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energy through interactions with the evaporation material. The thermal energy that is produced heats up the evaporation material causing it to melt or sublimate. Once temperature and vacuum level are sufficiently high, vapor will result from the melt or solid. The resulting vapor can then be used to coat surfaces. Accelerating voltages can be between 3 and 40 kV. When the accelerating voltage is 20–25 kV and the beam current is a few
64:(CVD). In CVD, the film growth takes place at high temperatures, leading to the formation of corrosive gaseous products, and it may leave impurities in the film. The PVD process can be carried out at lower deposition temperatures and without corrosive products, but deposition rates are typically lower.
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may be employed to reduce diffusion lifetime, positively bolstering surface kinetic barriers. To further enhance film roughness, the substrate may be mounted at a steep angle with respect to the flux to achieve geometric shadowing, where incoming line of sight flux lands onto only higher parts of the
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industry to form thermal and chemical barrier coatings to protect surfaces against corrosive environments, in optics to impart the desired reflective and transmissive properties to a substrate and elsewhere in industry to modify surfaces to have a variety of desired properties. The deposition process
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EBPVD is a line-of-sight deposition process when performed at a low enough pressure (roughly <10 Torr ). The translational and rotational motion of the shaft helps for coating the outer surface of complex geometries, but this process cannot be used to coat the inner surface of complex geometries.
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or the anodic arc method. The generated electron beam is accelerated to a high kinetic energy and directed towards the evaporation material. Upon striking the evaporation material, the electrons will lose their energy very rapidly. The kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into other forms of
31:
is bombarded with an electron beam given off by a charged tungsten filament under high vacuum. The electron beam causes atoms from the target to transform into the gaseous phase. These atoms then precipitate into solid form, coating everything in the vacuum chamber (within line of sight) with a thin
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The deposition rate in this process can be as low as 1 nm per minute to as high as few micrometers per minute. The material utilization efficiency is high relative to other methods, and the process offers structural and morphological control of films. Due to the very high deposition rate, this
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of the substrate. The ion beams bombard the surface and alter the microstructure of the film. When the deposition reaction takes place on the hot substrate surface, the films can develop an internal tensile stress due to the mismatch in the coefficient of thermal expansion between the substrate and
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There are three main EBPVD configurations, electromagnetic alignment, electromagnetic focusing and the pendant drop configuration. Electromagnetic alignment and electromagnetic focusing use evaporation material that is in the form of an ingot, while the pendant drop configuration uses a rod. Ingots
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The substrate on which the film deposition takes place is ultrasonically cleaned and fastened to the substrate holder. The substrate holder is attached to the manipulator shaft. The manipulator shaft moves translationally to adjust the distance between the ingot source and the substrate. The shaft
83:
Fig 1. Electromagnetic alignment. The ingot is held at a positive potential relative to the filament. To avoid chemical interactions between the filament and the ingot material, the filament is kept out of sight. A magnetic field is employed to direct the electron beam from its source to the ingot
169:
and zirconium boride can evaporate without undergoing decomposition in the vapor phase. These compounds are deposited by direct evaporation. In this process these compounds, compacted in the form of an ingot, are evaporated in vacuum by the focused high-energy electron beam, and the vapors are
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10 hPa) or higher, significant scattering of the vapor cloud takes place such that surfaces not in sight of the source can be coated. Strictly speaking, the slow transition from line-of-sight to scattered deposition is determined not only by pressure (or mean free path) but also by
125:, for situations such as parallel use with magnetron sputtering. Multiple types of evaporation materials and electron guns can be used simultaneously in a single EBPVD system, each having a power from tens to hundreds of kilowatts. Electron beams can be generated by
519:
Driskell, Jeremy D.; Shanmukh, Saratchandra; Liu, Yongjun; Chaney, Stephen B.; Tang, X.-J.; Zhao, Y.-P.; Dluhy, Richard A. (2008). "The Use of
Aligned Silver Nanorod Arrays Prepared by Oblique Angle Deposition as Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering Substrates".
210:. Each ingot is heated with a different beam energy so that their evaporation rate can be controlled. As the vapors arrive at the surface, they chemically combine under proper thermodynamic conditions to form a metal carbide film.
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decompose upon heating, and the dissociated elements have different volatilities. These compounds can be deposited on the substrate either by reactive evaporation or by co-evaporation. In the reactive evaporation process, the
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of 200–400 V can be applied to the substrate. Often, focused high-energy electrons from one of the electron guns or infrared light from heater lamps is used to preheat the substrate. Heating of the substrate allows increased
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circulation. In the case of ingots, molten liquid can form on its surface, which can be kept constant by vertical displacement of the ingot. The evaporation rate may be on the order of 10 g/(cm·s).
202:
in case of metal carbides. When the thermodynamic conditions are met, the vapors react with the gas in the vicinity of the substrate to form films. Metal carbide films can also be deposited by co-
228:–substrate and adatom–film diffusion by giving the adatoms sufficient energy to overcome kinetic barriers. If a rough film, such as metallic nanorods, is desired substrate cooling with water or
138:, 85% of the electron's kinetic energy can be converted into thermal energy. Some of the incident electron energy is lost through the production of X-rays and secondary electron emission.
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beam, resulting in a stoichiometry that is different from the initial material. For example, alumina, when evaporated by electron beam, dissociates into aluminum, AlO
562:/TiC and TiC/CrC multilayer coatings by reactive and ion beam assisted, electron beam-physical vapor deposition (EB-PVD) The Pennsylvania State University, 1996.
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Certain materials are not well-suited to evaporation by EBPVD. The following reference materials suggest appropriate evaporation techniques for many materials:
330:
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crucible or hearth, while a rod will be mounted at one end in a socket. Both the crucible and socket must be cooled. This is typically done by
76:
at relatively low substrate temperatures, with very high material utilization efficiency. The schematic of an EBPVD system is shown in Fig 1.
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is evaporated from the ingot by the electron beam. The vapors are carried by the reactive gas, which is oxygen in case of metal oxides or
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or rod. Alternatively, some modern EBPVD systems utilize an arc-suppression system and can be operated at vacuum levels as low as 5.0
425:
Kesapragada, S. V.; Victor, P.; Nalamasu, O.; Gall, D. (2006). "Nanospring
Pressure Sensors Grown by Glancing Angle Deposition".
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also rotates the substrate at a particular speed so that the film is uniformly deposited on the substrate. A negative bias DC
476:
Robbie, K.; Brett, M. J. (1997). "Sculptured thin films and glancing angle deposition: Growth mechanics and applications".
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Another potential problem is that filament degradation in the electron gun results in a non-uniform evaporation rate.
415:
Madou, M. J., "Fundamentals of
Microfabrication: The science of Miniaturization" 2nd Ed., CRC Press (2002), p. 135–6.
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location. An additional electric field can be used to steer the beam over the ingot surface allowing uniform heating.
44:
378:
Harsha, K. S. S, "Principles of
Physical Vapor Deposition of Thin Films", Elsevier, Great Britain (2006), p. 400.
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270:. Ion bombardment also increases the density of the film, changes the grain size and modifies amorphous films to
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developing film. This method is known as glancing-angle deposition (GLAD) or oblique-angle deposition (OAD).
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http://telemark.com/electron_beam_sources/arc_suppression.php?cat=1&id=Arc+Suppression+Sources
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D. Wolfe, Thesis (Ph.D), Thesis 2001dWolfe,DE, Synthesis and characterization of TiC, TiBCN,TiB
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Certain refractory oxides and carbides undergo fragmentation during their evaporation by the
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George, J., "Preparation of thin films", Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York (1992), p. 13–19.
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physical vapor deposition, however, yields a high deposition rate from 0.1 to 100
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Journal of Vacuum
Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films
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films. Low-energy ions are used for the surfaces of semiconductor films.
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films for semiconductor industries and thin-film solar applications.
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In an EBPVD system, the deposition chamber must be evacuated to a
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the film. High-energy ions can be used to bombard these ceramic
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Wolfe, D.; J. Singh (2000). "Surface and
Coatings Technology".
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to the evaporation material, which can be in the form of an
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241:EBPVD systems are equipped with ion sources. These
283:process has potential industrial application for
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528:(4). American Chemical Society (ACS): 895–901.
433:(4). American Chemical Society (ACS): 854–857.
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566:Movchan, B. A. (2006). "Surface Engineering".
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328:Vacuum Engineering & Materials Co., Inc.
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291:in aerospace industries, hard coatings for
484:(3). American Vacuum Society: 1460–1465.
109:) to allow passage of electrons from the
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17:Electron-beam physical vapor deposition
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522:The Journal of Physical Chemistry C
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348:Evaporation Guide for the Elements
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185:O. Some refractory carbides like
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299:industries, and electronic and
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32:layer of the anode material.
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154:Material evaporation methods
89:Thin-film deposition process
43:is a process applied in the
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165:and borides like titanium
62:chemical vapor deposition
58:physical vapor deposition
25:physical vapor deposition
360:Electron-beam technology
289:thermal barrier coatings
260:thermal barrier coatings
161:carbides like titanium
131:field electron emission
613:Cite journal requires
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340:Kurt J. Lesker Company
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45:semiconductor industry
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641:Thin film deposition
49:electronic materials
41:Thin-film deposition
490:1997JVSTA..15.1460R
439:2006NanoL...6..854K
127:thermionic emission
394:2012-12-12 at the
346:Also see Oxford's
333:2013-05-12 at the
268:compressive stress
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36:Introduction
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570:(1): 35–46.
204:evaporation
630:Categories
600:: 142–153.
366:References
278:Advantages
251:sputtering
159:Refractory
60:(PVD) and
542:1932-7447
506:0734-2101
455:1530-6984
214:Substrate
200:acetylene
53:aerospace
51:, in the
553:See also
463:16608297
392:Archived
354:See also
331:Archived
175:electron
95:pressure
47:to grow
486:Bibcode
435:Bibcode
301:optical
293:cutting
247:etching
221:voltage
163:carbide
136:amperes
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226:adatom
208:carbon
181:and Al
167:boride
144:copper
266:into
196:metal
148:water
115:ingot
29:anode
21:EBPVD
19:, or
619:help
589:help
538:ISSN
502:ISSN
459:PMID
451:ISSN
297:tool
295:and
285:wear
189:and
123:Torr
105:(10
103:Torr
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530:doi
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494:doi
443:doi
243:ion
121:10
101:10
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