94:"funds provided by the Congress for projects, programs, or grants where the purported congressional direction (whether in statutory text, report language, or other communication) circumvents otherwise applicable merit-based or competitive allocation processes, or specifies the location or recipient, or otherwise curtails the ability of the executive branch to manage its statutory and constitutional responsibilities pertaining to the funds allocation process. Earmarks are funds provided by Congress for projects or programs that curtail the ability of the Executive Branch to manage critical aspects of the funds allocation process."
108:"a provision or report language included primarily at the request of a Member, Delegate, Resident Commissioner, or Senator providing, authorizing or recommending a specific amount of discretionary budget authority, credit authority, or other spending authority for a contract, loan, loan guarantee, grant, loan authority, or other expenditure with or to an entity, or targeted to a specific State, locality or Congressional district, other than through a statutory or administrative formula-driven or competitive award process."
69:
nor there a standard earmark practice across all appropriation bills." It was noted at that time, that while the CRS did not summarize earmarks that they came in two varieties: hard earmarks, or "hardmarks", found in legislation, and soft earmarks, or "softmarks", found in the text of congressional committee reports. Hard earmarks are legally binding, whereas soft earmarks are not but are customarily acted upon as if they were. The CRS did not aggregate the "varying definitions" as the result would be invalid.
541:
555:
569:
80:"Provisions associated with legislation (appropriations or general legislation) that specify certain congressional spending priorities or in revenue bills that apply to a very limited number of individuals or entities. Earmarks may appear in either the legislative text or report language (committee reports accompanying reported bills and joint explanatory statement accompanying a conference report)."
365:
President Obama promised during his State of the Union address in
January 2011 to veto any bill that contained earmarks. In February 2011, Congress "imposed a temporary ban on earmarks, money for projects that individual lawmakers slip into major Congressional budget bills to cater to local demands."
390:
Members of
Congress can influence priorities and policy-making that promote projects that are important to their constituents by accessing discretionary DOT spending, through regular formula-based funding mechanisms and increased interaction with both transportation official as the federal and state
354:
In March 2010, the House
Appropriations Committee implemented rules to ban earmarks to for-profit corporations. Approximately 1,000 such earmarks were authorized in the previous year, worth $ 1.7 billion. At the time, earmarks constituted less than 1% of the 2010 federal budget, down from about
342:
Earmarking differs from the broader appropriations process in which
Congress grants a yearly lump sum of money to a federal agency. These monies are allocated by the agency according to its legal authority, the terms of the annual authorization bill passed by Congress and internal budgeting process.
68:
In 2006 the
Congressional Research Service (CRS) compiled a report on the use of earmarks in thirteen Appropriation Acts from 1994 through 2005 in which they noted that there was "not a single definition of the term earmark accepted by all practitioners and observers of the appropriations process,
445:
Scott Frisch and Sean Kelly point out that directing money to particular purposes is a core constitutional function of
Congress. If Congress does not make a specific allocation, the task falls to the executive branch. There is no guarantee that the allocation made by executive agencies will be
333:
The earmarking process provided
Congress with the power to earmark discretionary funds it appropriates to be spent on specific named projects. The earmarking process was a regular part of the process of allocating funds within the Federal government. For many years they were a core aspect of
338:
were forged through compromise in order to pass or reject key legislation. As congressional earmarks came into disfavor and eventually were prohibited, the ban "contributed to legislative gridlock and increased the difficulty of winning enactment of tax and immigration reform."
381:
which authorized $ 1.15 trillion in appropriations. The CAGW argued that "Throwing all earmarks into one large bill makes it more difficult to identify and eliminate earmarks than if
Congress adhered to regular order and considered the 12 appropriations bills individually."
525:, but only after the state of Alaska received $ 300M in transportation funding. The state continued to study improvements in access to the airport, which could conceivably include improvements to the ferry service. Despite the demise of the bridge proposal, Governor
52:"Earmark" comes from the livestock term, where the ears of domestic animals were cut in specific ways so that farmers could distinguish their stock from others grazing on public land. In particular, the term comes from earmarked hogs where, by analogy,
350:
between
January 3, 2007, and January 3, 2009. Since 2009, members of Congress had to post all their earmark requests online along with a signed letter certifying that they and their immediate families had no direct financial interest in the earmark.
442:" legislation. Despite considerable overlap, the two are not the same: what constitutes an earmark is an objective determination, while what is "pork-barrel" spending is subjective. One legislator's "pork" is another's vital project.
343:
With an earmark, Congress directs a specified amount of money from part of an agency's authorized budget to be spent on a particular project. In the past members of
Congress did not have to identify themselves or the project.
470:
million on building a bridge to the island, and another $ 75M to connect it to the power grid with an electrical intertie. The Ketchikan Borough Assembly turned the proposal down when the administration of Governor
149:
and is, therefore one of the most powerful committees in the Senate. In 2006 the two committees controlled $ 843 billion a year in discretionary spending in 2006 and earmarked tens of billions of dollars that year.
1394:
inserted 2 paragraphs "into an obscure section of the Pentagon" in 1991 earmarking millions of the Defense Department's budget for Earth Conservancy, managed by his family members in Hanover Township, Pennsylvania.
449:
There are also those who opine that earmarks are good because they are more democratic and less bureaucratic than traditional appropriation spending, which generally is not tailored to specific projects.
145:
federal government. Chairs and Members of these committees are seen as influential. The Senate Appropriations Committee is the largest committee in the U.S. Senate, with 30 members in the
1180:"Republicans Get Ready to Welcome Back Earmarks: GOP lawmakers want to wrest back the power of the purse, but the pull of pork is colliding with Donald Trump's call to "drain the swamp""
399:
In January 2017, a report by the CRS described how, prior to the earmarks ban in 2011, Members of Congress had used earmarks to ensure that local congressional representatives, not the
507:
362:, which had internal debates several times over whether to partially lift the ban. The earmark ban is contained in the House Republicans' intraparty rules (not the House rules).
118:
The House Rules impose disclosure requirements for earmarks, while a standing rule of the Republican Conference has, since the 114th Congress, imposed an "earmark moratorium".
1481:
1458:
410:'s divided about $ 850 million, which represented almost all of the DOT's discretionary annual funding, to traffic congestion mitigation strategies in only five metro areas,
104:
As recently as January 2023, clause 9(e) of rule XXI of the Rules of the House of Representatives for the 118th Congress states that the term "congressional earmark" means,
602:
1525:
121:
Typically, a legislator seeks to insert earmarks that direct a specified amount of money to a particular organization or project in their home state or district.
817:
1089:
617:
1068:
462:, popularly known as the "Bridge to Nowhere", has become shorthand for frivolous earmarks. In 2002, it was proposed that a for-profit prison corporation,
1600:
1581:
1198:
1605:
1122:
358:
After gaining control of the House in 2011 (following the 2010 elections), Republicans adopted a House earmark ban. This was controversial within the
1610:
1326:"; The Heritage Foundation, April 2, 1999 ("'pork' . . . often manifests itself as a specific line item, or 'earmark.'"). Retrieved November 4, 2009.
582:
130:
134:
1049:
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1339:
319:
900:
32:
that directs funds to a specific recipient while circumventing the merit-based or competitive funds allocation process. Earmarks feature in
1374:
930:
657:
The term earmark originated in ancient England when farmers tagged – or marked the ears – of their livestock mixed among the village herd.
446:
superior to that of Congress. Presidents and executive officials can use the allocation of spending to reward friends and punish enemies.
466:, build a prison on the island. To connect the island with Ketchikan, it was originally planned that the federal government spend $ 175
400:
1504:
406:
Congressional members and DOT administration often disagree on priorities. In FY2007, with an earmark ban in place, President Bush's
1478:
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1005:
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spent $ 26M in transportation funding for constructing the planned access road on the island that ultimately served little use.
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also expressed its disfavor to the idea. Eventually, the corporation's prison plans led to the exposure of the wide-ranging
592:
1429:
1356:
476:
370:
514:, Alaska's Senator Stevens. This bridge, nicknamed "The Bridge to Nowhere" by critics, was intended to replace the
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73:
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786:
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419:
1303:, March 22, 2008 ("pork-barrel spending, otherwise known as earmarks"). Retrieved November 4, 2009.
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908:
41:
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938:
415:
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legislative policymaking and distributive politics - an essential political instrument whereby
33:
26:
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1103:
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How Congressional Earmarks and Pork-Barrel Spending Undermine State and Local Decisionmaking
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992:
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However, the federal earmark was withdrawn after meeting opposition from Oklahoma Senator
8:
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463:
423:
29:
675:"Earmarks in Appropriation Acts: FY1994, FY1996, FY1998, FY2000, FY2002, FY2004, FY2005"
90:
According to the federal Office of Management and Budget the term earmark referred to,
587:
791:
Office of Management and Budget Executive Office of the President of the United States
708:
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and its Agencies Administration, set priority discretionary transportation spending.
57:
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that all the FY2016 earmarks were contained in the December 2016 omnibus 2000-page
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560:
1556:, Abbie Boudreau and Scott Bronstein, September 24, 2008. Retrieved May 8, 2019.
411:
146:
37:
1123:"House Republicans to Consider Changing the Way They Select Committee Leaders"
1057:, Washington, DC, March 11, 2009, archived from the original on March 25, 2009
709:
Robert S. Kirk; William J. Mallett; David Randall Peterman (January 4, 2017),
1594:
1534:
327:
142:
741:
674:
1406:
Cheese Factories on the Moon: Why Earmarks are Good for American Democracy
1375:"Sending Money to Home District: Earmarking and Congressional Pork Barrel"
742:"Earmark Disclosure Rules in the House: Member and Committee Requirements"
710:
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which is currently the only connection between Ketchikan and its airport.
1505:
Alaska kills infamous 'bridge to nowhere' that helped put end to earmarks
1247:
526:
480:
439:
138:
53:
554:
522:
158:
The 2006 CRS report compared the value of earmarks from 1994 to 2005.
1250:. Washington, D.C.: Citizens Against Government Waste. July 20, 2022.
503:
495:
607:
85:
Sandy Streeter, Government and Finance Division, March 6, 2006 CRS
1279:"DOT Urban Partnership Awards a Far Cry from Usual Earmarking,"
502:. The provisions and earmarks were negotiated by Alaska's Rep.
76:, the public policy research arm of the U.S. Congress was,
568:
346:
The process of earmarking was substantially reformed since the
1230:"District Liked Its Earmarks, Then Elected Someone Who Didn't"
1199:"Democrats' Draft House Rules Would Return Some Regular Order"
974:, Harvard Law School Federal Budget Policy Seminar, p. 45
1366:
1171:
794:
1403:
876:"The Congressional Appropriations Process: An Introduction"
603:
Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act of 2006
438:
Earmarks have often been treated as being synonymous with "
72:
By 2006, the definition most widely used, developed by the
56:
legislation would be doled out among members of the local
1552:
1513:, Stephen Dinan, November 8, 2015. Retrieved May 8, 2019.
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In this article about park barrels, Weiner alleged that
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Pelosi, Hoyer and Obey Announce Further Earmark Reforms
850:"The Lobbying Game: Why the Revolving Door Won't Close"
124:
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The bridge failed, but the 'Road to Nowhere' was built
867:
843:
841:
772:
Comparison of Selected Senate Earmark Reform Proposals
695:
662:
618:
Local and personal Acts of Parliament (United Kingdom)
113:
Clerk of the House of Representatives January 10, 2023
1579:
Seattle Times Database of Congressional Earmarks 2008
1523:
State studying ways to link Ketchikan, Gravina Island
1335:
For one view, see Citizens Against Government Waste,
953:
931:"Creation of the Senate Committee on Appropriations"
536:
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to pass legislation prior to the expenditure of any
129:
The two most powerful Congressional committees, the
1161:"House GOP leaders dodge final-hour earmarks fight"
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964:
893:
838:
99:Office of Management and Budget. Last updated 2011
1469:(September 8, 2008). Retrieved November 16, 2010.
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847:
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1067:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
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583:Expenditures in the United States federal budget
760:Analyst on Congress and the Legislative Process
779:
769:
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711:"Transportation Spending Under an Earmark Ban"
394:
1104:"New Earmark Rules Have Lobbyists Scrambling"
1090:House bans some earmarks amid ethics concerns
730:
1516:
1492:(September 8, 2008). Retrieved May 8, 2019.
1142:"House GOP mulls lifting a ban on earmarks"
1084:
1082:
997:
816:Cheryl L. Johnson, ed. (January 10, 2023),
1601:Political terminology of the United States
1606:Terminology of the United States Congress
1500:
1498:
1227:
1196:
1120:
1101:
1071:) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1024:"Let's Do It! Let's Bring Back Earmarks!"
479:, which eventually ensnared U.S. Senator
36:spending policy, and they are present in
1611:Government finances in the United States
1197:McPherson, Lindsey (November 16, 2018).
1121:McPherson, Lindsey (November 14, 2018).
1079:
1479:The Politics of the 'Bridge to Nowhere'
1456:The Politics of the 'Bridge to Nowhere'
1297:Alaska 1st, Ariz. last in pork spending
1228:Hernandez, Raymond (February 4, 2011).
965:Rob Porter; Sam Walsh (April 1, 2006),
935:U.S. Senate Committee on Appropriations
905:U.S. Senate Committee on Appropriations
848:Timothy J. Burger (February 16, 2006),
818:"Rules of the House of Representatives"
510:and were supported by the Chair of the
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1495:
1404:Scott A. Frisch; Sean Q Kelly (2010),
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1177:
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1139:
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968:Earmarks in the Federal Budget Process
873:
635:
386:Alternatives to congressional earmarks
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1178:Berman, Russell (November 25, 2016).
825:Clerk of the House of Representatives
453:
379:Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016
40:of many other countries as a form of
1430:"Contrarian view: Earmarks are good"
1408:, Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers,
1004:Edsall, Thomas B. (August 5, 2014).
749:Congressional Research Service (CRS)
682:Congressional Research Service (CRS)
125:US Congress Appropriation committees
1159:Ferris, Sarah (November 20, 2018).
1006:"The Value of Political Corruption"
593:Appropriations bill (United States)
13:
1283:, vol. 8, no. 32 September 5, 2007
1102:Lichtblau, Eric (March 11, 2010).
901:"Overview of the Committee's role"
494:between Gravina Island and nearby
131:Senate Committee on Appropriations
14:
1637:
1562:
1261:Toomey, Pat (December 21, 2015).
1140:Ferris, Sarah (January 9, 2018).
636:Sahadi, Jeanne (March 11, 2009).
490:provided for $ 223M to build the
477:Alaska political corruption probe
371:Citizens Against Government Waste
135:House Committee on Appropriations
774:, Congressional Research Service
770:Sandy Streeter (March 6, 2006),
567:
553:
539:
18:Discretionary spending provision
1573:Office of Management and Budget
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1428:Herdt, Timm (August 10, 2010).
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776:Government and Finance Division
740:Megan S. Lynch (May 21, 2015),
512:Senate Appropriations Committee
486:The bridge idea persisted. The
25:is a provision inserted into a
1357:Putting the Pork in One Barrel
993:Article 1, Section 9, Clause 7
718:Congressional Research Service
684:, p. 49, January 26, 2006
629:
508:House Transportation Committee
320:Article 1, Section 9, Clause 7
313:
74:Congressional Research Service
63:
1:
1373:Weiner, Tim (July 13, 1994),
1346:. Retrieved November 4, 2009.
1248:"2016 Congressional Pig Book"
991:United States. Constitution.
623:
575:Business and economics portal
638:"Earmarks: Myth and reality"
401:Department of Transportation
375:2016 Congressional Pig Book,
348:110th United States Congress
47:
7:
1484:September 10, 2008, at the
1461:September 10, 2008, at the
1092:, Reuters (March 10, 2010).
532:
428:Urban Partnership Agreement
395:Earmarks and transportation
360:House Republican Conference
160:
137:, pass bills that regulate
10:
1642:
1584:November 10, 2011, at the
433:
324:United States Constitution
171:% of total federal outlay
1528:October 25, 2015, at the
1322:October 23, 2002, at the
1267:The Philadelphia Inquirer
420:San Francisco, California
170:
167:
1263:"Area Votes in Congress"
373:(CAGW) claimed in their
318:Congress is required by
153:
42:political particularism
1342:July 14, 2008, at the
793:, 2010, archived from
416:Minneapolis, Minnesota
116:
102:
88:
34:United States Congress
27:discretionary spending
1616:Political terminology
1337:2006 Pig Book Summary
1281:Transportation Weekly
941:on September 27, 2005
874:Tollestrup, Jessica.
492:Gravina Island Bridge
460:Gravina Island Bridge
106:
92:
78:
1621:Public choice theory
1575:Last updated in 2011
1510:The Washington Times
1209:on November 21, 2018
547:United States portal
500:Revillagigedo Island
336:political coalitions
1435:Ventura County Star
1361:The Washington Post
911:on October 13, 2005
787:"Earmarks Database"
464:Cornell Corrections
424:Seattle, Washington
162:
30:appropriations bill
1379:The New York Times
1363:, August 17, 2006.
1315:, Ronald D. Utt, "
1295:, Diana Marrero, "
1234:The New York Times
1108:The New York Times
1010:The New York Times
588:Mandatory spending
506:, who chaired the
454:In popular culture
369:In December 2015,
161:
1569:Earmarks Database
1532:. Bohrer, Becky.
1415:978-1-59451-731-0
1392:Paul E. Kanjorski
806:last updated 2011
797:on March 10, 2010
488:2005 Highway Bill
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168:Total $ billion
58:political machine
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915:October 14,
831:January 25,
751:, p. 7
527:Sarah Palin
481:Ted Stevens
440:pork barrel
314:Legislation
64:Definitions
1595:Categories
1385:January 4,
978:January 5,
880:Senate.gov
860:January 7,
801:January 4,
755:January 4,
723:January 7,
688:January 4,
624:References
523:Tom Coburn
516:auto ferry
1571:from the
1301:USA Today
1203:Roll Call
1127:Roll Call
1034:April 20,
651:April 20,
504:Don Young
496:Ketchikan
48:Etymology
1582:Archived
1526:Archived
1490:Newsweek
1482:Archived
1467:Newsweek
1459:Archived
1340:Archived
1320:Archived
1165:Politico
1146:Politico
1063:citation
1028:HuffPost
608:Lobbying
533:See also
391:levels.
133:and the
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434:Debates
330:funds.
322:of the
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176:Year
154:Value
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1293:E.g.
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1073:link
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458:The
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