349:
535:
389:
495:-based materials can be used as electrocatalysts. The carbon surfaces of graphene and carbon nanotubes are well suited to the adsorption of many chemical species, which can promote certain electrocatalytic reactions. In addition, their conductivity means they are good electrode materials. Carbon nanotubes have a very high surface area, maximizing surface sites at which electrochemical transformations can occur. Graphene can also serve as a platform for constructing composites with other kinds of
376:. In principle, atoms with lower coordination number (kinks and defects) tend to be more reactive and therefore adsorb the reactants more easily: this may promote kinetics but could also depress it if the adsorbing species isn't the reactant, thus inactivating the catalyst. Advances in nanotechnology make it possible to surface engineer the catalyst so that just some desired crystal planes are exposed to reactants, maximizing the number of effective reaction sites for the desired reaction.
140:
554:
20:
285:, i.e. convert nitrogen gas into molecules such as ammonia. Immobilizing the protein onto an electrode surface and employing an electron mediator greatly improves the efficiency of this process. The effectiveness of bioelectrocatalysts generally depends on the ease of electron transport between the active site of the enzyme and the electrode surface. Other enzymes provide insight for the development of synthetic catalysts. For example,
105:, a drawback is that they can suffer from high activation barriers. The energy diverted to overcome these activation barriers is transformed into heat. In most exothermic combustion reactions this heat would simply propagate the reaction catalytically. In a redox reaction, this heat is a useless byproduct lost to the system. The extra energy required to overcome kinetic barriers is usually described in terms of low
327:. Water electrolysis is conventionally conducted at inert bulk metal electrodes such as platinum or iridium. The activity of an electrocatalyst can be tuned with a chemical modification, commonly obtained by alloying two or more metals. This is due to a change in the electronic structure, especially in the d band which is considered to be responsible for the catalytic properties of noble metals.
561:
Hydrogen and oxygen can be combined through by the use of a fuel cell. In this process, the reaction is broken into two half reactions which occur at separate electrodes. In this situation the reactant's energy is directly converted to electricity. Useful energy can be obtained from the thermal heat
297:
are another way that biological systems can be leveraged for electrocatalytic applications. Microbial-based systems leverage the metabolic pathways of an entire organism, rather than the activity of a specific enzyme, meaning that they can catalyze a broad range of chemical reactions. Microbial fuel
722:
Electrocatalysts are used to promote certain chemical reactions to obtain synthetic products. Graphene and graphene oxides have shown promise as electrocatalytic materials for synthesis. Electrocatalytic methods also have potential for polymer synthesis. Electrocatalytic synthesis reactions can be
693:
hydrogen gas, and water. Although this process is thermodynamically favored, the activation barrier is extremely high, so in practice this reaction is not typically observed. However, electrocatalysts can speed up this reaction greatly, making methanol a possible route to hydrogen storage for fuel
81:
Electrocatalysts can be evaluated according to activity, stability, and selectivity. The activity of electrocatalysts can be assessed quantitatively by the current density is generated, and therefore how fast a reaction is taking place, for a given applied potential. This relationship is described
676:
are those that have a higher energy content, meaning that they can be reused as fuels. Thus, catalyst development focuses on the production of products such as methane and methanol. Homogeneous catalysts, such as enzymes and synthetic coordination complexes have been employed for this purpose. A
392:
An example of a particle-size effect: the number of reaction sites of different kinds depends on the size of the particle. In this four FCC nanoparticles model, the kink site between (111) and (100) planes (coordination number 6, represented by golden spheres) is 24 for all of the four different
360:
Also, higher reaction rates can be achieved by precisely controlling the arrangement of surface atoms: indeed, in nanometric systems, the number of available reaction sites is a better parameter than the exposed surface area in order to estimate electrocatalytic activity. Sites are the positions
77:
required for an electrochemical reaction. Some electrocatalysts change the potential at which oxidation and reduction processes occur. In other cases, an electrocatalyst can impart selectivity by favoring specific chemical interaction at an electrode surface. Given that electrochemical reactions
310:
A heterogeneous electrocatalyst is one that is present in a different phase of matter from the reactants, for example, a solid surface catalyzing a reaction in solution. Different types of heterogeneous electrocatalyst materials are shown above in green. Since heterogeneous electrocatalytic
311:
reactions need an electron transfer between the solid catalyst (typically a metal) and the electrolyte, which can be a liquid solution but also a polymer or a ceramic capable of ionic conduction, the reaction kinetics depend on both the catalyst and the electrolyte as well as on the
379:
To date, a generalized surface dependence mechanism cannot be formulated since every surface effect is strongly reaction-specific. A few classifications of reactions based on their surface dependence have been proposed but there are still many exceptions that do not fall into them.
128:, multiple electron transfers, and the evolution or consumption of gases in their overall chemical transformations, will often have considerable kinetic barriers. Furthermore, there is often more than one possible reaction at the surface of an electrode. For example, during the
152:
A homogeneous electrocatalyst is one that is present in the same phase of matter as the reactants, for example, a water-soluble coordination complex catalyzing an electrochemical conversion in solution. This technology is not practiced commercially, but is of research interest.
90:(TON). The selectivity of electrocatalysts refers to the product distribution. Selectivity can be quantitatively assessed through a selectivity coefficient, which compares the response of the material to the desired analyte or substrate with the response to other interferents.
78:
occur when electrons are passed from one chemical species to another, favorable interactions at an electrode surface increase the likelihood of electrochemical transformations occurring, thus reducing the potential required to achieve these transformations.
2734:
Ji, Yangyuan; Choi, Youn Jeong; Fang, Yuhang; Pham, Hoang Son; Nou, Alliyan Tan; Lee, Linda S.; Niu, Junfeng; Warsinger, David M. (2023-01-19). "Electric Field-Assisted
Nanofiltration for PFOA Removal with Exceptional Flux, Selectivity, and Destruction".
518:. MOFs provide potential active sites at both metal centers and organic ligand sites. They can also be functionalized, or encapsulate other materials such as nanoparticles. MOFs can also be combined with carbon-based materials to form electrocatalysts.
525:
However, many MOFs are known unstable in chemical and electrochemical conditions, making it difficult to tell if MOFs are actually catalysts or precatalysts. The real active sites of MOFs during electrocatalysis need to be analyzed comprehensively.
1396:
Kleinhaus, Julian T.; Wolf, Jonas; Pellumbi, Kevinjeorjios; Wickert, Leon; Viswanathan, Sangita C.; Junge Puring, Kai; Siegmund, Daniel; Apfel, Ulf-Peter (2023). "Developing electrochemical hydrogenation towards industrial application".
344:
materials have been demonstrated to promote various electrochemical reactions, although none have been commercialized. These catalysts can be tuned with respect to their size and shape, as well as the surface
54:. Homogeneous electrocatalysts, which are soluble, assist in transferring electrons between the electrode and reactants, and/or facilitate an intermediate chemical transformation described by an overall
735:, and are key in destroying byproducts from disinfection, pesticides, and other hazardous compound. There is an emerging effort to enable these processes to destroy more tenacious compounds, especially
2348:
Zheng, Weiran; Liu, Mengjie; Lee, Lawrence Yoon Suk (3 January 2020). "Electrochemical
Instability of Metal–Organic Frameworks: In Situ Spectroelectrochemical Investigation of the Real Active Sites".
177:
There is much interest in replacing traditional chemical catalysis with electrocatalysis. In such a scheme electrons supplied by an electrode are reagents. The topic is a theme within the area of
420:
is commonly considered to be the main parameter relating electrocatalyst size with its activity, to understand the particle-size effect, several more phenomena need to be taken into account:
1534:
Chen, Hui; Simoska, Olja; Lim, Koun; Grattieri, Matteo; Yuan, Mengwei; Dong, Fangyuan; Lee, Yoo Seok; Beaver, Kevin; Weliwatte, Samali; Gaffney, Erin M.; Minteer, Shelley D. (2020-12-09).
522:, particularly those that contain metals, can also serve as electrocatalysts. COFs constructed from cobalt porphyrins demonstrated the ability to reduce carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide.
1456:
Guo, Wenhan; Zhang, Kexin; Liang, Zibin; Zou, Ruqiang; Xu, Qiang (2019). "Electrochemical nitrogen fixation and utilization: Theories, advanced catalyst materials and system design".
577:. In this process, the reaction is broken into two half-reactions which occur at separate electrodes. In this situation the reactant's energy is directly converted to electricity.
2301:
Sharma, Rakesh Kumar; Yadav, Priya; Yadav, Manavi; Gupta, Radhika; Rana, Pooja; Srivastava, Anju; Zbořil, Radek; Varma, Rajender S.; Antonietti, Markus; Gawande, Manoj B. (2020).
748:
Valenti, G.; Boni, A.; Melchionna, M.; Cargnello, M.; Nasi, L.; Bertoli, G.; Gorte, R. J.; Marcaccio, M.; Rapino, S.; Bonchio, M.; Fornasiero, P.; Prato, M.; Paolucci, F. (2016).
820:
2435:
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Electrocatalysis can occur at the surface of some bulk materials, such as platinum metal. Bulk metal surfaces of gold have been employed for the decomposition methanol for
499:
such as single atom catalysts. Because of their conductivity, carbon-based materials can potentially replace metal electrodes to perform metal-free electrocatalysis.
1353:
Wiedner, Eric S.; Appel, Aaron M.; Raugei, Simone; Shaw, Wendy J.; Bullock, R. Morris (2022). "Molecular
Catalysts with Diphosphine Ligands Containing Pendant Amines".
361:
where the reaction could take place; the likelihood of a reaction to occur in a certain site depends on the electronic structure of the catalyst, which determines the
672:. Electrocatalysts can promote the reduction of carbon dioxide into methanol and other useful fuel and stock chemicals. The most valuable reduction products of CO
2561:
694:
cells. Electrocatalysts such as gold, platinum, and various carbon-based materials have been shown to effectively catalyze this process. An electrocatalyst of
985:
Jiao, Yan; Zheng, Yao; Jaroniec, Mietek; Qiao, Shi Zhang (2015). "Design of electrocatalysts for oxygen- and hydrogen-involving energy conversion reactions".
455:: the crystal lattice of a small nanoparticle is perfect; thus, reactions enhanced by defects as reaction sites get slowed down as the particle size decreases
397:
The interest in reducing as much as possible the costs of the catalyst for electrochemical processes led to the use of fine catalyst powders since the
723:
performed under a constant current, constant potential, or constant cell-voltage conditions, depending on the scale and purpose of the reaction.
24:
1079:
372:, the catalyst surface atoms can be classified as terrace, step or kink atoms according to their position, each characterized by a different
750:"Co-axial heterostructures integrating palladium/titanium dioxide with carbon nanotubes for efficient electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution"
655:
262:
258:
The ammonia represents an energy source since it is combustable. In this way electrification can be seen as a means for energy storage.
1143:
Brown, Micah D.; Schoenfisch, Mark H. (2019-11-27). "Electrochemical Nitric Oxide
Sensors: Principles of Design and Characterization".
2464:
Elgrishi, Noémie; Rountree, Kelley J.; McCarthy, Brian D.; Rountree, Eric S.; Eisenhart, Thomas T.; Dempsey, Jillian L. (2018-02-13).
479:: nanoparticles are often fixed onto a support in order to stay in place, therefore part of their surface is unavailable for reactants
461:: small nanoparticles have the tendency to lose mass due to the diffusion of their atoms towards bigger particles, according to the
471:: in order to stabilize nanoparticles it is necessary a capping layer, therefore part of their surface is unavailable for reactants
315:
between them. The nature of the electrocatalyst surface determines some properties of the reaction including rate and selectivity.
2439:
289:, a nickel-containing enzyme, has inspired the development of synthetic complexes with similar molecular structures for use in CO
1432:
2685:
Holade, Yaovi; Servat, Karine; Tingry, Sophie; Napporn, Teko W.; Remita, Hynd; Cornu, David; Kokoh, K. Boniface (2017-10-06).
1216:
435:: a given size for a nanoparticle corresponds to a certain number of surface atoms and only some of them host a reaction site
165:
catalyze electrochemical reactions, although few have achieved commercial success. Well investigated processes include the
136:
or a four electron process to oxygen. The presence of an electrocatalyst could facilitate either of the reaction pathways.
1965:
2303:"Recent development of covalent organic frameworks (COFs): synthesis and catalytic (organic-electro-photo) applications"
862:
402:
125:
39:
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cells can derive current from the oxidation of substrates such as glucose, and be leveraged for processes such as CO
731:
Water treatment systems often require the degradation of hazardous compounds. These treatment processes are dubbed
2236:"Metal–organic framework derived nanomaterials for electrocatalysis: recent developments for CO2 and N2 reduction"
1296:"Transition Metal Complexes as Catalysts for the Electroconversion of CO 2 : An Organometallic Perspective"
429:: for any given size of a nanoparticle there is an equilibrium shape which exactly determines its crystal planes
557:
A schematic of a hydrogen fuel cell. To supply hydrogen, electrocatalytic water splitting is commonly employed.
409:
design is based on a polymeric membrane charged in platinum nanoparticles as an electrocatalyst (the so-called
1937:
Carmo, M.; Fritz, D.L.; Mergel, J.; Stolten, D. (2013). "A comprehensive review on PEM water electrolysis".
2395:"Electrochemical Versus Heat-Engine Energy Technology: A Tribute to Wilhelm Ostwald's Visionary Statements"
417:
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with an upper efficiency of 60% (for compression ratio of 10 and specific heat ratio of 1.4) based on the
581:
507:
166:
1100:
McCreery, Richard L. (July 2008). "Advanced Carbon
Electrode Materials for Molecular Electrochemistry".
732:
563:
519:
573:. It is also possible to combine the hydrogen and oxygen through redox mechanism as in the case of a
2788:
2041:
Wildgoose, Gregory G.; Banks, Craig E.; Leventis, Henry C.; Compton, Richard G. (November 30, 2005).
353:
1762:
1028:
887:"Selected fundamentals of catalysis and electrocatalysis in energy conversion reactions—A tutorial"
51:
1493:"Renewable electron-driven bioinorganic nitrogen fixation: A superior route toward green ammonia?"
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1492:
886:
580:
The standard reduction potential of hydrogen is defined as 0V, and frequently referred to as the
451:
1765:; Cuenya, B.R. (2016). "Nanostructured electrocatalysts with tunable activity and selectivity".
714:
can be oxidized into the necessary hydrogen ions and electrons required to create electricity.
2089:
1803:
Kleijn, Steven E. F.; Lai, Stanley C. S.; Koper, Marc T. M.; Unwin, Patrick R. (2014-04-01).
1693:"Electrocatalysis in microbial fuel cells—from electrode material to direct electrochemistry"
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286:
143:
Types of electrocatalyst materials, including homogeneous and heterogeneous electrocatalysts.
129:
2630:"Catalyzing Electrosynthesis: A Homogeneous Electrocatalytic Approach to Reaction Discovery"
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reduction is not practiced commercially but remains a topic of research. The reduction of CO
534:
510:, especially conductive frameworks, can be used as electrocatalysts for processes such as CO
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Some transition metal complexes that exhibit some activity as homogeneous electrocatalysts.
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surfaces or, most commonly, may be the electrode surface itself. An electrocatalyst can be
8:
1894:
Koper, M.T.M. (2011). "Structure sensitivity and nanoscale effects in electrocatalysis".
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Electronic density difference of a Cl atom adsorbed on a Cu(111) surface obtained with a
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2687:"Advances in Electrocatalysis for Energy Conversion and Synthesis of Organic Molecules"
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2515:"Designing CO 2 reduction electrode materials by morphology and interface engineering"
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2589:"Recent advances in the catalytic applications of GO/rGO for green organic synthesis"
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energy of the reactants together with many other variables not yet fully clarified.
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Carmo, Marcelo; Fritz, David L.; Mergel, JĂĽrgen; Stolten, Detlef (March 14, 2013).
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Yang, Jenny Y.; Kerr, Tyler A.; Wang, Xinran S.; Barlow, Jeffrey M. (2020-11-18).
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processes that use protons. This technology remains economically noncompetitive.
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2152:
1643:"Reducing CO 2 to HCO 2 – at Mild Potentials: Lessons from Formate Dehydrogenase"
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2090:"Graphene-supported single-atom catalysts and applications in electrocatalysis"
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Singh, Chanderpratap; Mukhopadhyay, Subhabrata; Hod, Idan (January 5, 2021).
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2019:
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Artero, Vincent; Chavarot-Kerlidou, Murielle; Fontecave, Marc (2011-08-01).
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increases as the average particle size decreases. For instance, most common
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Zhang, Qin; Zhang, Xiaoxiang; Wang, Junzhong; Wang, Congwei (2021-01-15).
1536:"Fundamentals, Applications, and Future Directions of Bioelectrocatalysis"
1658:
845:
278:
185:. Several conversions that use of hydrogen gas could be transformed into
86:. In assessing the stability of electrocatalysts, the a key parameter is
23:
A platinum cathode electrocatalyst's stability being measured by chemist
2370:
2187:
Jiao, Long; Wang, Yang; Jiang, Hai-Long; Xu, Qiang (November 27, 2017).
955:
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2011:
1433:"Dream or Reality? Electrification of the Chemical Process Industries"
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19:
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reduction, including carbon-based materials and framework materials.
574:
118:
114:
98:
59:
43:
42:. Electrocatalysts are a specific form of catalysts that function at
35:
1996:"Advanced Carbon Electrode Materials for Molecular Electrochemistry"
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Kinzel, Niklas W.; Werlé, Christophe; Leitner, Walter (2021-01-19).
1844:"Strain-controlled electrocatalysis on multimetallic nanomaterials"
695:
492:
234:
209:
2189:"Metal-Organic Frameworks as Platforms for Catalytic Applications"
726:
2043:"Chemically Modified Carbon Nanotubes for Use in Electroanalysis"
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201:
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132:, the anode can oxidize water through a two electron process to
821:
Non-faradaic electrochemical modification of catalytic activity
274:
238:
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nanoparticles, while the number of other surface sites varies.
281:, an enzyme that contains a MoFe cluster, can be leveraged to
2040:
1585:"Nitrogenase Bioelectrochemistry for Synthesis Applications"
1395:
736:
447:
of a nanoparticle changes and its band structure fades away
1760:
1029:"Electrocatalysis 101 | GCEP Symposium - October 11, 2012"
2727:
2684:
172:
2153:"Carbon-based catalysts for metal-free electrocatalysis"
1936:
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542:
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Electrochemical methods: fundamentals and applications
1048:
Electrochemical methods: fundamentals and applications
677:
variety of nanomaterials have also been studied for CO
2300:
1889:
1887:
1885:
1491:
Wang, Bo; Zhang, Yifeng; Minteer, Shelley D. (2023).
1045:
984:
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on carbon backed tin-dioxide nanoparticles can break
2466:"A Practical Beginner's Guide to Cyclic Voltammetry"
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1802:
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689:
Aqueous solutions of methanol can decompose into CO
668:into useable products is a potential way to combat
156:
121:would require its own specialized electrocatalyst.
16:
Catalyst participating in electrochemical reactions
2087:
1882:
1732:"A comprehensive review on PEM water electrolysis"
1640:
1293:
1691:Qiao, Yan; Bao, Shu-Juan; Li, Chang Ming (2010).
305:
2780:
1902:(5). The Royal Society of Chemistry: 2054–2073.
1490:
1455:
1142:
58:. Major challenges in electrocatalysts focus on
2186:
1966:"CNTs tuned to provide electrocatalyst support"
844:
727:Advanced oxidation processes in water treatment
529:
147:
2733:
2438:. Science learning New Zealand. Archived from
261:Another process attracting much effort is the
1582:
1187:
684:
1193:
181:, because the electrons can be sourced from
2553:
2347:
1754:
656:Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide
649:
263:electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide
93:In many electrochemical systems, including
1930:
1078:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1046:Bard, Allen J.; Larry R. Faulkner (2001).
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1939:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
1736:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
1647:Journal of the American Chemical Society
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192:Another example is found in the area of
138:
68:
18:
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2399:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
1809:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
1300:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
1252:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
884:
646:HER can be promoted by many catalysts.
383:
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1989:
1987:
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1523:
1521:
1197:; Faulkner, Larry R. (January 2001).
1022:
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1016:
741:
717:
113:. In these systems, each of the two
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1095:
1093:
1091:
1089:
1027:Jaramillo, Tom (September 3, 2014).
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880:
878:
876:
874:
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1984:
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13:
2519:Energy & Environmental Science
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14:
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233:In the electrified version, the
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1346:
885:Roduner, Emil (June 13, 2017).
508:Metal—organic frameworks (MOFs)
2593:Green Processing and Synthesis
1951:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.01.151
1748:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.01.151
1136:
1039:
978:
927:
706:at room temperature with only
433:Reaction sites relative number
306:Heterogeneous electrocatalysts
73:An electrocatalyst lowers the
1:
2634:Accounts of Chemical Research
2470:Journal of Chemical Education
2436:"What is an electrocatalyst?"
2151:Dai, Liming (June 13, 2017).
1964:Wang, Xin (19 January 2008).
1589:Accounts of Chemical Research
1248:"Splitting Water with Cobalt"
831:
2646:10.1021/acs.accounts.9b00529
2170:10.1016/j.coelec.2017.06.004
1601:10.1021/acs.accounts.9b00494
903:10.1016/j.cattod.2017.05.091
733:Advanced oxidation processes
562:of this reaction through an
530:Research on electrocatalysis
443:: below a certain size, the
418:surface area to volume ratio
148:Homogeneous electrocatalysts
7:
2491:10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00361
1553:10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00472
1367:10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c01001
1157:10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00797
799:
582:standard hydrogen electrode
237:is provided in the form of
167:hydrogen evolution reaction
10:
2810:
2261:10.1186/s40580-020-00251-6
1868:10.1038/natrevmats.2017.59
1761:Mistry, H.; Varela, A.S.;
685:Ethanol-powered fuel cells
653:
564:internal combustion engine
546:
268:
2059:10.1007/s00604-005-0449-x
1787:10.1038/natrevmats.2016.9
710:as a by-product, so that
124:Half-reactions involving
40:electrochemical reactions
2362:10.1021/acscatal.9b03790
2114:10.1088/1361-6528/abbd70
1848:Nature Reviews Materials
1767:Nature Reviews Materials
1458:Chemical Society Reviews
1399:Chemical Society Reviews
987:Chemical Society Reviews
650:Carbon dioxide reduction
283:fix atmospheric nitrogen
250:+ 6 H + 6 e → 2 NH
2745:10.1021/acs.est.2c04874
660:Electrocatalysis for CO
2704:10.1002/cphc.201700447
2412:10.1002/anie.200903603
2205:10.1002/adma.201703663
1821:10.1002/anie.201306828
1313:10.1002/anie.202006988
1264:10.1002/anie.201007987
558:
539:
484:Carbon-based materials
394:
357:
163:coordination complexes
144:
27:
2606:10.1515/gps-2020-0055
816:Electrolysis of water
754:Nature Communications
556:
549:Electrolysis of water
537:
399:specific surface area
391:
351:
287:formate dehydrogenase
142:
130:electrolysis of water
101:and various forms of
69:Background and theory
38:that participates in
22:
1659:10.1021/jacs.0c07965
595:Reduction Potential
440:Electronic structure
384:Particle size effect
295:Microbial fuel cells
52:platinized electrode
2482:2018JChEd..95..197E
2252:2021NanoC...8....1S
2106:2021Nanot..32c2001Z
1908:2011Nanos...3.2054K
1860:2017NatRM...217059L
1779:2016NatRM...116009M
1653:(46): 19438–19445.
1546:(23): 12903–12993.
1361:(14): 12427–12474.
1306:(21): 11628–11686.
1151:(22): 11551–11575.
956:10.1038/nature11115
948:2012Natur.486...43D
774:10.1038/ncomms13549
766:2016NatCo...713549V
588:
571:thermodynamic cycle
503:Framework materials
374:coordination number
325:hydrogen production
198:Haber-Bosch process
183:renewable resources
117:and its associated
107:faradaic efficiency
2531:10.1039/D0EE00900H
2319:10.1039/C9MH00856J
2307:Materials Horizons
2193:Advanced Materials
1972:on 22 January 2009
1916:10.1039/c0nr00857e
1512:10.1039/D2EE03132A
1470:10.1039/C9CS00159J
1411:10.1039/D3CS00419H
999:10.1039/C4CS00470A
742:Additional reading
718:Chemical synthesis
587:
559:
540:
395:
358:
196:. The traditional
145:
103:electrolytic cells
28:
2697:(19): 2573–2605.
2405:(49): 9230–9237.
2047:Microchimica Acta
2012:10.1021/cr068076m
1945:(12): 4901–4934.
1815:(14): 3558–3586.
1742:(12): 4901–4934.
1595:(12): 3351–3360.
1464:(24): 5658–5716.
1437:www.aiche-cep.com
1405:(21): 7305–7332.
1258:(32): 7238–7266.
1218:978-0-471-04372-0
1114:10.1021/cr068076m
644:
643:
426:Equilibrium shape
368:According to the
194:nitrogen fixation
134:hydrogen peroxide
75:activation energy
2801:
2789:Electrochemistry
2773:
2772:
2731:
2725:
2724:
2706:
2682:
2676:
2675:
2665:
2625:
2619:
2618:
2608:
2584:
2578:
2577:
2575:
2573:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2525:(8): 2275–2309.
2510:
2504:
2503:
2493:
2461:
2455:
2454:
2452:
2450:
2445:on 29 April 2023
2444:
2431:
2425:
2424:
2414:
2390:
2384:
2383:
2373:
2345:
2339:
2338:
2298:
2292:
2291:
2281:
2263:
2240:Nano Convergence
2231:
2225:
2224:
2184:
2175:
2174:
2172:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2085:
2079:
2078:
2053:(3–4): 187–214.
2038:
2032:
2031:
2006:(7): 2646–2687.
2000:Chemical Reviews
1991:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1961:
1955:
1954:
1934:
1928:
1927:
1891:
1880:
1879:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1800:
1791:
1790:
1758:
1752:
1751:
1727:
1721:
1720:
1709:10.1039/b923503e
1688:
1679:
1678:
1638:
1629:
1628:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1555:
1540:Chemical Reviews
1531:
1516:
1515:
1497:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1453:
1447:
1446:
1444:
1443:
1429:
1423:
1422:
1393:
1387:
1386:
1355:Chemical Reviews
1350:
1344:
1343:
1333:
1315:
1291:
1276:
1275:
1243:
1230:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1191:
1185:
1184:
1145:Chemical Reviews
1140:
1134:
1133:
1108:(7): 2646–2687.
1102:Chemical Reviews
1097:
1084:
1083:
1077:
1069:
1043:
1037:
1036:
1024:
1011:
1010:
993:(8): 2060–2086.
982:
976:
975:
931:
925:
924:
914:
882:
869:
868:
842:
806:Electrochemistry
795:
785:
589:
586:
489:Carbon nanotubes
463:Ostwald ripening
254:
229:
2809:
2808:
2804:
2803:
2802:
2800:
2799:
2798:
2779:
2778:
2777:
2776:
2732:
2728:
2683:
2679:
2626:
2622:
2585:
2581:
2571:
2569:
2568:on 2 March 2009
2558:
2554:
2511:
2507:
2462:
2458:
2448:
2446:
2442:
2432:
2428:
2391:
2387:
2346:
2342:
2299:
2295:
2232:
2228:
2199:(37): 1703663.
2185:
2178:
2149:
2145:
2086:
2082:
2039:
2035:
1992:
1985:
1975:
1973:
1962:
1958:
1935:
1931:
1892:
1883:
1840:
1836:
1801:
1794:
1759:
1755:
1728:
1724:
1689:
1682:
1639:
1632:
1581:
1577:
1532:
1519:
1495:
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1450:
1441:
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1431:
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1426:
1394:
1390:
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1292:
1279:
1244:
1233:
1223:
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1219:
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1188:
1141:
1137:
1098:
1087:
1071:
1070:
1058:
1044:
1040:
1025:
1014:
983:
979:
942:(7401): 43–51.
932:
928:
891:Catalysis Today
883:
872:
865:
843:
839:
834:
802:
744:
729:
720:
692:
687:
680:
675:
667:
663:
658:
652:
634:
630:
626:
611:
600:
551:
545:
532:
516:water splitting
513:
505:
486:
386:
338:
333:
321:
308:
301:
292:
271:
253:
249:
245:
241:and electrons:
228:
224:
220:
216:
187:electrochemical
175:
159:
150:
88:turnover number
71:
65:
32:electrocatalyst
17:
12:
11:
5:
2807:
2797:
2796:
2791:
2775:
2774:
2726:
2677:
2640:(3): 547–560.
2620:
2599:(1): 515–537.
2579:
2552:
2505:
2476:(2): 197–206.
2456:
2426:
2385:
2340:
2313:(2): 411–454.
2293:
2226:
2176:
2143:
2094:Nanotechnology
2080:
2033:
1983:
1956:
1929:
1881:
1834:
1792:
1753:
1722:
1680:
1630:
1575:
1517:
1506:(2): 404–420.
1483:
1448:
1424:
1388:
1345:
1277:
1231:
1217:
1195:Bard, Allen J.
1186:
1135:
1085:
1056:
1038:
1012:
977:
926:
870:
864:978-3527312412
863:
836:
835:
833:
830:
829:
828:
826:Tafel equation
823:
818:
813:
808:
801:
798:
797:
796:
743:
740:
728:
725:
719:
716:
708:carbon dioxide
690:
686:
683:
678:
673:
670:climate change
665:
661:
654:Main article:
651:
648:
642:
641:
636:
632:
628:
627:+ 4H + 4e → 2H
624:
619:
618:
613:
609:
604:
603:
598:
593:
592:Half Reaction
547:Main article:
544:
541:
531:
528:
514:reduction and
511:
504:
501:
485:
482:
481:
480:
472:
469:Capping agents
466:
456:
448:
436:
430:
411:platinum black
403:PEM fuel cells
385:
382:
337:
334:
332:
329:
320:
319:Bulk materials
317:
307:
304:
299:
290:
270:
267:
256:
255:
251:
247:
231:
230:
226:
222:
218:
174:
171:
158:
155:
149:
146:
126:multiple steps
111:overpotentials
95:galvanic cells
84:Tafel equation
70:
67:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2806:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2786:
2784:
2770:
2766:
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2758:
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2746:
2742:
2738:
2730:
2722:
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2700:
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2692:
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2639:
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2631:
2624:
2616:
2612:
2607:
2602:
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2594:
2590:
2583:
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2563:
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2430:
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2400:
2396:
2389:
2381:
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2372:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2350:ACS Catalysis
2344:
2336:
2332:
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2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
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2304:
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2289:
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2241:
2237:
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2214:
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2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
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2166:
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2154:
2147:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
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2111:
2107:
2103:
2100:(3): 032001.
2099:
2095:
2091:
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2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
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2044:
2037:
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2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1990:
1988:
1971:
1967:
1960:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1933:
1925:
1921:
1917:
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1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
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1888:
1886:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1854:(11): 17059.
1853:
1849:
1845:
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1057:0-471-04372-9
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635:
621:
620:
617:
614:
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527:
523:
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498:
497:nanomaterials
494:
490:
478:
477:
473:
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467:
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454:
453:
449:
446:
445:work function
442:
441:
437:
434:
431:
428:
427:
423:
422:
421:
419:
416:Although the
414:
412:
408:
407:electrolyzers
404:
400:
390:
381:
377:
375:
371:
366:
364:
355:
350:
346:
343:
340:A variety of
336:Nanoparticles
331:Nanomaterials
328:
326:
316:
314:
303:
296:
288:
284:
280:
276:
266:
264:
259:
244:
243:
242:
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207:
206:hydrogenation
203:
199:
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180:
170:
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76:
66:
63:
61:
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56:half reaction
53:
49:
48:heterogeneous
45:
41:
37:
33:
26:
25:Xiaoping Wang
21:
2736:
2729:
2694:
2691:ChemPhysChem
2690:
2680:
2637:
2633:
2623:
2596:
2592:
2582:
2570:. Retrieved
2566:the original
2555:
2522:
2518:
2508:
2473:
2469:
2459:
2447:. Retrieved
2440:the original
2429:
2402:
2398:
2388:
2371:10397/100175
2356:(1): 81–92.
2353:
2349:
2343:
2310:
2306:
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2192:
2163:(1): 18–25.
2160:
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2093:
2083:
2050:
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2036:
2003:
1999:
1974:. Retrieved
1970:the original
1959:
1942:
1938:
1932:
1899:
1895:
1851:
1847:
1837:
1812:
1808:
1770:
1766:
1763:Strasser, P.
1756:
1739:
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1592:
1588:
1578:
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1451:
1440:. Retrieved
1436:
1427:
1402:
1398:
1391:
1358:
1354:
1348:
1303:
1299:
1255:
1251:
1222:. Retrieved
1199:
1189:
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1105:
1101:
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990:
986:
980:
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846:
840:
757:
753:
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704:carbon bonds
688:
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622:
615:
607:
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579:
560:
524:
506:
487:
474:
468:
458:
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378:
367:
359:
342:nanoparticle
339:
322:
309:
272:
260:
257:
232:
191:
179:green energy
176:
160:
151:
123:
92:
80:
72:
64:
31:
29:
2572:27 February
2449:27 February
1976:27 February
1773:(4): 1–14.
1224:27 February
1033:Youtube.com
897:: 263–268.
608:2H + 2e → H
356:simulation.
302:reduction.
293:reduction.
279:Nitrogenase
2783:Categories
1703:(5): 544.
1442:2021-08-22
912:2263/68699
832:References
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