Elephantine papyri and ostraca

1638: 1544: 31: 146: 1621: 1582: 1570: 1402: 1414: 1375: 1650: 1438: 1513: 1462: 1497: 1390: 1601: 1426: 1450: 1481: 1529: 1233: 1275: 1620: 1055: 163: 1974:, "So far as we learn from these texts Moses might never have existed, there might have been no bondage in Egypt, no exodus, no monarchy, no prophets. There is no mention of other tribes and no claim to any heritage in the land of Judah. Among the numerous names of colonists, Abraham, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Samuel, David, so common in later times, never occur (nor in Nehemiah), nor any other name derived from their past history as recorded in the Pentateuch and early literature. It is almost incredible, but it is true." 2968: 3175: 604: 3164: 3185: 673:. A sensation was caused; as they summarized in the introduction to the work: "Perhaps one of the most remarkable results of the discovery is the proof it affords us that within a century after the death of Jeremiah a colony of Jews had found their way to Assuan, at the southern limit of Egypt, where they had acquired houses and other property and were engaged in trade as bankers or money-lenders" 2975: 1293:, was located across the street from the Temple of Yauh and adjacent to the Persian family of Ubil's father. As such proximity might suggest, the Egyptians, Jews, and Persians in Elephantine all lived among one another. The renovation of the house and its gradual transfers to family members are the central concerns of the next several documents in Ananiah's family archive. 1751:

although not exclusive, source of our knowledge of Persian-period Aramaic is a large number of papyri discovered on the island of Elephantine… All of the Egyptian Aramaic texts have been collected and reedited in the Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt… This is now the standard text edition.

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Excavation work done in 1967 revealed the remains of the Jewish colony centered on a small temple. The "Petition to Bagoas" (Sayce-Cowley collection) is a letter written in 407 BCE to Bagoas, the Persian governor of Judea, appealing for assistance in rebuilding the Jewish temple in Elephantine, which

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having been told by local Egyptians that it was the find spot of the recently discovered Aramaic papyri. The expedition worked for three seasons, two under the direction of Rubensohn and the third under Friedrich Zucker. The daily logs reported the discovery of papyri and ostraca, but made no record

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Drawn up thirty years after the preceding papyrus, this document is one of several that gradually transferred ownership of Ananiah and Tamut's house to their daughter, Yehoishema, as payment on her dowry. The legal descriptions of the house preserve the names of Ananiah's neighbors. They included an

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Nearly twenty-two years after her marriage to Ananiah, Tamut's master released her and her daughter, Yehoishema, from slavery. It was rare for a slave to be freed. And though a slave could marry a free person, their children usually belonged to the master. As an institution, slavery in Egypt at that

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created a display entitled "Jewish Life in Ancient Egypt: A Family Archive From the Nile Valley," which featured the interfaith couple of Ananiah, an official at the temple of Yahou (a.k.a. Yahweh), and his wife, Tamut, who was previously an Egyptian slave owned by an Aramean master, Meshullam. Some

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concern one particular Jewish family, providing specific information about the daily lives of a man called Ananiah, a Jewish temple official; his wife, Tamut, an Egyptian slave; and their children, over the course of forty-seven years. Egyptian farmers discovered the archive of Ananiah and Tamut on

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This papyrus records the sale of the remaining portion of Ananiah and Tamut's house to Yehoishema's husband. Possibly because the clients were dissatisfied with something the scribe had written, at one point the text of the document breaks off and then starts over again, repeating what has gone on

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Three years after purchasing the house from Bagazust and Ubil, Ananiah transferred ownership of an apartment within the now renovated house to his wife, Tamut. Although Tamut thereafter owned the apartment, Ananiah required that at her death it pass to their children, Palti and Yehoishema. As with

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father-in-law who made Jewish marriage agreements, but Ananiah made this contract with Tamut's master, Meshullam, who legally was her father. In addition, special provision was made to free the couple's son, also a slave to Meshullam; perhaps Ananiah consented to the small dowry of either 7 or 15

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sect of Jews. It is widely agreed that this Elephantine community originated in the mid-seventh or mid-sixth centuries BCE, likely as a result of Judean and Samaritan refugees fleeing into Egypt during the times of Assyrian and Babylonian invasions. They seem to have had no knowledge of a written

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Imperial Aramaic (IA) … As noted, the documentation of IA is significantly greater than that of Old Aramaic; the hot and dry climate of Egypt has been particularly favorable to the preservation of antiquities, including Aramaic texts written on soft media such as papyrus or leather. The primary,

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law, which stipulates that no Jewish temple may be constructed outside of Jerusalem. Furthermore, the papyri show that the Jews at Elephantine sent letters to the high priest in Jerusalem asking for his support in re-building their temple, which seems to suggest that the priests of the Jerusalem

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in 1980–82. The Aramaic, and some Greek, papyri were well published, but most of the demotic, hieratic, and Coptic texts were not. The Demotic and Greek papyri were found early on. The first Aramaic papyri were discovered on New Years day, 1907 in the rubble of a room at the northern edge of the

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should have already been well-established by the time these papyri were written. Most scholars explain this apparent discrepancy by theorizing that the Elephantine Jews represented an isolated remnant of Jewish religious practices from earlier centuries, or that the Torah had only recently been

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with an Egyptian name. This receipt would have been held by Pakhnum and returned to Ananiah son of Haggai when he repaid the loan. No interest is charged but there is a penalty for failing to repay the loan by the agreed date. The receipt demonstrates that friendly business relations continued

1881:

Euting Julius. Notice sur un papyrus égypto-araméen de la Bibliothèque impériale de Strasbourg. In: Mémoires présentés par divers savants à l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres de l'Institut de France. Première série, Sujets divers d'érudition. Tome 11, 2e partie, 1904. pp. 297–312.

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Letter from the Elephantine Papyri, a collection of 5th century BCE writings of the Jewish community at Elephantine in Egypt. Authors are Yedoniah and his colleagues the priests and it is addressed to Bagoas, governor of Judah. The letter is a request for the rebuilding of a Jewish temple at

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Ancient marriage documents generally formalized already existing relationships. In this case, Ananiah and Tamut already had a young son when the document was drawn up. Because Tamut was a slave when she married Ananiah, the contract has special conditions: usually, it was the groom and his

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For his daughter Yehoishema's dowry, Ananiah had transferred to her partial ownership of the house he shared with Tamut. After making more repairs to the building, Ananiah transferred a further section of the house, described in this document, to the dowry. Image of document in gallery.

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in Cairo, which retained nine; one was subsequently acquired by the Bodleian. Their high profile publication in 1906 by Sayce and Cowley catalyzed expeditions for more Aramaic papyri. They were originally thought to have been found in Aswan rather than on the Elephantine

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before with some additions. The boundary description included here refers to the Temple of Yauh in Elephantine, now rebuilt eight years after its destruction in 410 BCE during a civil war conflict that arose out of a land dispute. Image of document in gallery below.

1248:(the text is ambiguous) in order to obtain his son's freedom. Future children, however, would still be born slaves. In contrast to Jewish documents like this one, contemporaneous Egyptian marriage documents were negotiated between a husband and wife. 223:

The major Elephantine collections consist of discoveries from the end of the 19th and start of the 20th century, and these collections are now in museums in Berlin, Brooklyn, Cairo, London, Munich, and Paris. The largest collection is in the

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Between 1815 and 1904, all discoveries were unprovenanced and came via informal discoveries and antiquities dealers; only later were they understood by scholars to have originated from Elephantine. The first known such papyri were bought by

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Also important is the fact that the papyri document the existence of a small Jewish temple at Elephantine, which possessed altars for incense offerings and animal sacrifices, as late as 411 BCE. Such a temple would be in clear violation of

85:, spanning a period of 100 years in the 5th to 4th centuries BCE. The documents include letters and legal contracts from family and other archives, and are thus an invaluable source of knowledge for scholars of varied disciplines such as 611:

The publication of the documents from Elephantine discovered in the 19th and early 20th centuries, took many years, and is still ongoing. The Aramaic and Demotic texts have received the greatest and most complete focus from scholars.

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mound, 0.5m beneath the surface; this was found to be part of an "Aramaic quarter”, a housing complex which yielded numerous Aramaic papyri. The three most significant of these Aramaic documents were published in 1907 by

1496: 1401: 1413: 369: 1461: 2571:, Mémoires présentés par divers savants à l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres de l'Institut de France. Première série, Sujets divers d'érudition. Tome 11, 2e partie, 1904. pp. 297–312; DOI: 1041:

have argued that the Elephantine papyri demonstrate that monotheism and the Torah could not have been established in Jewish culture before 400 BCE, and that the Torah was therefore likely written in the

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time differed in notable ways from the practice in some other cultures: Egyptian slaves retained control over personal property, had professions, and were entitled to compensation. During the

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Elephantine, which had been destroyed by Egyptian pagans. The letter is dated year 17 of king Darius (II) under the rule of the satrap of Egypt Arsames, which corresponds to 407 BCE. From

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This document to the right describes a property purchased by Ananiah, twelve years after his marriage, from a Persian soldier named Bagazust and his wife, Ubil. The property, in a town on

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in 1824, a hieratic charge sheet against the Elephantine Khnum priests. Donated together with two other hieratic letters from the Butehamun correspondence probably sent from Elephantine.

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By the middle of the 4th century BCE, the temple at Elephantine had ceased to function. There is evidence from excavations that the rebuilding and enlargement of the Khnum temple under

995:, and thus give scholars a very important glimpse at how Judaism was practiced in Egypt during the fifth century BCE, as they seem to show evidence of the existence in c. 400 BCE of a 1389: 212:

Formal excavation of the mound at Elephantine Island began in 1904, and continued for the next seven years. Further finds were discovered through the first half of the 20th century.

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rule, 495–399 BCE. The so-called "Passover Letter" of 419 BCE (discovered in 1907), which appears to give instructions for the observance of the Festival of Unleavened Bread (though

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Hundreds of these Elephantine papyri span a period of 100 years, during the 5th to 4th centuries BCE. Legal documents and a cache of letters survived, turned up on the local "

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Upon first examination, this appears to contradict commonly accepted models of the development of Jewish religion and the dating of the Hebrew scriptures, which posit that

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Late 1906 until 1911: following the German successes, the French were assigned to excavate the eastern side of the mound. There were four campaigns, the first two under

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So long ago, so very much like us: A multicultural couple marries, buys a house, raises kids. That's the age-old story of 'Jewish Life in Ancient Egypt' at the Skirball

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Levine, Baruch A. “Notes on an Aramaic Dream Text from Egypt.” Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 84, no. 1, American Oriental Society, 1964, pp. 18–22,

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Elephantine Island in 1893, while digging for fertilizer in the remains of ancient mud-brick houses. They found at least eight papyrus rolls which were purchased by

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1920: James Henry Breasted purchased from Mohareb Todrous at Luxor for the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago an Arabic reddish brown leather parchment.

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acquired, allegedly at Philae but presumably at Elephantine, on behalf of the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden, a 5th century Greek petition to Emperor Theodosius.

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a few decades after his death, and they were published in 1953. It was at this time that scholars concluded that "Wilbour had acquired the first Elephantine papyri".

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in Paris and some parts have been published. The excavations discovered hundreds of Aramaic, demotic, Greek, Coptic and Arabic ostraca; these are now held at the

581:: Spiegelberg acquired for the Staatliche Sammlung Agyptischer Kunst in Munich a demotic papyrus which became known by the name of the benefactor Dr. James Lob. 243:

1890s: From Luxor via the dealer Abd el-Megid was purchased a bilingual family archive which included three Greek legal texts and a demotic matrimonial document

1449: 153: 519:: In January, 1881 Elkanah Armitage acquired a demotic papyrus on Elephantine which he presented to Aquila Dodgson; it was subsequently passed in 1932 to the 412:

1926: Bernard P. Grenfell and Francis W. Kelsey acquired seventy-seven Greek papyri, including one from Elephantine, for the University of Wisconsin, Madison.

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There was a response of both governors (Bagoas and Delaiah) which gave the permission by decree to rebuild the temple written in the form of a memorandum: "

1425: 1195:(mentioned in the document AP 44, line 3, in Cowley's numbering). Anat-Yahu is described as either the wife (or paredra, sacred consort) of Yahweh or as a 215:

The mode of burial of the documents remains unknown, but they are thought to have been stored laterally and horizontally in close proximity to each other.

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1907: The Byzantine "Patermouthis archive" of approximately 30 documents was acquired in two halves: Robert de Rustafjaell acquired half in Luxor for the

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1875–76: The British Museum acquired two Aramaic and one Coptic ostraca from the Rev. Greville John Chester. The two Aramaic ostraca are now known as

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The papyri suggest that, "Even in exile and beyond, the veneration of a female deity endured." The texts were written by a group of Jews living at

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came to Egypt he found it built. They (the Persians) knocked down all the temples of the gods of Egypt, but no one did any damage to this temple.

504:: A Ramesside hieratic letter from the collection of the Duke of Valençay, now in the private collection of Jean Morel in the Château de Fins, 380:

in Cairo and the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in Paris. It also discovered five Greek papyri, and a hieratic papyrus now at the

1835:, Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin: "...erster Vertreter dieser Gattung hervorzuheben ist..." 1013:

Temple were not enforcing Deuteronomic law at that time. Cowley notes that their petition expressed their pride at having a temple to Ya'u, '

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border, whose religion has been described as "nearly identical to Iron Age II Judahite religion". The papyri describe the Jews as worshiping

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in Tuna el-Gebel (Hermopolis West): eight Aramaic letters which were deposited in the Department of Archaeology of the University of Cairo.

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Papyrus narrating the story of the wise chancellor Ahiqar. Aramaic script. 5th century BCE. From Elephantine, Egypt. Neues Museum, Berlin

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to excavate to search there for more Aramaic texts. No Aramaic texts were found, but a number of Greek and demotic fragments were.

2848: 458:: A Greek manumission document was acquired in 1819 by Sir Archibald Edmonstone and is still in the hands of a private collector. 250:

acquired a number of papyri, including 12 Aramaic documents from the Anani archive. Wilbour’s family passed the documents to the

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1950: André Bataille published two of the Clermont-Ganneau Greek papyri donated to the Académie des Inscriptions in 1907–1908

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papyri. The papyri have been grouped here by topic, such as marriage contract, real estate transaction, or loan agreement.

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Now our forefathers built this temple in the fortress of Elephantine back in the days of the kingdom of Egypt, and when

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Sometime in December 402 BCE, Ananiah son of Haggai borrowed two monthly rations of grain from Pakhnum son of Besa, an

881: 93:. The Elephantine documents include letters and legal contracts from family and other archives: divorce documents, the 17: 2543: 2371: 2280: 1927: 297:

1901–02: large collection of Greek and demotic papyri, including an IOU of a blacksmith from Syene, were acquired by

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In the course of this appeal, the Jewish inhabitants of Elephantine speak of the antiquity of the damaged temple:

349:; however, between 1907–12 ten Greek and demotic pieces, and many further Aramaic papyri, were transferred to the 316:

acquired from dealers in Aswan a total of 11 Aramaic papyri from the Mibtahiah archive. These were donated to the

3244: 3030: 2771: 2723:. Documenta et monumenta Orientis antiqui : studies in Near Eastern archaeology and civilisation. New York. 2699:

The Brooklyn Museum Aramaic Papyri: New Documents of the Fifth Century B.C. from the Jewish Colony at Elephantine

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had recently been badly damaged by an anti-Jewish rampage on the part of a segment of the Elephantine community.

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Early 1906 until 1908: the German expedition was assigned to excavate the Western side of the mound; following

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acquired the first identifiable Aramaic papyrus from Elephantine in 1898–99. He donated it to what is now the

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Aramaic papyrus containing a contract for a loan, dated to regnal year 5 of pharaoh Amyrtaios, in 400 BCE,

1258: 1019:' (no other god is mentioned in the petition) and gave no suggestion that their temple could be heretical. 494: 111:

A number of the Aramaic papyri document the Jewish community among soldiers stationed at Elephantine under

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related exhibition didactics of 2002 included comments about significant structural similarities between

258: 108:" of antiquities starting in the late 19th century, and were scattered into several Western collections. 3129: 337: 1554: 1535: 1519: 1503: 1487: 1467:

Aramaic Property Sale Document: Bagazust and Ubil Sell a House to Ananiah, 437 B.C.E. Brooklyn Museum

1172: 923: 791: 712: 684: 656: 416: 120: 2658:, vol. 93, no. 2, 1974, pp. 201–225. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3263093. Accessed 23 May 2021. 2633:, vol. 21, no. 3, 1917, pp. 411–452. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3155527. Accessed 23 May 2021. 361: 2067: 780: 357: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1058:

A letter from the Elephantine Papyri, requesting the rebuilding of a Jewish temple at Elephantine.

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Phoenician-Aramaic papyrus CIS II 149 and Cowley 69; Cowley suggested they came from Elephantine.

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1907: The two major Greek papyri found by Rubensohn were published a year after their discovery

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1904: The first (brief) excavation on the Elephantine mound took place, after Sayce encouraged

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Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus: Hellenistic Histories and the Date of the Pentateuch

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in Egypt, it was not uncommon to sell children, or even oneself, into slavery to pay debts.

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Elephantine temple environs layout. From major work, Arthur Cowley's 1923 "Aramaic Papyri."

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The Elephantine papyri in English: Three Millennia of Cross-Cultural Continuity and Change.

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The Elephantine Papyri in English: Three Millennia of Cross-Cultural Continuity and Change

2598:, 1911, Aramäische Papyrus und Ostraka aus einer jüdischen Militär-Kolonie zu Elephantine 8: 3061: 2897: 2892: 2615: 1278:

Property Sale Document: Bagazust and Ubil Sell a House to Ananiah, September 14, 437 BCE

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in Munich in 1908. Coptic papyri acquired by Rustafjaell at the same time are now in the

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acquired a fragmented Aramaic papyrus and three Aramaic ostraca, which he donated to the

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Une Communauté Judéo-Araméenne à Éléphantine, en Égypte aux VIe et Ve siècles av. J.-C.

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Ananiah Gives Yehoishema Another Part of the House, March 10, 402 BCE, Brooklyn Museum

451:: Bibliothèque Nationale, Butehamun correspondence letter bought by Frédéric Cailliaud 3259: 2766: 2724: 2703: 2669: 2601: 2539: 2383: 2351: 2340: 2304: 2276: 2246: 2229:

See esp. section "Jewish and Egyptian Ritual in Elephantine" and other sections. 2002

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published two of the Turin hieratic pieces from the Drovetti Collection found in 1824

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published one of the Turin hieratic pieces from the Drovetti Collection found in 1824

112: 66: 2684: 937:(translation and commentary) published three Coptic fragments acquired by Rusafjaell 915:

Another forty catalogued hieratic fragments in the Berlin Museum await publication.

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published the part of the Patermouthis archive acquired by the Munich museum in 1908

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all property transfers within a family, this gift was described as made "in love".

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1980: William Brasher published two fragments from the 1907–1908 Zucker excavations

832: 551: 520: 465:: Bibliothèque Nationale, a Greek conveyance document from a traveler named Casati. 437: 291: 182: 126:

The standard reference collection of the Aramaic documents from Elephantine is the

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Greville Chester Aramaic ostraca (CIS II 138–139) and Dream Ostracon (CIS II 137)

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1939: Ewing Crum published a Coptic fragment donated to the Bristol Museum in 1930

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published the Greek fragment from the 1901–1902 Reinach collection in the Sorbonne

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Elephantine Papyri: overview, The Principal Jewish Archives, corpus, bibliography

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Elephantine papyrus J 37113 (Sayce and Cowley 1906, J) from the Mibtahiah archive

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Elephantine papyrus J 37112 (Sayce and Cowley 1906, F) from the Mibtahiah archive

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Ananiah Gives Yehoishema Part of the House, November 26, 404 BCE, Brooklyn Museum

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between Egyptians and Jews in Elephantine after the expulsion of the Persians by

1279: 1237: 1212: 1163: 839: 400: 377: 350: 317: 251: 82: 2823:

P.Eleph.Wagner: Elephantine XIII: Les papyrus et les ostraca grecs d'Elephantine

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Comment on 'Petition to Bagoas' (Elephantine Papyri), by Jim Reilly in his book

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1979: Two Latin fragments discovered by Rubensohn in 1907 were published in 1979

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Notice sur un papyrus égypto-araméen de la Bibliothèque impériale de Strasbourg

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Elephantine Revisited: New Insights into the Judean Community and Its Neighbors

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published the Strasbourg Aramaic papyrus which had been discovered in 1898–1899

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1906: Sayce and Cowley published the Cecil-Mond documents in the high profile

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THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ELEPHANTINE PAPYRI FOR THE HISTORY OF HEBREW RELIGION

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published the part of the Patermouthis archive acquired by the British museum

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of Yahweh, and dispute the idea that the Elephantine Jews were polytheists.

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1895: Spiegelberg published the Butehamun letters, first acquired in 1817–18

3025: 2034:. Changing Perspectives. Vol. 7. New York: Routledge. pp. 76–90. 1688: 1395:

Ananiah Gives Tamut Part of the House, October 30, 434 BCE, Brooklyn Museum

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and, on the other side, two Persian boatmen. Image of document in gallery.

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published a Greek fragment found in 1821, now in the Bibliothèque Nationale

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published all the Rubensohn Aramaic finds which had been discovered in 1907

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Jehoishma Daughter of Ananiah: The Life of a Totally Normal Ancient Person

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1941: A fragment given to the Chicago museum in 1920 was published in 1941

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1937: A fragment given to the Hamburg museum in 1911 was published in 1937

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1945: Paul C. Smither published the “Semna Despatches”, discovered in 1898

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catalogued 333 Berlin demotic papyri, publishing 20 in 1978 and 29 in 1993

1822:: "...Pottery ostracon with painted Aramaic inscription in four lines..." 1286: 1184: 1106: 1098: 954:

published the Coptic ostraca unearthed in the 1907-08 Germans excavations

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1930: The Bristol Museum and Art Gallery acquired a Coptic ostracon from

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consist of thousands of documents from the Egyptian border fortresses of

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Archives from Elephantine: The Life of an Ancient Jewish Military Colony

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published the Brooklyn Museum papyri, which had been discovered in 1893

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1896: three 6th dynasty hieratic papyri were acquired at Luxor for the

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1962 Edda Bresciani published the Padua demotic papyrus found in 1819

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271 and British Museum E14219) and CIS II 139 (British Museum E14420)

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published a Coptic ostraca discovered by Clermont-Ganneau and Clédat

926:

published a Coptic ostracon donated to the British Museum after 1877

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P.Eleph.: Aegyptische Urkunden aus den königlichen Museen in Berlin

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Jewish life in ancient Egypt: a family archive from the Nile Valley

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