 4643: 4639: 4599: 4595: 4580: 4576: 4569: 4555: 4551: 4544: 4528: 4524: 4463: 4459: 4398: 4394: 4357: 4353: 4313: 4309: 4302: 4288: 4284: 4274: 4272: 4263: 4262: 4258: 4245: 4244: 4237: 4228: 4224: 4215: 4211: 4200: 4198: 4191: 4175: 4171: 4147: 4143: 4133: 4131: 4130:. 23 April 2021 4122: 4121: 4117: 4107: 4105: 4104:. 14 April 2021 4096: 4095: 4091: 4081: 4079: 4069: 4065: 4055: 4053: 4044: 4043: 4039: 4029: 4027: 4018: 4017: 4013: 4003: 4001: 3993: 3992: 3988: 3983: 3979: 3969: 3967: 3963: 3952: 3946: 3942: 3927: 3923: 3916:Heike Klussmann 3910: 3909: 3905: 3842: 3838: 3797: 3793: 3754: 3750: 3707: 3703: 3684: 3683: 3679: 3658:(4): 04020038. 3648: 3644: 3632: 3626: 3622: 3590: 3586: 3576: 3574: 3564: 3560: 3537: 3533: 3510: 3506: 3475: 3471: 3456: 3434: 3427: 3420: 3406: 3405: 3401: 3378: 3374: 3323: 3319: 3309: 3307: 3289: 3282: 3265: 3261: 3251: 3249: 3239: 3235: 3225: 3223: 3213: 3209: 3186: 3182: 3166:10.1038/494300a 3137: 3130: 3120: 3118: 3108: 3104: 3096: 3089: 3084:Wayback Machine 3075: 3071: 3061: 3059: 3055: 3040: 3034: 3027: 3020: 2999: 2994: 2990: 2984: 2966: 2962: 2950: 2949: 2940: 2939: 2932: 2930: 2928: 2917: 2909: 2905: 2899: 2895: 2884: 2880: 2849: 2845: 2808: 2804: 2795: 2794: 2790: 2781: 2780: 2776: 2767: 2766: 2762: 2709: 2705: 2695: 2693: 2683: 2679: 2669: 2667: 2659: 2655: 2654: 2647: 2633: 2626: 2616: 2614: 2605: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2583: 2574: 2519: 2513: 2485: 2479: 2473: 2463:thermal comfort 2430: 2376: 2336: 2335: 2334: 2333: 2323: 2322: 2321: 2308: 2303: 2302: 2301: 2290: 2269: 2263: 2260: 2253:needs expansion 2238: 2228: 2223: 2205: 2199: 2196: 2175: 2146: 2130: 2118: 2111: 2083: 2075: 2068: 2064: 2056: 2050: 2042: 2023: 2019: 2008: 2004: 1980: 1968: 1957: 1953: 1947: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1927: 1923: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1887: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1865: 1838: 1828: 1807:species, i.e., 1806: 1799: 1783: 1775: 1768: 1705: 1700: 1689: 1684: 1673: 1668: 1657: 1652: 1647: 1645: 1642: 1641: 1636: 1632: 1626: 1618: 1606: 1594: 1572: 1567: 1552: 1550: 1547: 1546: 1526: 1521: 1506: 1504: 1501: 1500: 1493:Portland cement 1476: 1471: 1452: 1450: 1447: 1446: 1426: 1421: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1410: 1396: 1387:Portland cement 1384: 1368: 1361: 1353: 1340: 1332: 1310: 1296: 1291: 1267: 1262: 1251: 1246: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1216: 1213: 1212: 1193: 1179: 1174: 1150: 1145: 1134: 1129: 1111: 1106: 1101: 1099: 1096: 1095: 1089: 1081: 1077: 1054: 1049: 1038: 1033: 1019: 1012: 1011: 1009: 1001: 994: 992: 991: 989: 979: 974: 966: 961: 956: 954: 951: 950: 934: 932: 929: 928: 918: 890: 885: 870: 865: 851: 844: 843: 841: 833: 826: 824: 823: 821: 817: 812: 804: 799: 788: 783: 772: 767: 765: 762: 761: 728: 723: 715: 710: 696: 689: 688: 686: 678: 671: 669: 668: 666: 659: 654: 643: 638: 633: 631: 628: 627: 618: 593: 588: 583: 581: 578: 577: 561: 556: 551: 549: 546: 545: 529: 513: 501: 499:Carbon concrete 459:electrochemical 457:uses a no-kiln 447:Portland cement 417: 413: 405: 401: 388: 376: 371: 324:embodied energy 301: 297: 289: 285: 280: 229: 223: 217: 214: 207:needs expansion 201: 190: 158: 152: 149: 142:needs expansion 136: 125: 69:water pollution 63:that may cause 45:cement industry 31: 27: 12: 11: 5: 6180: 6170: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6142: 6141: 6139: 6138: 6127: 6124: 6123: 6121: 6120: 6114: 6112: 6108: 6107: 6105: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6083: 6081: 6077: 6076: 6074: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6053: 6048: 6043: 6037: 6035: 6031: 6030: 6028: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6012: 6007: 6005:Concrete block 6002: 6001: 6000: 5995: 5993:voided biaxial 5990: 5985: 5974: 5972: 5968: 5967: 5965: 5964: 5963: 5962: 5957: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5854: 5848: 5846: 5840: 5839: 5837: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5806: 5800: 5798: 5794: 5793: 5791: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5719: 5717: 5713: 5712: 5710: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5697:Concrete cover 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5667:Concrete mixer 5664: 5658: 5656: 5650: 5649: 5647: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5605: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5578: 5576: 5570: 5569: 5567: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5554:Roman concrete 5551: 5546: 5540: 5538: 5532: 5531: 5524: 5523: 5516: 5509: 5501: 5492: 5491: 5489: 5488: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5462: 5450: 5447: 5446: 5444: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5431:Sustainability 5428: 5423: 5422: 5421: 5411: 5406: 5401: 5396: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5346: 5340: 5338: 5332: 5331: 5329: 5328: 5326:Water scarcity 5323: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5293: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5273: 5268: 5263: 5261:Nitrogen cycle 5258: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5226:Forest dieback 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5167: 5166: 5161: 5154:Climate change 5151: 5150: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5128: 5126: 5120: 5119: 5117: 5116: 5111: 5110: 5109: 5099: 5098: 5097: 5092: 5087: 5082: 5072: 5067: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5047: 5042: 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5021: 5020: 5015: 5010: 5005: 4995: 4994: 4993: 4988: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4971:nanotechnology 4968: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4917: 4916: 4911: 4906: 4901: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4876: 4875: 4874: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4833: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4791: 4789: 4783: 4782: 4780: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4759: 4758: 4757: 4755:on marine life 4747: 4746: 4745: 4743:list of issues 4735: 4730: 4725: 4719: 4717: 4713: 4712: 4705: 4704: 4697: 4690: 4682: 4675: 4674: 4667: 4637: 4593: 4574: 4568:978-0810997462 4567: 4549: 4542: 4522: 4457: 4392: 4351: 4307: 4300: 4282: 4256: 4235: 4222: 4209: 4197:on 19 May 2009 4189: 4169: 4155:, Reston, VA. 4141: 4115: 4089: 4063: 4037: 4011: 3986: 3977: 3940: 3921: 3903: 3836: 3807:(1): 175–180. 3791: 3748: 3701: 3677: 3642: 3620: 3584: 3558: 3531: 3504: 3485:(9): 394–397. 3469: 3454: 3425: 3418: 3399: 3372: 3317: 3280: 3259: 3233: 3207: 3196:(5): 662–665. 3180: 3128: 3102: 3087: 3069: 3058:on 16 May 2017 3025: 3018: 2997: 2988: 2982: 2960: 2951:|website= 2926: 2903: 2893: 2878: 2859:(1): 107–113. 2843: 2802: 2788: 2774: 2760: 2723:(4): 207–214. 2703: 2677: 2645: 2624: 2597: 2595: 2592: 2591: 2590: 2585: 2581: 2573: 2570: 2561:Aggregate base 2515:Main article: 2512: 2509: 2489:chemical burns 2478: 2475: 2429: 2426: 2389:and flooding. 2379:Surface runoff 2375: 2374:Surface runoff 2372: 2361:Such buildings 2325: 2324: 2306: 2305: 2304: 2295: 2294: 2293: 2292: 2291: 2289: 2286: 2271: 2270: 2250: 2248: 2227: 2224: 2217:Infrastructure 2207: 2206: 2187: 2185: 2174: 2173:Changes in use 2171: 2145: 2142: 2133:Energy storage 2129: 2128:Energy storage 2126: 2117: 2114: 2109: 2106: 2105: 2104: 2103: 2102: 2101: 2090: 2089: 2088: 2087: 2086: 2085: 2081: 2073: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2054: 2051: 2048: 2040: 2029: 2028: 2027: 2026: 2025: 2024: 2021: 2017: 2014: 2006: 2002: 1991: 1990: 1989: 1988: 1987: 1986: 1978: 1966: 1963: 1962: 1961: 1960: 1959: 1958: 1955: 1951: 1948: 1945: 1942: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1928: 1925: 1921: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1885: 1877: 1873: 1867: 1861: 1834: 1824: 1802: 1795: 1790:photocatalytic 1781: 1774: 1771: 1766: 1749:Jubilee Church 1703: 1695: 1687: 1679: 1671: 1663: 1655: 1638:) as follows: 1634: 1624: 1616: 1604: 1592: 1570: 1562: 1555: 1524: 1516: 1509: 1474: 1465: 1462: 1455: 1424: 1394: 1382: 1366: 1359: 1351: 1338: 1330: 1313: 1305: 1302: 1294: 1285: 1282: 1276: 1265: 1257: 1249: 1240: 1237: 1226: 1196: 1188: 1185: 1177: 1168: 1165: 1159: 1148: 1140: 1132: 1123: 1120: 1109: 1087: 1079: 1075: 1052: 1044: 1036: 1022: 1015: 1004: 997: 985: 977: 964: 916: 909: 908: 888: 879: 876: 868: 854: 847: 836: 829: 815: 802: 794: 786: 781: 775: 744: 743: 726: 713: 699: 692: 681: 674: 657: 649: 641: 616: 591: 559: 527: 511: 500: 497: 435:blast furnaces 415: 411: 403: 399: 387: 384: 375: 372: 370: 367: 313:carbon dioxide 299: 295: 287: 283: 279: 276: 225: 224: 204: 202: 195: 189: 186: 160: 159: 139: 137: 130: 124: 121: 61:surface runoff 53:greenhouse gas 49:carbon dioxide 29: 25: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6179: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6154: 6152: 6137: 6129: 6128: 6125: 6119: 6116: 6115: 6113: 6109: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6084: 6082: 6078: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6038: 6036: 6034:Organizations 6032: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 5999: 5998:slab on grade 5996: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5980: 5979: 5976: 5975: 5973: 5969: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5952: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5927:Self-leveling 5925: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5849: 5847: 5845: 5841: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5801: 5799: 5795: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5728:Cast-in-place 5726: 5724: 5721: 5720: 5718: 5714: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5659: 5657: 5655: 5651: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5624:Reinforcement 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5584: 5583: 5580: 5579: 5577: 5575: 5571: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5541: 5539: 5537: 5533: 5529: 5522: 5517: 5515: 5510: 5508: 5503: 5502: 5499: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5463: 5461: 5452: 5451: 5448: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5420: 5417: 5416: 5415: 5414:Reforestation 5412: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5402: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5369:Cultured meat 5367: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5349:Birth control 5347: 5345: 5342: 5341: 5339: 5337: 5333: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5287: 5284: 5282: 5279: 5277: 5274: 5272: 5269: 5267: 5264: 5262: 5259: 5257: 5254: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5171:Deforestation 5169: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5156: 5155: 5152: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5134: 5133: 5130: 5129: 5127: 5125: 5121: 5115: 5112: 5108: 5105: 5104: 5103: 5100: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5081: 5078: 5077: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5019: 5016: 5014: 5011: 5009: 5006: 5004: 5001: 5000: 4999: 4996: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4949: 4948: 4947: 4946:Manufacturing 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4894:nuclear power 4892: 4890: 4889:fracking (US) 4887: 4885: 4882: 4881: 4880: 4877: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4854: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4831: 4828: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4797: 4796: 4793: 4792: 4790: 4788: 4784: 4778: 4775: 4773: 4770: 4768: 4765: 4763: 4760: 4756: 4753: 4752: 4751: 4748: 4744: 4741: 4740: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4721: 4720: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4703: 4698: 4696: 4691: 4689: 4684: 4683: 4680: 4670: 4668:9780857090461 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4641: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4597: 4589: 4585: 4578: 4570: 4564: 4560: 4553: 4545: 4539: 4535: 4534: 4526: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4493: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4461: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4428: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4406:Urban Climate 4403: 4396: 4387: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4365:Urban Climate 4362: 4355: 4346: 4345:11380/1118712 4341: 4336: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4311: 4303: 4297: 4293: 4286: 4270: 4269:news.wabe.org 4266: 4260: 4252: 4248: 4242: 4240: 4232: 4226: 4219: 4213: 4196: 4192: 4186: 4182: 4181: 4173: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4145: 4129: 4125: 4119: 4103: 4099: 4093: 4078: 4074: 4067: 4051: 4047: 4041: 4025: 4021: 4015: 4000: 3996: 3990: 3981: 3962: 3958: 3951: 3944: 3936: 3932: 3925: 3917: 3913: 3907: 3899: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3872: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3840: 3832: 3828: 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