Scotland in the early modern period

2229:, pulled by oxen, which were more effective and cheaper to feed than horses. From the mid-sixteenth century, Scotland experienced a decline in demand for exports of cloth and wool to the continent. Scots responded by selling larger quantities of traditional goods, increasing the output of salt, herring and coal. The late sixteenth century was an era of economic distress, probably exacerbated by increasing taxation and the devaluation of the currency. In 1582 a pound of silver produced 640 shillings, but in 1601 it was 960 and the exchange rate with England was £6 Scots to £1 sterling in 1565, but by 1601 it had fallen to £12. Wages rose rapidly, by between four or five times between 1560 and the end of the century, but failed to keep pace with inflation. This situation was punctuated by frequent harvest failures, with almost half the years in the second half of the sixteenth century seeing local or national scarcity, necessitating the shipping of large quantities of grain from the Baltic. Distress was exacerbated by outbreaks of plague, with major epidemics in the periods 1584–88 and 1597–1609. There were the beginnings of industrial manufacture in this period, often using expertise from the continent, which included a failed attempt to use Flemings to teach new techniques in the developing cloth industry in the north-east, but more successful in bringing a Venetian to help develop a native glass blowing industry. 2841:

predominately Protestant, lairds, who claimed a right to sit in the Parliament under the provision of a failed shire election act of 1428. Their position in the parliament remained uncertain and their presence fluctuated until the 1428 act was revived in 1587 and provision made for the annual election of two commissioners from each shire (except Kinross and Clackmannan, which had one each). The property qualification for voters was for freeholders who held land from the crown of the value of 40s of auld extent. This excluded the growing class of feuars, who would not gain these rights until 1661. The clerical estate was marginalised in Parliament by the Reformation, with the laymen who had acquired the monasteries and sitting as 'abbots' and 'priors'. Catholic clergy were excluded after 1567, but a small number of Protestant bishops continued as the clerical estate. James VI attempted to revive the role of the bishops from about 1600. They were abolished by the Covenanters in 1638, when Parliament became an entirely lay assembly. A further group appeared in the Parliament from the minority of James IV in the 1560s, with members of the Privy Council representing the king's interests, until they were excluded in 1641. James VI continued to manage parliament though the Lords of the Articles, filling it with royal officers as non-elected members, but was forced to limit this to eight from 1617.

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afterwards was called on with increasing frequency and scale until in 1612 a demand of £240,000 resulted in serious opposition. A new tax on annual rents amounting to five per cent on all interest on loans, mainly directed at the merchants of the burghs, was introduced in 1621; but it was widely resented and was still being collected over a decade later. Under Charles I the annual income from all sources in Scotland was under £16,000 sterling and inadequate for the normal costs of government, with the court in London now being financed out of English revenues. The sum of £10,000 a month from the county assessment was demanded by the Cromwellian regime, which Scotland failed to fully supply, but it did contribute £35,000 in excise a year. Although Parliament made a formal grant of £40,000 a year to Charles II, the rising costs civilian government and war meant that this was inadequate to support Scottish government. Under William I and after the Union, engagement in continental and colonial wars led to heavier existing taxes and new taxes, including the Poll and Hearth Taxes.

1670: 2446:, with members of a group sharing a (sometimes fictional) common ancestor. Women retained their original surname at marriage and marriages were intended to create friendship between kin groups, rather than a new bond of kinship. In the Borders this was often reflected in a common surname. A shared surname has been seen as a "test of kinship", proving large bodies of kin who could call on each other's support. At the beginning of the period this could help intensify the idea of the feud, which was usually carried out as a form of revenge for a kinsman and for which a large bodies of kin could be counted on to support rival sides, although conflict between members of kin groups also occurred. From the reign of James VI systems of judicial law were enforced and by the early eighteenth century the feud had been suppressed. In the Borders the leadership of the heads of the great surnames was largely replaced by the authority of landholding lairds in the seventeenth century. 3050:(1653–54) were mainly composed of conventionally armed infantry with pike and shot. Montrose's forces were short of heavy artillery suitable for siege warfare and had only a small force of cavalry. During the Bishops' Wars the king attempted to blockade Scotland and planned amphibious assaults from England on the East coast and from Ireland to the West. Scottish privateers took a number of English prizes. After the Covenanters allied with the English Parliament they established two patrol squadrons for the Atlantic and North Sea coasts, known collectively as the "Scotch Guard". The Scottish navy was unable to withstand the English fleet that accompanied the army led by Cromwell that conquered Scotland in 1649–51 and the Scottish ships and crews were split up among the Commonwealth fleet. During the English occupation of Scotland under the Commonwealth, several more fortresses in the style of the 66: 2469:, who acted as a military elite, defending the clan lands from raids or taking part in attacks on clan enemies. Most of the followers of the clan were tenants, who supplied labour to the clan heads and sometimes acted as soldiers. In the early modern period they usually took the clan name as their surname, turning it into a massive, if often fictive, kin group. Because the Highland Clans were not a direct threat to the Restoration government, or relations with England, the same effort was not put into suppressing their independence as had been focused on the Borders, until after the Glorious Revolution. Economic change and the imposition of royal justice had begun to undermine the clan system before the eighteenth century, but the process was accelerated after the 2979:). The crown took an increasing role in the supply of equipment. The pike began to replace the spear or axe and the bow began to be replaced by gunpowder firearms. The feudal heavy cavalry had begun to disappear from Scottish armies and the Scots fielded relatively large numbers of light horse, often drawn from the borders. James IV brought in experts from France, Germany and the Netherlands and established a gun foundry in 1511. Gunpowder weaponry fundamentally altered the nature of castle architecture from the mid-fifteenth century. In the period of French intervention in the 1540s and 1550s, Scotland was given a defended border of a series of earthwork forts and additions to existing castles. 1595: 2271:, stretching down from the Highlands through south-west Scotland to north-east England, had become firmly established. Scottish attempts to counter this with tariffs of their own, were largely unsuccessful as Scotland had relatively few vital exports to protect. Attempts by the Privy Council to build up luxury industries in cloth mills, soap works, sugar boiling houses, gunpowder and paper works, proved largely unsuccessful. The famines of the 1690s were seen as particularly severe, partly because famine had become relatively rare in the second half of the seventeenth century, with only one year of dearth (in 1674) and the shortages of the 1690s would be the last of their kind. 2614: 2163:, over which the border with England ran. The Central Lowland belt averages about 50 miles in width and, because it contains most of the good quality agricultural land and has easier communications, could support most of the urbanisation and elements of conventional government. However, the Southern Uplands, and particularly the Highlands were economically less productive and much more difficult to govern. The Uplands and Highlands had a relatively short growing season, in the extreme case of the upper Grampians an ice free season of four months or less and for much of the Highlands and Uplands of seven months or less. The early modern period also saw the impact of the 2529:, these numbers would have been evenly spread over the kingdom, with roughly half living north of the Tay. Perhaps ten per cent of the population lived in one of many burghs that grew up in the later medieval period, mainly in the east and south. It has been suggested that they would have had a mean population of about 2,000, but many would be much smaller than 1,000 and the largest, Edinburgh, probably had a population of over 10,000 at the beginning of the modern era and by 1750, with its suburbs it had reached 57,000. The only other towns above 10,000 by the end of the period were Glasgow with 32,000, Aberdeen with around 16,000 and Dundee with 12,000. 1278:, which included practices that had been retained in England, but largely abolished in Scotland, most controversially kneeling for the reception of communion. Although ratified, they created widespread opposition and resentment and were seen by many as a step back to Catholic practice. Royal authority was more limited in the Highlands, where periodic violence punctuated relationships between the great families of the MacDonalds, Gordons and McGregors and Campbells. The acquisition of the Irish crown along with the English, facilitated a process of settlement by Scots in what was historically the most troublesome area of the kingdom in 2853:

absence from Scotland and use of commissioners to rule his northern kingdom undermined the authority of the body. James' parliament supported him against rivals and attempted rebellions, but after his escape to exile in 1689, William's first parliament was dominated by his supporters and, in contrast to the situation in England, effectively deposed James under the Claim of Right, which offered the crown to William and Mary, placing important limitations on royal power, including the abolition of the Lords of the Articles. The new Williamite parliament would subsequently bring about its own demise by the Act of Union in 1707.

776: 2837:. It acquired significant powers over taxation, but it also had a strong influence over justice, foreign policy, war, and other legislation. Much of the legislative business of the Scottish parliament was carried out by a parliamentary committee known as the 'Lords of the Articles', which drafted legislation which was then presented to the full assembly to be confirmed. Like many continental assemblies the Scottish Parliament was being called less frequently by the early sixteenth century and might have been dispensed with by the crown had it not been for the series of minorities and regencies that dominated from 1513. 1921: 4027: 3739:

song schools from 1579. He rebuilt the Chapel Royal at Stirling in 1594 and the choir was used for state occasions like the baptism of his son Henry. He followed the tradition of employing lutenists for his private entertainment, as did other members of his family. When he went south to take the throne of England in 1603 as James I, he removed one of the major sources of patronage in Scotland. The Scottish Chapel Royal was now used only for occasional state visits, beginning to fall into disrepair, and from now on the court in Westminster would be the only major source of royal musical patronage.

2983: 1984:. It was also a full economic union, replacing the Scottish systems of currency, taxation and laws regulating trade. The Privy Council was abolished, which meant that effective government in Scotland lay in the hands of unofficial "managers", who attempted to control elections in Scotland and voting by Scottish MPs and lords in line with the prevailing party in Westminster, through a complex process of patronage, venality and coercion. Since the Tories were suspected of Jacobite sympathies, management tended to fall to one of the two groups of Whigs, the "Old Party" or "Argathelian", led by 3038:. As armed conflict with Charles I in the Bishops' Wars became likely, hundreds of Scots mercenaries returned home from foreign service, including experienced leaders like Alexander and David Leslie and these veterans played an important role in training recruits. These systems would form the basis of the Covenanter armies that intervened in the Civil Wars in England and Ireland. Scottish infantry were generally armed, as was almost universal in Western Europe, with a combination of pike and shot. Scottish armies may also have had individuals with a variety of weapons including bows, 2103:. The Jacobite army marched into England, took Carlisle and advanced as far as south as Derby. However, it became increasingly evident that England would not support a Roman Catholic Stuart monarch. The Jacobite leadership had a crisis of confidence and they retreated to Scotland as two English armies closed in and Hanoverian troops began to return from the continent. Charles' position in Scotland began to deteriorate as the Whig supporters rallied and regained control of Edinburgh. After an unsuccessful attempt on Stirling, he retreated north towards Inverness. He was pursued by the 60: 3795: 1147: 3917: 2909: 2131: 1368: 3627: 2787: 1618:. In 1650 Montrose attempted another rising in the Highlands in the name of the King, but it ended disastrously, with Montrose being executed. Lacking tangible support from his relatives on the continent or his supporters in England, Charles accepted the offer from the Covenanters, arriving in June 1650 and signing the Covenants. The English responded with an army of 16,000 under Cromwell, which crossed the border in July 1650, while an English fleet acted in support. On 3 September 1650 the English army defeated the Scots under David Leslie at the 2768:

minority of the monarchy. After James VI departure to England in 1603, it functioned as a subservient executive carrying out his instructions from London. Although the theoretical membership of the council was relatively large, at around thirty persons, most of the business was carried out by an informal inner group consisting mainly of the officers of state. After the Restoration, Charles II nominated his own privy councillors and set up a council in London through which he directed affairs in Edinburgh, a situation that continued after the

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funds, contributions from local heritors or burgh councils and parents that could pay. They were inspected by kirk sessions, who checked for the quality of teaching and doctrinal purity. There were also large number of unregulated "adventure schools", which sometimes fulfilled local needs and sometimes took pupils away from the official schools. Outside of the established burgh schools masters often combined their position with other employment, particularly minor posts within the kirk, such as clerk. At their best, the curriculum included

4064:, Earl of Dunfermline in 1621. These were undertaken by unnamed Scottish artists using continental pattern books that often led to the incorporation of humanist moral and philosophical symbolism, with elements that call on heraldry, piety, classical myths and allegory. The tradition of royal portrait painting in Scotland was probably disrupted by the minorities and regencies it underwent for much of the sixteenth century, but began to flourish after the Reformation. There were anonymous portraits of important individuals, including the 3004:, at that time, the largest ship in Europe. Scottish ships had some success against privateers, accompanied the king on his expeditions in the islands and intervened in conflicts Scandinavia and the Baltic, but were sold after the Flodden campaign. From 1516 Scottish naval efforts would rely on privateering captains and hired merchantmen. James V did not share his father's interest in developing a navy and shipbuilding fell behind the Low Countries. Despite truces between England and Scotland there were periodic outbreaks of a 874: 2275: 2659: 2241: 2204: 2311:, particularly in the Lowlands, with some commentators suggesting that Scottish flax was superior to Dutch. The Scottish members of parliament managed to see off an attempt to impose an export duty on linen and from 1727 it received subsidies of £2,750 a year for six years, resulting in a considerable expansion of the trade. Paisley adopted Dutch methods and became a major centre of production. Glasgow manufactured for the export trade, which doubled between 1725 and 1738. The move of the 2639:

beggars". The most important later act was that of 1649, which declared that local heritors were to be assessed by kirk session to provide the financial resources for local relief, rather than relying on voluntary contributions. The system was largely able to cope with the general level of poverty and minor crises, helping the old and infirm to survive and provide life support in periods of downturn at relatively low cost, but was overwhelmed in the major subsistence crisis of the 1690s.

3158:. The bulk of Jacobite armies were made up of Highlanders, serving in clan regiments. The clan gentlemen formed the front ranks of the unit and were more heavily armed than their impoverished tenants who made up the bulk of the regiment. Because they served in the front ranks, the gentlemen suffered higher proportional casualties than the common clansman. The Jacobites often started campaigns poorly armed, but arms tended to become more conventional as the campaigns progressed. 1457: 3255: 1837: 2686: 2019: 3463: 3070: 2544: 2566:, similar to that passed in England one year earlier, which made witchcraft a capital crime. Despite the fact that Scotland probably had about one quarter of the population of England, it would have three times the number of witchcraft prosecutions, at about 6,000 for the entire period. James VI's visit to Denmark, a country familiar with witch hunts, may have encouraged an interest in the study of witchcraft. After his return to Scotland, he attended the 2371:, sometimes called "bonnet lairds", often owning substantial land. The practice of fueing (by which a tenant paid an entry sum and an annual feu duty, but could pass the land on to their heirs) meant that the number of people holding heritable possession of lands, which had previously been controlled by the church or nobility expanded. These and the lairds probably numbered about 10,000 by the seventeenth century and became what the government defined as 3184: 497: 3932:

particularly putting the pulpit and preaching at the centre of worship. Many of the earliest buildings were simple gabled rectangles, a style that continued to be built into the seventeenth century. A variation of the rectangular church that developed in post-Reformation Scotland was the T-shaped plan, often used when adapting existing churches, which allowed the maximum number of parishioners to be near the pulpit. In the seventeenth century a

1749: 1301: 2967:. In 1513 these systems were successful in producing a large and formidable force, but there is evidence that by the mid-sixteenth century the authorities were experiencing increasing difficulty in recruitment. Individuals were expected to provide their own equipment. Heavy armour was abandoned after the Flodden campaign and noblemen became indistinguishable from the majority of troops. Highland lords tended to continue to use lighter 1053: 1622:, taking over 10,000 prisoners and then occupying Edinburgh, taking control of the Lowlands. Charles could now more easily make an alliance with the moderate Covenanters. He was crowned at Scone on 1 January 1651 and a new army was assembled. In June 1651 Cromwell advanced against the Scots under Leslie at Stirling. The Scots army with the King set off for England, but there was no rising in their favour and the army was caught at 2344: 3722: 957: 1685:

creating a de facto restoration of the monarchy in Scotland, but without safeguards. In the event Scotland regained its system of law, parliament and kirk, but also the Lords of the Articles, bishops and a king who did not visit the country and ruled largely without reference to Parliament through a series of commissioners. These began with Middleton, now an earl and ended with the king's brother and heir,

2845: 1897:, the colonists abandoned their project in 1700. Only 1,000 survived and only one ship managed to return to Scotland. The cost of £150,000 put a severe strain on the Scottish commercial system and led to widespread anger against England, while, seeing the impossibility of two economic policies, William was prompted to argue for political union shortly before his death in 1702. 2257:

rises of the century. Under the Commonwealth, the country was relatively highly taxed, but gained access to English markets. After the Restoration the formal frontier with England was re-established, along with its customs duties. Economic conditions were generally favourable from 1660 to 1688, as land owners promoted better tillage and cattle-raising. The monopoly of royal

2939:

entry to their own ranks. In 1605 the professionalisation of the bench led to entry requirements in Latin, law and a property qualification of £2,000, designed to limit the danger of bribery, helping to create an exclusive, wealthy and powerful and professional caste, who also now dominated government posts in a way that the clergy had done in the Middle Ages. In 1672 the

2509:, may have caused the population of Scotland to fall as low as half a million people. Price inflation, which generally reflects growing demand for food, suggests that this probably expanded in the first half of the sixteenth century, levelling off after the famine of 1595, as prices were relatively stable in the early seventeenth century. Calculations based on 2267:

and tobacco from Virginia and Maryland. Exports across the Atlantic included linen, woollen goods, coal and grindstones. The English protective tariffs on salt and cattle were harder to disregard and probably placed greater limitations on the Scottish economy, despite attempts of the King to have it overturned. However, by the end of the century the

2004:, who succeeded him as 3rd Duke of Argyll in 1743, dominated Scottish politics in the first half of the eighteenth century. Both wings of the Whig movement were forced together by the Jacobite rising in 1745 and the post of Secretary of State was abolished in 1746, but Argyll remained the "uncrowned king of Scotland" until his death in 1761. 2599:

and with relative peace and stability the economic and social tensions that contributed to accusations may have reduced. There were occasional local outbreaks like that in East Lothian in 1678 and 1697 at Paisley. The last recorded executions were in 1706 and the last trial in 1727. The British parliament repealed the 1563 Act in 1736.

3770:(1725). The Italian style of classical music was probably first brought to Scotland by the Italian cellist and composer Lorenzo Bocchi, who travelled to Scotland in the 1720s, introducing the cello to the country and then developing settings for lowland Scots songs. He possibly had a hand in the first Scottish Opera, the pastoral 806:, the young king's stepfather, took custody of James and held him as a virtual prisoner for three years, exercising power on his behalf. He finally managed to escape from the custody of the regents in 1528 and began to take revenge on a number of them and their families. He continued his father's policy of subduing the rebellious 3277:, he placed an emphasis on simplified logic and elevated languages and sciences to the same status as philosophy, allowing accepted ideas in all areas to be challenged. He introduced new specialist teaching staff, replacing the system of "regenting", where one tutor took the students through the entire arts curriculum. 1038:. At this point the majority of the population was probably still Catholic in persuasion and the kirk would find it difficult to penetrate the Highlands and Islands, but began a gradual process of conversion and consolidation that, compared with reformations elsewhere, was conducted with relatively little persecution. 2712:. The idea of imperial monarchy emphasised the dignity of the crown and included its role as a unifying national force, defending national borders and interest, royal supremacy over the law and a distinctive national church within the Catholic communion. New Monarchy can also be seen in the reliance of the crown on " 3688:. Never adopted by the kirk, they nevertheless remained popular and were reprinted from the 1540s to the 1620s. Later the Calvinism that came to dominate the Scottish Reformation was much more hostile to Catholic musical tradition and popular music, placing an emphasis on what was biblical, which meant the 3830:, described as "some of the finest examples of Renaissance architecture in Britain". Rather than slavishly copying continental forms, most Scottish architecture incorporated elements of these styles into traditional local patterns, adapting them to Scottish idioms and materials (particularly stone and 2290:

agriculture among the gentry and nobility. Haymaking was introduced along with the English plough and foreign grasses, the sowing of rye grass and clover. Turnips and cabbages were introduced, lands enclosed and marshes drained, lime was put down, roads built and woods planted. Drilling and sowing and

3834:). Work undertaken for James VI demonstrated continued Renaissance influences, with the Chapel Royal at Stirling having a classical entrance built in 1594 and the North Wing of Linlithgow, built in 1618, using classical pediments. Similar themes can be seen in the private houses of aristocrats, as in 3077:

At the Restoration the Privy Council established a force of several infantry regiments and a few troops of horse and there were attempts to found a national militia on the English model. The standing army was mainly employed in the suppression of Covenanter rebellions and the guerrilla war undertaken

2638:

This legislation provided the basis of what would later be known as the "Old Poor Law" in Scotland, which remained in place until the mid-nineteenth century. Most subsequent legislation built on the principles of provision for the local deserving poor and punishment of mobile and undeserving "sturdie

2598:

was in 1661–62, which involved 664 named witches in four counties. From this point prosecutions began to decline as trials were more tightly controlled by the judiciary and government, torture was more sparingly used and standards of evidence were raised. There may also have been a growing scepticism

2298:

The major change in international trade was the rapid expansion of the Americas as a market. Glasgow supplied the colonies with cloth, iron farming implements and tools, glass and leather goods. Initially relying on hired ships, by 1736 it had 67 of its own, a third of which were trading with the New

2266:

limited the ability of the Scots to engage in what would have been lucrative trading with England's growing colonies, but these were often circumvented, with Glasgow becoming an increasingly important commercial centre, opening up trade with the American colonies: importing sugar from the West Indies

2170:

Most roads in the Lowlands were maintained by justices from a monetary levy on landholders and work levy on tenants. The development of national grain prices indicates the network had improved considerably by the early eighteenth century. In the Highlands and Galloway in the early eighteenth century,

2111:

on 16 April 1746, where the Jacobite cause was crushed. Charles hid in Scotland with the aid of Highlanders until September 1746, when he escaped back to France. There were bloody reprisals against his supporters and foreign powers abandoned the Jacobite cause, with the court in exile forced to leave

1888:

and the English investors withdraw. Returning to Edinburgh, the Company raised £400,000 in a few weeks. Three small fleets with a total of 3,000 men eventually set out for Panama in 1698. The exercise proved a disaster. Poorly equipped; beset by incessant rain; suffering from disease; under attack by

1848:

followed by four years of failed harvests (1695, 1696 and 1698–99), known as the "seven ill years". The result was severe famine and depopulation, particularly in the north. The Parliament of Scotland of 1695 enacted proposals that might help the desperate economic situation, including setting up the

1087:

of France. When Francis died in 1560, Mary, now 19, elected to return to Scotland to take up the government in a hostile environment. Despite her private deeply catholic religion, she did not attempt to re-impose Catholicism on her largely Protestant subjects, thus angering the chief Catholic nobles.

604:

system of organisation and discipline that would have a major impact on Scottish life. In 1561 Mary returned from France, but her personal reign deteriorated into murder, scandal and civil war, forcing her to escape to England where she was later executed and leaving her Protestant opponents in power

3733:

The return of Mary from France in 1561 to begin her personal reign, and her position as a Catholic, gave a new lease of life to the choir of the Scottish Chapel Royal, but the destruction of Scottish church organs meant that instrumentation to accompany the mass had to employ bands of musicians with

3415:

of the Bible. In 1617 interpreters were declared no longer necessary in the port of London because Scots and Englishmen were now "not so far different bot ane understandeth ane uther". Jenny Wormald, describes James as creating a "three-tier system, with Gaelic at the bottom and English at the top".

3237:

principles. Although the Restoration brought a reversion to the 1633 position, in 1696 new legislation restored the provisions of 1646, together with means of enforcement "more suitable to the age". It took until the late seventeenth century to produce a largely complete network of parish schools in

2938:

was founded, leading to the training and professionalisation of an emerging group of career lawyers. The Court of Session placed increasing emphasis on its independence from influence, including from the king, and superior jurisdiction over local justice. Its judges were increasingly able to control

2875:

on the English model were established to deal with petty crimes and infractions. Greater control was exerted over the lawless Borders through a joint commission with the English set up in 1587. James VI was much more hostile to the culture and particularism of the Highlands than his predecessors. He

2315:

in 1746 into advancing cash credits also stimulated production. The trade was soon being managed by "manufacturers" who supplied flax to spinners, bought back the yarn and then supplied to the weavers and then bought the cloth they produced and resold that. Banking also developed in this period. The

2294:

were introduced. The introduction of the potato to Scotland in 1739 greatly improved the diet of the peasantry. Enclosures began to displace the runrig system and free pasture. The Society of Improvers was founded in 1723, including in its 300 members dukes, earls, lairds and landlords. The Lothians

1790:

that suggested that James had forfeited the crown by his actions (in contrast to England, which relied on the legal fiction of an abdication) and offered it to William and Mary, which William accepted, along with limitations on royal power. The final settlement restored Presbyterianism and abolished

1363:

on 28 February 1638, objecting to the King's liturgical innovations. The king's supporters were unable to suppress the rebellion and the king refused to compromise. In December of the same year matters were taken even further, when at a meeting of the General Assembly in Glasgow the Scottish bishops

3654:

for four voices. These were probably only two of many accomplished composers from this era, whose work has largely only survived in fragments. In this era Scotland followed the trend of Renaissance courts for instrumental accompaniment and playing. James V, as well as being a major patron of sacred

3308:

After the religious and political upheavals of the seventeenth century, the universities recovered with a lecture-based curriculum that embraced economics and science, offering a high quality liberal education to the sons of the nobility and gentry. It helped them to become major centres of medical

2893:

remained important in regulating minor interpersonal and property offences. They were held at the behest of the local baron when there was a backlog of cases and could appoint birleymen, usually senior tenants, who would resolve disputes and issues. The combination of kirk sessions and courts baron

2625:

Population growth and economic dislocation from the second half of the sixteenth century led to a growing problem of vagrancy. The government reacted with three major pieces of legislation in 1574, 1579 and 1592. The kirk became a major element of the system of poor relief and justices of the peace

1689:(known in Scotland as the Duke of Albany). Legislation was revoked back to 1633, removing the Covenanter gains of the Bishops' Wars, but the discipline of kirk sessions, presbyteries and synods were renewed. Only four Covenanters were executed, the most prominent being Argyll. The reintroduction of 3410:

of Southern England due to developments in royal and political interactions with England. With the increasing influence and availability of books printed in England, most writing in Scotland came to be done in the English fashion. Unlike many of his predecessors, James VI generally despised Gaelic

2634:

and unlicensed tutors. Parish deacons, elders or other overseers were to draw up lists of deserving poor and each would be assessed. Those not belonging to the parish were to be sent back to their place of birth and might be put in the stocks or otherwise punished, probably actually increasing the

1335:

since 1542 helped secure the finances of the kirk, but it threatened the holdings of the nobility who had gained from the Reformation settlement. His pushing through of legislation and refusal to hear (or legal pursuit of) those raising objections, created further resentment among the nobility. In

4038:

Surviving stone and wood carvings, wall paintings and tapestries suggest the richness of sixteenth century royal art. At Stirling castle stone carvings on the royal palace from the reign of James V are taken from German patterns, and like the surviving carved oak portrait roundels from the King's

3738:

and (unlike her father) was a fine singer. She brought French musical influences with her, employing lutenists and viol players in her household. James VI was a major patron of the arts in general. He made statutory provision to reform and promote the teaching of music, attempting to revive burgh

1960:

between Scotland and England also became economically attractive, promising to open up the much larger markets of England, as well as those of the growing Empire. However, there was widespread, if disunited opposition and mistrust in the general population. Sums paid to Scottish commissioners and

1847:

The closing decade of the seventeenth century saw the generally favourable economic conditions that had dominated since the Restoration come to an end. There was a slump in trade with the Baltic and France from 1689 to 1691, caused by French protectionism and changes in the Scottish cattle trade,

1684:

and the subsequent contest for power between army leaders. In 1659 he opened negotiations with Charles II and began a slow march south with his army. He then restored the English Long Parliament, which, having received assurances, voted for a restoration of the monarchy and then dissolved itself,

1630:

In 1652, the English parliament declared that Scotland was part of the Commonwealth. Various attempts were made to legitimise the union, calling representatives from the Scottish burghs and shires to negotiations and to various English parliaments, where they were always under-represented and had

1350:

In 1635, without reference to a general assembly of the Parliament, the king authorised a book of canons that made him head of the Church, ordained an unpopular ritual and enforced the use of a new liturgy. When the liturgy emerged in 1637 it was seen as an English-style Prayer Book, resulting in

2681:

provided one focus of display and were also pursued enthusiastically by James V, proud of his membership of international orders of knighthood. During her brief personal rule, Mary, Queen of Scots brought many of the elaborate court activities that she had grown up with at the French court, with

2256:

In the early seventeenth century famine was relatively common, with four periods of famine prices between 1620 and 1625. The invasions of the 1640s had a profound impact on the Scottish economy, with the destruction of crops and the disruption of markets resulting in some of the most rapid price

2211:

At the beginning of the era, with difficult terrain, poor roads and methods of transport there was little trade between different areas of the country and most settlements depended on what was produced locally, often with very little in reserve in bad years. Most farming was based on the lowland

3712:

for the English congregation in Geneva. The intention was to produce individual tunes for each psalm, but of 150 psalms, 105 had proper tunes and in the seventeenth century. Common tunes, which could be used for psalms with the same metre, became more frequent. The need for simplicity for whole

3201:

set out a plan for a school in every parish, but this proved financially impossible. In the burghs the old schools were maintained, with the song schools and a number of new foundations becoming reformed grammar schools or ordinary parish schools. Schools were supported by a combination of kirk

2884:

land tax. The parish also became an important unit of local government, pressured by Justices in the early eighteenth century, it became responsible for taking care of the destitute in periods of famine, like that in 1740, to prevent the impoverished from taking to the roads and causing general

2852:

Having been officially suspended at the end of the Cromwellian regime, parliament returned after the Restoration of Charles II in 1661. This parliament, later known disparagingly as the 'Drunken Parliament', revoked most of the Presbyterian gains of the last thirty years. Subsequently, Charles'

2289:

At the union of 1707 England had about five times the population of Scotland, and about 36 times as much wealth, however, Scotland began to experience the beginnings of economic expansion that would begin to allow it to close this gap. Contacts with England led to a conscious attempt to improve

1554:

Unable to persuade the king to accept a Presbyterian settlement, the Scots exchanged him for half of the £400,000 they were owed by Parliament and returned home. Relations with the English Parliament and the increasingly independent English army grew strained and the balance of power shifted in

924:

The arrival of French troops helped stiffen resistance to the English, who abandoned Haddington in September 1549 and, after the fall of Protector Somerset in England, withdrew from Scotland completely. From 1554, Marie of Guise took over the regency, maintaining a difficult position, partly by

3246:

oversaw the quality of the education. In many Scottish towns, burgh schools were operated by local councils. In the Highlands, as well as problems of distance and physical isolation, most people spoke Gaelic which few teachers and ministers could understand. Here the Kirk's parish schools were

2035:

Jacobitism was revived by the unpopularity of the union. In 1708 James Francis Edward Stuart, the son of James VII, who became known as "The Old Pretender", attempted an invasion with a French fleet carrying 6,000 men, but the Royal Navy prevented it from landing troops. A more serious attempt

1875:

in the hope of establishing trade with the Far East. The Darién scheme won widespread support in Scotland as the landed gentry and the merchant class were in agreement in seeing overseas trade and colonialism as routes to upgrade Scotland's economy. Since the capital resources of the Edinburgh

1571:

in June 1648 and many Covenanters, including Alexander and David Leslie, declined to join the army of 10,000 produced for the Engagement. By the time Hamilton led the Engagement army across the border, most of the English risings been defeated. The Scots were caught by the New Model Army under

3931:

Calvinists rejected ornamentation in places of worship, with no need for elaborate buildings divided up by ritual, resulting in the widespread destruction of Medieval church furnishings, ornaments and decoration. There was a need to adapt and build new churches suitable for reformed services,

3861:, which had been built in hundreds by local lords since the fourteenth century, particularly in the borders. These abandoned defensible curtain walls for a fortified refuge, designed to outlast a raid, rather than a sustained siege. They were usually of three stories, typically crowned with a 2920:

In the late Middle Ages, justice in Scotland was a mixture of the royal and local, which was often unsystematic with overlapping jurisdictions, undertaken by clerical lawyers, laymen, amateurs and local leaders. Under James IV the legal functions of the council were rationalised, with a royal

2767:

in Edinburgh. By the early modern period the Privy Council was a full-time body and critical to the smooth running of government. Its primary function was judicial, but it also acted as a body of advisers to the king and as a result its secondary function was as an executive in the absence or

1261:

remaining both distinct and separate – despite James' best efforts to create a new "imperial" throne of "Great Britain". James retained a keen interest in Scottish affairs, running the government by the rapid interchange of letters, aided by the establishment of an efficient postal system. He

3376: 2669:

For the early part of the era, the authority of the crown was limited by the large number of minorities it had seen since the early fifteenth century. This tended to decrease the level of royal revenues, as regents often alienated land and revenues. Regular taxation was adopted from 1581 and

3809:

in 1536 and his second marriage to Mary of Guise may have resulted in longer term connections and influences. Work from his reign largely disregarded the insular style adopted in England under Henry VIII and adopted forms that were recognisably European, beginning with the extensive work at

2840:

Parliament played a major part in the Reformation crisis of the mid-sixteenth century. It had been used by James V to uphold Catholic orthodoxy and asserted its right to determine the nature of religion in the country, disregarding royal authority in 1560. The 1560 parliament included 100,

3742:

The secular popular tradition of music continued, despite attempts by the Kirk, particularly in the Lowlands, to suppress dancing and events like penny weddings at which tunes were played. Large numbers of musicians continued to perform, including the fiddler Pattie Birnie and the piper

980:

began to influence Scotland, particularly through Scottish scholars who had visited continental and English universities and who had often trained in the Catholic priesthood. English influence was also more direct, supplying books and distributing Bibles and Protestant literature in the

3424:, considered themselves Northern British rather than Scottish. They attempted to rid themselves of their Scots in a bid to establish standard English as the official language of the newly formed Union. Many well-off Scots took to learning English through the activities of those such as 3405:

and was very close to the language spoken in northern England, but by the sixteenth century it had established orthographic and literary norms largely independent of those developing in England. From the mid sixteenth century, written Scots was increasingly influenced by the developing

3251:, established in 1709. Its aim was to teach the English language and to end the Roman Catholicism associated with rebellious Jacobitism. Although the Gaelic Society schools eventually taught the Bible in Gaelic, the overall effect was a contribution to the erosion of Highland culture. 1029:, while the young Mary, Queen of Scots, was still in France. Knox, having escaped the galleys and spent time in Geneva, where he had become a follower of Calvin, emerged as the most significant figure. The Calvinism of the reformers led by Knox resulted in a settlement that adopted a 2925:

meeting daily in Edinburgh to deal with civil cases. In 1514 the office of justice-general was created for the earl of Argyll (and held by his family until 1628). The study of law was popular in Scotland from the Middle Ages and many students travelled to Continental Europe to study

1759:

Charles died in 1685 and his brother succeeded him as James VII of Scotland (and II of England). James put Catholics in key positions in the government and even attendance at a conventicle was made punishable by death. He disregarded parliament, purged the council and forced through

2821:, which was built between 1633 and 1639 and remained the parliament's home until it was dissolved in 1707. By the end of the Middle Ages the Parliament had evolved from the King's Council of Bishops and Earls into a 'colloquium' with a political and judicial role. The attendance of 4088:(1617–94). Many painters of the early part of the eighteenth century remained largely artisans, like the members of the Norie family, James (1684–1757) and his sons, who painted the houses of the peerage with Scottish landscapes that were pastiches of Italian and Dutch landscapes. 1952:, merely prohibited a Roman Catholic successor, leaving open the possibility that the crowns would diverge. Rather than risk the possible return of James Francis Edward Stuart, then living in France, the English parliament pressed for full union of the two countries, passing the 2561:

In late medieval Scotland there is evidence of occasional prosecutions of individuals for causing harm through witchcraft, but these may have been declining in the first half of the sixteenth century. In the aftermath of the initial Reformation settlement, Parliament passed the

2477:

banned, the enforced disarming of clansmen, the compulsory purchase of heritable jurisdictions, the exile of many chiefs and sending of ordinary clansmen to the colonies as indentured labour. All of this largely reducing clan leaders to the status of simple landholders within a

1399:. There were a series of minor actions in the north of Scotland, which secured the Covenanter's rear against Royalist support and skirmishing on the border. As neither side wished to push the matter to a full military conflict, a temporary settlement was concluded, known as the 2876:

sent colonists from Fife to parts of the region and forced the Highland chiefs to accept Lowland language and culture through the Statues of Iona 1609. From the seventeenth century the function of shires expanded from judicial functions into wider local administration. In 1667

4000:(1680s). Smith's country houses followed the pattern established by William Bruce, with hipped roofs and pedimented fronts, in a plain but handsome Palladian style. After the Act of Union, growing prosperity in Scotland led to a spate of new building, both public and private. 2184:

built to mark the boundary. The accession of James VI to the English throne made the border less significant in military terms, becoming, in his phrase the "middle shires" of Great Britain, but it remained a jurisdictional and tariff boundary until the Act of Union in 1707.

1479:, guaranteeing the Scottish Church settlement and promising further reform in England. In January 1644 a Scots army of 18,000-foot and 3,000 horse and guns under Leslie crossed the border. It helped turn the tide of the war in the North, forcing the royalist army under the 3755:(1703) that he knew of eighteen in Lewis alone. The oppression of secular music and dancing began to ease between about 1715 and 1725 and the level of musical activity was reflected in a flood musical publications in broadsheets and compendiums of music such as the makar 2303:, who dominated the city for most of the century. Other burghs also benefited. Greenock enlarged its port in 1710 and sent its first ship to the Americas in 1719, but was soon playing a major part in importing sugar and rum. Cloth manufacture was largely domestic. Rough 3551:

their written language. James' characteristic role as active literary participant and patron in the Scottish court made him a defining figure for English Renaissance poetry and drama, which would reach a pinnacle of achievement in his reign, but his patronage for the

3543:, the latter being a favourite of the King. By the late 1590s his championing of his native Scottish tradition was to some extent diffused by the prospect of inheriting of the English throne, and some courtier poets who followed the king to London after 1603, such as 2175:

were built and maintained by the central government, with the aim of facilitating the movement of troops in the event of rebellion. The extent and borders of the kingdom had been fixed in their modern form by the beginning of the sixteenth century. The exception, the

897:(1543), led within two years to an English invasion to enforce the match, later known as the "rough wooing". This took the form of border skirmishing and several English campaigns into Scotland. In 1547, after the death of Henry VIII, forces under the English regent 2593:

sessions and was often used to attach superstitious and Catholic practices in Scottish society. Most of the accused, 75 per cent, were women, with over 1,500 executed, and the witch hunt in Scotland has been seen as a means of controlling women. The most intense

1112: 1426:. This gave them a stranglehold on the vital coal supply to London. Charles was forced to capitulate, agreeing to most of the Covenanter's demands and paying them £830 a month to support their army. This forced him to recall the English Parliament, known as the 4047:, with the almost total loss of medieval stained glass, religious sculpture and paintings. The parallel loss of ecclesiastical patronage created a crisis for native craftsmen and artists, who turned to secular patrons. One result of this was the flourishing of 2740:", by which a king was appointed by God and thus gained a degree of sanctity. These ideas he passed on to Charles I, whose ability to compromise may have been undermined by them, helping to lead to his political difficulties. When he was executed, the Scottish 2295:

became a major centre of grain, Ayrshire of cattle breading and the borders of sheep. However, although some estate holders improved the quality of life of their displaced workers, enclosures led to unemployment and forced migrations to the burghs or abroad.

3947:

During the era of civil wars and the Commonwealth, significant building in Scotland was largely confined to military architecture. After the Restoration, large scale building began again, often incorporating more comprehensive ideas of reviving classicism.

1193:

imprisoned James and forced Lennox to leave Scotland. After James was liberated in June 1583, he assumed increasing control of his kingdom. Between 1584 and 1603, he established effective royal government and relative peace among the lords, assisted by

1033:

system and rejected most of the elaborate trappings of the medieval church. This gave considerable power within the new kirk to local lairds, who often had control over the appointment of the clergy, and resulting in widespread, but generally orderly,

727:. There was also a flowering of Scottish literature before the loss of the court as a centre of patronage at the beginning of the seventeenth century. The tradition of church music was fundamentally changed by the Reformation, with the loss of complex 2064:. At this point, James belatedly landed in Scotland, but was advised that the cause was hopeless. He fled back to France. An attempted Jacobite invasion with Spanish assistance in 1719 met with little support from the clans and ended in defeat at the 2682:

balls, masques and celebrations, designed to illustrate the resurgence of the monarchy and to facilitate national unity. Under James VI, the court returned to being a centre of culture and learning and he cultivated the image of a philosopher king.

1693:

was a source of particular trouble in the south-west of the country, an area with strong Presbyterian sympathies. Abandoning the official church, many of the people here began to attend illegal field assemblies led by excluded ministers, known as

2736:(1582) were among the major texts outlining the case for resistance to tyrants. Buchanan was one of the young James VI's tutors, but they failed to intellectually convince him of their ideas about limited monarchy. James asserted the concept of " 2261:

over foreign trade was partially ended by and Act of 1672, leaving them with the old luxuries of wines, silk, spices and dyes and opening up trade of increasingly significant salt, coal, corn and hides and imports from the Americas. The English

3747:(1550–1620). In the Highlands the seventeenth century saw the development of piping families including the MacCrimmonds, MacArthurs, MacGregors and the Mackays of Gairlock. There is also evidence of adoption of the fiddle in the Highlands with 1631:

little opportunity for dissent. However, final ratification was delayed by Cromwell's problems with his various parliaments and the union did not become the subject of an act until 1657. The military administration in Scotland, led by General

3018:

in 1603 conflict between Scotland and England ended, but Scotland found itself involved in England's foreign policy, opening up Scottish shipping to attack. In 1626 a squadron of three ships were bought and equipped. There were also several

691:. Most of the economic development was in the Lowlands, which saw the beginnings of industrialisation, agricultural improvement and the expansion of eastern burghs, particularly Glasgow, as trade routes to the Americas opened up. The local 971:

that created a predominately Calvinist national kirk (church), which was strongly Presbyterian in outlook, severely reducing the powers of bishops, although not abolishing them. In the earlier part of the century, the teachings of first

2513:

returns for 1691 indicate a population of 1,234,575. This level may have been seriously effected by the famines of the 1690s. The first reliable information available on national population is from the census conducted by the Reverend

2744:

objected, but avoided advancing the sanctity of kings as a reason. In 1689, when the Scottish Estates had to find a justification for deposing James VII, they turned to Buchanan's argument on the contractual nature of monarchy in the

838:

by heavily taxing the church, taking £72,000 in four years, and embarked on a major programme of building at royal palaces. He avoided pursuing the major structural and theological changes to the church undertaken by his contemporary

3853:, has been located in origin to the period of the 1560s. It kept many of the features of the high walled Medieval castles and may have been influenced by the French masons brought to Scotland to work on royal palaces. It drew on the 1580:, the Kirk Party regained control in Scotland. However, the eventual response of Cromwell and the army leaders now in power in England to the second civil war was the execution of the king in January 1649, despite Scottish protests. 672:, the daughter of James, were accepted as monarchs. Presbyterianism was reintroduced and limitations placed on monarchy. After severe economic dislocation in the 1690s there were moves that led to political union with England as the 3666:

The Reformation had a severe impact on church music. The song schools of the abbeys, cathedrals and collegiate churches were closed down, choirs disbanded, music books and manuscripts destroyed and organs removed from churches. The

3717:

settings. There is evidence that polyphony survived and it was incorporated into editions of the Psalter from 1625, but usually with the congregation singing the melody and trained singers the contra-tenor, treble and bass parts.

3325:(1698–1746) was chair of mathematics by the age of 19 at Marischal College, University of Aberdeen and the leading British mathematician of his era. Perhaps the most significant intellectual figure of this era in Scotland was 1876:

merchants and landholder elite were insufficient, the company appealed to middling social ranks, who responded with patriotic fervour to the call for money; the lower orders volunteered as colonists. However, both the English

1530:

he defeated well-led and disciplined armies. He was able to dictate terms to the Covenanters, but as he moved south, his forces, depleted by the loss of MacColla and the Highlanders, were caught and decisively defeated at the

1024:

in 1560 meant that a relatively small, but highly influential, group of Protestants were in a position to impose reform on the Scottish church. A confession of faith, rejecting papal jurisdiction and the mass, was adopted by

3419:

After the Union in 1707 and the shift of political power to England, the use of Scots was discouraged by many in authority and education, as was the notion of Scottishness itself. Many leading Scots of the period, such as

3293:, launching a new fashion for ancient and biblical languages. Glasgow had probably been declining as a university before his arrival, but students now began to arrive in large numbers. He assisted in the reconstruction of 1410:, but disbanded it after it declined to vote a new subsidy and was critical of his policies. He assembled a poorly provisioned and poorly trained army. The Scots moved south into England, forcing a crossing of the Tyne at 3090:. On the eve of the Glorious Revolution the standing army in Scotland was about 3,000 men in various regiments and another 268 veterans in the major garrison towns. After the Glorious Revolution the Scots were drawn into 3671:

that influenced the early Scottish Reformation attempted to accommodate Catholic musical traditions into worship, drawing on Latin hymns and vernacular songs. The most important product of this tradition in Scotland was

2383:

and grassmen, that made up the majority of the working population. Serfdom had died out in Scotland in the fourteenth century, but was virtually restored by statute law for miners and saltworkers. Through the system of

884:

At the beginning of the infant Mary's reign, the Scottish political nation was divided between a pro-French faction, led by Cardinal Beaton and by the Queen's mother, Mary of Guise; and a pro-English faction, headed by

1626:

on 3 September. It was decisively defeated, bringing the civil wars to an end. Charles escaped to the continent, an English army occupied Scotland and Cromwell emerged as the most important figure in the Commonwealth.

1798:, from the Latin (Jacobus) for James, led to a series of risings. An initial Jacobite military attempt was led by John Graham, now Viscount Dundee. His forces, almost all Highlanders, defeated William's forces at the 2224:

to tenant farmers. They usually ran downhill so that they included both wet and dry land, helping to offset the problems of extreme weather conditions. Most ploughing was done with a heavy wooden plough with an iron

4051:

and walls, with large numbers of private houses of burgesses, lairds and lords gaining often highly detailed and coloured patterns and scenes, of which over a hundred examples survive. These include the ceiling at

1131:

on behalf of the king against his mother's supporters. In England, Mary became a focal point for Catholic conspirators and was eventually tried for treason and executed on the orders of her kinswoman Elizabeth I.

929:

came to the throne of England in 1558, the English party and the Protestants found their positions aligned and asked for English military support to expel the French. The arrival of the English fleet commanded by

3527:, to which he applied Renaissance principles. He also made statutory provision to reform and promote the teaching of music, seeing the two in connection. He became patron and member of a loose circle of Scottish 2404:

and workers that made up the majority of the urban population. At the bottom of society were the masterless men, the unemployed and vagrants, whose numbers were swelled in times of economic downturn or hardship.

847:, who became Archbishop of Saint Andrews and a Cardinal. James V's domestic and foreign policy successes were overshadowed by another disastrous campaign against England that led to an overwhelming defeat at the 4004:(1689–1748), was the foremost architect of his time in Scotland, designing and building numerous country houses and public buildings. His individual, exuberant, style was built on the Palladian style, but with 723:, while the law saw the increasing importance of royal authority and professionalisation. The expansion of parish schools and reform of universities heralded the beginnings of an intellectual flowering in the 3110:(1672–74) between 80 and 120 captains, took Scottish letters of marque and privateers played a major part in the naval conflict. In the 1690s a small fleet of five ships was established by merchants for the 2138:

The defining factor in the geography of Scotland is the distinction between the Highlands and Islands in the north and west and the Lowlands in the south and east. The highlands are further divided into the

2500:

There are almost no reliable sources with which to track the population of Scotland before the late seventeenth century. Estimates based on English records suggest that by the end of the Middle Ages, the

3563:

emerged as a significant written form in Scotland. Some ballads may date back to the late medieval era and deal with events and people that can be traced back as far as the thirteenth century, including

3114:, and a professional navy was established for the protection of commerce in home waters during the Nine Years' War, with three purpose-built warships bought from English shipbuilders in 1696. After the 2943:

was founded from the College of Justice as a supreme court of appeal. The Act of Union in 1707 largely persevered the distinct Scottish legal system and its courts, separate from English jurisdiction.

3242:, which would be the basis of administration of the system until 1873. In rural communities this act obliged local heritors to provide a schoolhouse and pay a schoolmaster, while ministers and local 2635:

level of vagrancy. Unlike the English act, there was no attempt to provide work for the able-bodied poor. In practice, the strictures on begging were often disregarded in times of extreme hardship.

3713:

congregations that would now all sing these psalms, unlike the trained choirs who had sung the many parts of polyphonic hymns, necessitated simplicity and most church compositions were confined to

1274:. He also increasingly controlled the meetings of the Scottish General Assembly and increased the number and powers of the Scottish bishops. In 1618, he held a General Assembly and pushed through 851:(1542). James died a short time later, a demise blamed by contemporaries on "a broken heart". The day before his death, he was brought news of the birth of an heir: a daughter, who would become 3098:

in Flanders (1689–97). Scottish seamen received protection against arbitrary impressment by English men of war, but a fixed quota of conscripts for the Royal Navy was levied from the sea-coast

1791:

the bishops, who had generally supported James. However, William, who was more tolerant than the kirk tended to be, passed acts restoring the Episcopalian clergy excluded after the Revolution.

9982: 3646:. His complex polyphonic music could only have been performed by a large and highly trained choir such as the one employed in the Chapel Royal. James V was also a patron to figures including 2001: 1780:, it was clear that his policies would outlive him. An invitation by seven leading Englishmen led William to land in England with 40,000 men, and James fled, leading to the almost bloodless " 1818:

were killed by members of the Earl of Argyll's Regiment of Foot, who had accepted their hospitality, on the grounds that they had not been prompt in pledging allegiance to the new monarchs.

747:

styles. In church architecture a distinctive plain style based on a T-plan emerged. The Reformation also had a major impact on art, with a loss of church patronage leading to a tradition of

2574:, were convicted of using witchcraft to send storms against James' ship. James became obsessed with the threat posed by witches and, inspired by his personal involvement, in 1597 wrote the 11570: 3411:

culture. Having extolled the virtues of Scots "poesie", after his accession to the English throne, he increasingly favoured the language of southern England. In 1611 the Kirk adopted the

2056:

hold the Stirling plain. Part of Mar's army joined up with risings in northern England and southern Scotland, and the Jacobites fought their way into England before being defeated at the

2630:

passed two years earlier and limited relief to the deserving poor of the old, sick and infirm, imposing draconian punishments on a long list of "masterful beggars", including jugglers,

680:, leading to a series of invasions and rebellions, but with the defeat of the last in 1745, Scotland entered a period of great political stability, economic and intellectual expansion. 3309:

education and to put Scotland at the forefront of Enlightenment thinking. Key figures in the Scottish Enlightenment who had made their mark before the mid-eighteenth century included

2423: 3572:", but which are not known to have existed until the eighteenth century. They were probably composed and transmitted orally and only began to be written down and printed, often as 624:

involving England and Ireland. In 1643 Scotland entered into another period of civil war with the Royalist armies supporting the king and the Scottish Covenanters entering the war

715:

remained central to government, with changing compositions and importance before the Act of Union in 1707 saw their abolition. The growth of local government saw introduction of

2324:

was founded in 1727. Local banks began to be established in burghs like Glasgow and Ayr. These would make capital available for business and the improvement of roads and trade.

1068: 3269:, who returned from Geneva to become principal of the University of Glasgow in 1574. A distinguished linguist, philosopher and poet, he had trained in Paris and studied law at 2388:

and kirk sessions, landlords still exerted considerable control over their tenants. Society in the burghs was headed by wealthier merchants, who often held local office as a

1956:, which threatened to make all Scotsmen unable to hold property in England unless moves toward union were made and would have severely damaged the cattle and linen trades. A 3393:

had been in geographical decline for three centuries and had begun to be a second class language, confined to the Highlands and Islands. It was gradually being replaced by

3042:, and halberds. Most cavalry were probably equipped with pistols and swords, although there is some evidence that they included lancers. Royalist armies, like those led by 1315:. Although born in Scotland, Charles had become estranged from his northern kingdom, with his first visit being for his Scottish coronation in 1633, when he was crowned in 1016:

Limited toleration and the influence of exiled Scots and Protestants in other countries, led to the expansion of Protestantism, with a group of lairds declaring themselves

65: 1794:

Although William's supporters dominated the government, there remained a significant following for James, particularly in the Highlands. His cause, which became known as

3305:, in 1580. The results were a revitalisation of all Scottish universities, which were now producing a quality of education the equal of that offered anywhere in Europe. 2673:

In the sixteenth century, the court was central to the patronage and dissemination of Renaissance works and ideas. Lavish court display was often tied up with ideas of

3195:

Protestant reformers shared the humanist concern with widening education, with a desire for a godly people replacing the aim of having educated citizens. In 1560 the

3873:

at each corner. New houses retained many of these external features, but with a larger ground plan, classically a "Z-plan" of a rectangular block with towers, as at

3604:(1686–1758) laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, as well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry, helping to develop the 921:, heir to the French throne. Mary of Guise stayed in Scotland to look after the interests of young Mary – and of France – although Arran acted as regent until 1554. 3385:, was hurriedly translated into English from Scots at his accession to the English throne, marking the beginnings of an emphasis on Southern English as a language. 2299:

World. Glasgow emerged as the focus of the tobacco trade, re-exporting particularly to France. The merchants dealing in this lucrative business became the wealthy

4103:

Atkinson, Charles Francis (1911), "Great Rebellion", in Chisholm, Hugh (ed.), Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 12 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 403–421

1498:

led a campaign in favour of the king in the Highlands from 1644. Few Lowland Scots would follow him, but, aided by 1,000 Irish, Highland and Islesmen sent by the

699:

and Highlands declined in importance. There was a population expanding towards the end of the period and increasing urbanisation. Social tensions were evident in

3248: 1539:, nephew of Alexander. Escaping to the north, Montrose attempted to continue the struggle with fresh troops. By this point the king had been heavily defeated at 2099:. Several clans unenthusiastically joined him. At the outset he was successful, taking Edinburgh and then defeating the only government army in Scotland at the 1639:

and enforcing a form of limited religious toleration, but by introducing English judges largely suspending the Scots law. In 1653–55 there was a major Royalist

1088:

Her six-year personal reign was marred by a series of crises, largely caused by the intrigues and rivalries of the leading nobles. The murder of her secretary,

2052:, raised the Jacobite clans but proved to be an indecisive leader and an incompetent soldier. Mar captured Perth, but let a smaller government force under the 1165:, first cousin of James' father Lord Darnley, arrived in Scotland and quickly established himself as the closest of the then 13-year-old James's powerful male 6371:

K. Stevenson, "Thai war callit knynchtis and bere the name and the honour of that hye ordre: Scottish knighthood in the fifteenth century", in L. Clark, ed.,

1880:

and the English government opposed the idea. The East India Company saw the venture as a potential commercial threat and the government were involved in the

2044:) envisaged simultaneous uprisings in Wales, Devon, and Scotland. However, government arrests forestalled the southern ventures. In Scotland, John Erskine, 1730:(given their name after the Scottish Whigamores), who attempted, unsuccessfully, to exclude the openly Catholic Duke of Albany from the succession, and the 735:

singing. In architecture, royal building was strongly influenced by Renaissance styles, while the houses of the great lairds adopted a hybrid form known as

3893:, Edinburgh. He adopted a distinctive style that applied elements of Scottish fortification and Flemish influences to a Renaissance plan like that used at 1772:

in England, demonstrated the strength of the regime. It was believed that the king would be succeeded by his daughter Mary, a Protestant and the wife of

1669: 1323:

rites. Charles had relatively few important Scots in his circle and relied heavily in Scottish matters on the generally mistrusted and often indecisive

2990:

There were various attempts to create royal naval forces in the fifteenth century. James IV put the enterprise on a new footing, founding a harbour at

2453:

system. The head of a clan was usually the eldest son of the last chief of the most powerful sept or branch. The leading families of a clan formed the

1810:(1691), ended the first phase of the Jacobite military effort. In the aftermath of the Jacobite defeat on 13 February 1692 in an incident known as the 925:

giving limited toleration to Protestant dissent and attempting to diffuse resentment over the continued presence of French troops. When the Protestant

3944:(1643). In most of these cases one arm of the cross would have been closed off as a laird's aisle, meaning that they were in effect T-plan churches. 9988: 2889:, composed of local church elders, which replaced the church courts of the Middle Ages, and which dealt with moral and religious conduct. The local 1161:

at the age of 13 months on 29 July 1567. He was brought up as a Protestant, while the country was run by a series of regents. In 1579 the Frenchman

1972:

succession. The Church of Scotland and Scottish law and courts remained separate. The English and Scottish parliaments were replaced by a combined

609:. In 1603 he inherited the thrones of England and Ireland, creating a dynastic union and moving the centre of royal patronage and power to London. 2167:, with 1564 seeing thirty-three days of continual frost, where rivers and lochs froze, leading to a series of subsistence crisis until the 1690s. 1434:. The Scots army returned home triumphant. The king's attempts to raise a force in Ireland to invade Scotland from the west prompted a widespread 10292: 10242: 4178:

R. Mason, "Renaissance and Reformation: the sixteenth century", in J. Wormald, ed., Scotland: A History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005),

1976:, but it sat in Westminster and largely continued English traditions without interruption. Forty-five Scots were added to the 513 members of the 1195: 17: 1005:, did nothing to stem the growth of these ideas. Wishart's supporters, who included a number of Fife lairds, assassinated Beaton soon after and 683:

Although there was an improving system of roads in early modern Scotland, it remained a country divided by topography, particularly between the

11275: 4080:

from around 1584 to 1602, who have left us a visual record of the king and major figures at the court. The first significant native artist was

3885:, the king's master mason from 1617 until his death in 1631. He worked on the rebuilding of the collapsed North Range of Linlithgow from 1618, 3314: 2595: 1680:

After the death of Cromwell in 1658, Monck remained aloof from the manoeuvring in London that led to the brief establishment of a regime under

656:

and an increasingly absolutist regime, resulting in religious and political upheaval and rebellions. With the accession of the openly Catholic

408: 3229:, a tax on local landowners was introduced to provide the necessary endowments. A loophole that allowed evasion of this tax was closed in the 10314: 4084:

of Aberdeen (1589/90-1644), who became one of the most successful portrait painters of the reign of Charles I and trained the Baroque artist

2125: 1282:, with perhaps 50,000 Scots settling in the province by the mid-seventeenth century. Attempts to found a Scottish colony in North America in 525: 8837: 1802:

in 1689, but they took heavy losses and Dundee was slain in the fighting. Without his leadership the Jacobite army was soon defeated at the

10400: 3949: 2586:. James is known to have personally supervised the torture of women accused of being witches. After 1599, his views became more sceptical. 1406:

In 1640 Charles attempted again to enforce his authority, opening a second Bishops' War. He recalled the English Parliament, known as the

616:

attempted to impose elements of the English religious settlement on his other kingdoms. Relations gradually deteriorated resulting in the

10937: 10287: 2194: 2104: 11565: 11028: 10410: 3697: 1451: 1356: 2237:. In 1596 the Society of Brewers was established in Edinburgh and the importing of English hops allowed the brewing of Scottish beer. 11677: 10531: 2465:(in Scots), who managed the clan lands and collected the rents. In the isles and along the adjacent western seaboard there were also 1644: 11413: 10344: 8538: 7174: 4061: 2957:

In the later Middle Ages, Scottish armies were assembled on the basis of common service, feudal obligations and money contracts of

2333: 2220:, settlements of a handful of families that jointly farmed an area notionally suitable for two or three plough teams, allocated in 1480: 443: 3523:, published in 1584 when he was aged 18, was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue, 3102:

during the second half of the seventeenth century. Royal Navy patrols were now found in Scottish waters even in peacetime. In the

2375:, on whom the financial and legal burdens of local government would increasingly fall. Below the substantial landholders were the 1563:, in exchange for the imposition of Presbyterianism on England on a three-year trial basis. The more hard-line Covenanters of the 10908: 9284: 3977: 3544: 3466: 2862: 1784:". William called the Estates in Scotland, and as his supporters proved dominant, James' support collapsed. The Estates issued a 700: 584:

saw the court become a centre of Renaissance patronage, but it ended in military defeat and another long minority for the infant

378: 368: 1559:

with the King, now held by the New Model Army, by which the Scots would support him, along with risings in England as part of a

11682: 11038: 10789: 10297: 4043:, they include contemporary, biblical and classical figures. Scotland's ecclesiastical art suffered as a result of Reformation 3337: 1765: 1706:. In the early 1680s a more intense phase of persecution began, in what was later to be known in Protestant historiography as " 1495: 1460: 373: 6455:

J. W. Armstrong, "The 'fyre of ire Kyndild' in the fifteenth-century Scottish Marches", in S. A. Throop and P. R. Hyams, eds,

10952: 10762: 10635: 10440: 10354: 10267: 9978: 9944: 9923: 8645: 8453: 4048: 3843: 3785: 3448:. Nevertheless, Scots remained the vernacular of many rural communities and the growing number of urban working-class Scots. 3043: 2538: 1831: 1648: 748: 248: 3024: 2036:

occurred in 1715, soon after the death of Anne and the accession of the first Hanoverian king, the eldest son of Sophie, as

11592: 11327: 10859: 9201:

J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, "A Brief History of Scots" in J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, eds,

9180:

J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, "A Brief History of Scots" in J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, eds,

9079:

J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, "A Brief History of Scots" in J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, eds,

9055:

J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, "A Brief History of Scots" in J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, eds,

9034:

J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, "A Brief History of Scots" in J. Corbett, D. McClure and J. Stuart-Smith, eds,

2028: 1355:

during a service in St Giles Cathedral. The Protestant nobility put themselves at the head of the popular opposition, with

1324: 1190: 898: 803: 3462: 843:

in England. He used the Church as a source of offices for his many illegitimate children and his favourites, particularly

11503: 11307: 11203: 10879: 10334: 10319: 10235: 4065: 3457: 2648: 1632: 1483:

into York where it was besieged by combined Scots and Parliamentary armies. The Royalists were relieved by a force under

1186: 1097: 1009:, which they held for a year before they were defeated with the help of French forces. The survivors, including chaplain 433: 2457:, often seen as equivalent to lowland lairds, providing council in peace and leadership in war, and below them were the 2359:, who formed the senior nobility. Under them were the barons, who in this period were beginning to merge with the local 1162: 1013:, being condemned to be galley slaves, helping to create resentment of the French and martyrs for the Protestant cause. 11163: 10304: 10277: 3985: 3178: 403: 3514:

Like Henry VIII, James employed many foreign artisans and craftsmen to enhance the prestige of his renaissance Court.

1475:

appealed to the Scots for military aid. The Covenanters opted to side with Parliament and in 1643 they entered into a

938:, which fell in July 1560. By this point Mary of Guise had died and French and English troops both withdrew under the 11550: 11285: 11022: 10947: 10864: 10670: 10590: 10282: 10212: 10191: 10170: 10141: 10107: 10086: 10065: 10041: 10017: 9965: 9902: 9878: 9857: 9836: 9815: 9791: 9770: 9749: 9728: 9707: 9683: 9662: 9638: 9601: 9580: 9556: 9528: 9507: 9484: 9456: 9435: 9414: 9393: 9372: 9351: 9330: 9309: 9265: 9244: 9210: 9189: 9109: 9088: 9064: 9043: 9022: 9001: 8977: 8956: 8935: 8914: 8890: 8869: 8813: 8792: 8771: 8750: 8729: 8708: 8687: 8666: 8611: 8590: 8569: 8548: 8522: 8500: 8479: 8427: 8406: 8385: 8364: 8343: 8322: 8301: 8280: 8259: 8235: 8214: 8193: 8172: 8151: 8117: 8096: 8059: 8035: 7998: 7977: 7956: 7932: 7911: 7890: 7869: 7845: 7821: 7800: 7779: 7758: 7737: 7716: 7692: 7671: 7647: 7626: 7605: 7581: 7560: 7539: 7518: 7497: 7476: 7439: 7418: 7397: 7376: 7355: 7334: 7313: 7289: 7268: 7247: 7226: 7205: 7184: 7161: 7137: 7113: 7092: 7071: 7050: 7029: 7008: 6987: 6966: 6945: 6924: 6903: 6882: 6861: 6840: 6819: 6795: 6774: 6753: 6732: 6711: 6690: 6669: 6648: 6627: 6606: 6585: 6564: 6543: 6506: 6485: 6464: 6443: 6422: 6401: 6380: 6359: 6338: 6317: 6296: 6275: 6251: 6230: 6209: 6188: 6167: 6146: 6125: 6104: 6070: 6049: 6028: 6007: 5986: 5962: 5936: 5915: 5894: 5873: 5839: 5818: 5798: 5774: 5672: 5651: 5630: 5609: 5572: 5548: 5518: 5497: 5476: 5455: 5434: 5413: 5379: 5355: 5334: 5313: 5289: 5268: 5242: 5218: 5197: 5176: 5155: 5134: 5113: 5092: 5071: 5050: 5029: 5005: 4984: 4963: 4939: 4918: 4897: 4873: 4852: 4831: 4810: 4789: 4768: 4747: 4726: 4705: 4684: 4663: 4642: 4592: 4571: 4550: 4529: 4508: 4462: 4441: 4420: 4399: 4378: 4357: 4336: 4312: 4291: 4270: 4249: 4225: 4204: 4183: 4166: 4145: 4121: 3909:(1675–89), and was highly influential until the baronial style gave way to the grander English forms associated with 3500:

and diplomat, was a prolific poet. He produced an interlude at Linlithgow Palace thought to be a version of his play

2487: 2112:

France. The Old Pretender died in 1760 and the Young Pretender, without legitimate issue, in 1788. When his brother,

2053: 1985: 1977: 1331:, Archbishop of St. Andrews, eventually making him chancellor. At the beginning of his reign, Charles' revocation of 886: 570: 518: 109: 1940:, who had no surviving children and so the Protestant succession seemed in doubt. The English Parliament passed the 10615: 10600: 10580: 10349: 3510:, an Italian scholar who had been at Kinloss Abbey in Scotland, dedicated to the couple a new edition of his work, 3302: 3014:

in 1542. The chief use of naval power in his reign were a series of expeditions to the Isles and France. After the

2952: 1711: 1124: 707:. Despite the aggrandisement of the crown and the increase in forms of taxation, revenues remained inadequate. The 278: 119: 114: 98: 85: 11540: 3034:

In the early seventeenth century relatively large numbers of Scots took service in foreign armies involved in the

3023:

of privateers. In 1627, the Royal Scots Navy and accompanying contingents of burgh privateers participated in the

2708:

was reworked to include arches in 1532, which were re-added when it was reconstructed in 1540 in what remains the

11609: 10967: 10757: 10640: 10425: 10415: 10309: 3310: 3273:, before moving to Geneva and developing an interest in Protestant theology. Influenced by the anti-Aristotelian 3258: 2871:

was limited and regulated, local taxation became much more intrusive and from 1607 regular, local commissions of

1997: 1993: 1743: 1589: 1026: 455: 398: 298: 243: 193: 59: 9363:

N. Rhodes, "Wrapped in the Strong Arm of the Union: Shakespeare and King James" in W. Maley and A. Murphy, eds,

3397:, which became the language of both the nobility and the majority population. It was derived substantially from 1594: 11377: 11048: 10784: 10774: 10359: 10339: 10228: 8764:

Scottish Literacy and the Scottish Identity: Illiteracy and Society in Scotland and Northern England, 1600–1800

6042:

Scottish Literacy and the Scottish Identity: Illiteracy and Society in Scotland and Northern England, 1600–1800

4618: 3764: 3621: 3147: 2172: 1727: 637: 363: 4475: 1336:

England his religious policies caused similar resentment and he ruled without calling a parliament from 1629.

1107:

and after their forces melted away, he fled and she was captured by Bothwell's rivals. Mary was imprisoned in

11619: 11123: 11073: 10995: 10610: 10524: 7553:

Union and Empire: The Making of the United Kingdom in 1707, Cambridge Studies in Early Modern British History

3631: 3502: 3412: 3318: 3313:(1694–1746), who was professor of moral philosophy at Glasgow. He was an important link between the ideas of 3218: 3143: 3139: 3082:

in the East. Pikemen became less important in the late seventeenth century and after the introduction of the

2613: 628:

in support on the English Parliamentary side. Ultimately the parliamentary forces emerged victorious. Later,

478: 268: 223: 3894: 2975:. Weapons included various forms of axes and pole arms. Highland troops brought bows and two-handed swords ( 2449:

The combination of agnatic kinship and a feudal system of obligation has been seen as creating the Highland

1673:

Charles II sailing from his exile in the Netherlands to his Restoration in England in May 1660. Painting by

11367: 11270: 11217: 11168: 11128: 10925: 10903: 10570: 10272: 10203:

I. Baudino, "Aesthetics and Mapping the British Identity in Painting", in A. Müller and I. Karremann, ed.,

5584:

D. R. Hidalgo, "To Get Rich for Our Homeland: The Company of Scotland and the Colonization of the Darién",

4069: 4021: 2580:, a tract that opposed the practice of witchcraft and which provided background material for Shakespeare's 2278: 2198: 1989: 1937: 676:

in 1707. The deposed main hereditary line of the Stuarts became a focus for political discontent, known as

511: 288: 283: 273: 136: 39: 8928:

The Renaissance in Scotland: Studies in Literature, Religion, History, and Culture Offered to John Durkhan

2894:

gave considerable power to local lairds to control the behaviour of the populations of their communities.

1884:

from 1689 to 1697 against France and did not want to offend Spain, which claimed the territory as part of

11577: 11513: 11372: 11317: 10779: 10769: 10742: 10585: 3988:

worked as a mason on the Bruce's rebuilding of Holyrood Palace. With his father-in-law, the master mason

3238:

the Lowlands, and in the Highlands basic education was still lacking in many areas by the passing of the

2818: 2790: 1973: 1777: 1515: 1151: 483: 303: 104: 10205:

Mediating Identities in Eighteenth-Century England: Public Negotiations, Literary Discourses, Topography

1961:

leading political figure have been described as bribes, but the existence of direct bribes is disputed.

1576:, the Scots were defeated and many captured, with Hamilton subsequently executed. After the coup of the 11508: 11302: 11010: 11004: 10854: 10799: 10680: 3814:, the first Scottish royal residence to be described as a palace. This was followed by re-buildings at 3589: 3331: 2567: 2180:

at the Western end of the border with England, were settled by a French led commission in 1552 and the

1476: 1093: 1006: 625: 293: 131: 2867:

From the sixteenth century, the central government became increasingly involved in local affairs. The

2570:, the first major persecution of witches in Scotland under the 1563 Act. Several people, most notably 1403:

in June 1639, and the First Bishops' War ended with the Covenanters retaining control of the country.

11587: 11582: 11264: 10932: 10747: 10498: 9740:

R. Cowgill and P. Holman, "Introduction: centres and peripheries", in R. Cowgill and P. Holman, eds,

9224:

De vera cometae significatione contra astrologorum omnium vanitatem. Libellus, nuper natus et aeditus

3506:

in 1540. James also attracted the attention of international authors. When he married Mary of Guise,

3188: 2758: 2037: 1881: 1864: 1815: 1703: 1536: 1511: 1263: 1207: 1017: 986: 708: 150: 8926:

J. Kirk, "'Melvillian reform' and the Scottish universities", in A. A. MacDonald and M. Lynch, eds,

6221:

A. Grant, "Service and tenure in late medieval Scotland 1324–1475" in A. Curry and E. Matthew, eds,

11518: 11498: 11433: 11347: 11280: 11238: 11198: 11153: 11018: 10920: 10886: 10717: 10517: 8860:

R. Anderson, "The history of Scottish Education pre-1980", in T. G. K. Bryce and W. M. Humes, eds,

4001: 3789: 3693: 3685: 3639: 3588:. From the seventeenth century they were used as a literary form by aristocratic authors including 3553: 3517:

In the 1580s and 1590s James VI promoted the literature of the country of his birth. His treatise,

3197: 2940: 2931: 2057: 1573: 1568: 1560: 1430:, which, in exchange for concessions, raised the sum of £200,000 to be paid to the Scots under the 1203: 1021: 673: 323: 91: 6536:

Clan, King, and Covenant: History of the Highland Clans from the Civil War to the Glencoe Massacre

3805:

James V encountered the French version of Renaissance building while visiting for his marriage to

1635:, was relatively successful. It managed to enforce law and order, suppressing the banditry of the 1506:, he began a highly successful mobile campaign, winning victories over local Covenanter forces at 1359:

emerging as a leading figure. Representatives of various sections of Scottish society drew up the

11493: 11108: 10891: 10804: 10794: 10675: 10620: 10478: 10385: 8829: 3882: 3677: 3593: 3473: 3425: 3167: 2877: 2810: 2470: 2230: 1799: 1786: 1699: 1619: 1611: 1468: 1435: 1400: 1364:

were formally expelled from the Church, which was then established on a full Presbyterian basis.

1215: 1104: 1084: 1076: 835: 720: 645: 258: 228: 8883:

British Identities Before Nationalism: Ethnicity and Nationhood in the Atlantic World, 1600–1800

4026: 1487:, the King's nephew, but the allies under Leslie's command defeated the Royalists decisively at 1395:

of the Swedish Army. Charles gathered a force of perhaps 20,000, many of which were ill-trained

810:, Western and Northern isles and the troublesome borders. He took punitive measures against the 775: 11382: 11173: 10957: 10869: 10827: 10655: 10493: 10420: 3953: 3941: 3924: 3681: 3660: 3536: 3298: 3270: 3222: 3221:

commanded every parish to establish a school "where convenient means may be had", and when the

3103: 2982: 2886: 2798: 2781: 2716:" rather than the great magnates, the use of the clergy as a form of civil service, developing 2356: 2321: 1941: 1885: 1773: 1488: 1267: 1158: 1119:. Mary eventually escaped and attempted to regain the throne by force. After her defeat at the 968: 724: 665: 649: 566: 562: 253: 238: 9476: 9470: 4606: 3436:

at a time (about £200 in today's money) they were attended by over 300 men, and he was made a

2213: 1020:

in 1557 and representing their interests politically. The collapse of the French alliance and

942:, leaving the young queen in France, but pro-English and Protestant parties in the ascendant. 592:

1560, by which both withdrew their troops, but leaving the way open for religious reform. The

11555: 11470: 11442: 11418: 11258: 11183: 11118: 10898: 10849: 10702: 10690: 10329: 3540: 3433: 3265:

After the Reformation, Scotland's universities underwent a series of reforms associated with

3107: 3047: 2872: 2737: 2678: 2608: 2548: 2526: 2312: 2226: 2113: 2100: 2076: 2061: 1652: 1640: 1615: 1603: 1599: 1532: 1271: 848: 716: 684: 633: 621: 460: 217: 11352: 3916: 3794: 1920: 1614:, as soon as news of Charles I's execution reached Scotland, his son was proclaimed king as 1351:

anger and widespread rioting, said to have been set off with the throwing of a stool by one

1206:

with England, which, with the execution of his mother in 1587, helped clear the way for his

11599: 11545: 11532: 11133: 10977: 10972: 10836: 10818: 10630: 10575: 10483: 10375: 4005: 3989: 3890: 3507: 3211: 3155: 3035: 2903: 2814: 2794: 2065: 2060:, surrendering on 14 November 1715. The day before, Mar had failed to defeat Argyll at the 1764:

to Roman Catholics, alienating his Protestant subjects. The failure of an invasion, led by

1761: 1715: 1664: 1540: 1507: 1438:

there and as the English moved to outright opposition that resulted in the outbreak of the

1384: 1312: 1304: 1295: 1238: 1072: 1047: 951: 918: 914: 890: 868: 852: 787: 613: 593: 546: 438: 426: 356: 233: 81: 3150:(1740–48). The first official Highland regiment to be raised for the British army was the 1146: 822:

and carried out royal progresses to underline his authority. He also continued the French

8: 11642: 11614: 11337: 11332: 11312: 11230: 11178: 11143: 11096: 10942: 10874: 10844: 10732: 10712: 10665: 10605: 10595: 10562: 10552: 10430: 4085: 3898: 3806: 3772: 3756: 3709: 3601: 3519: 3446:

Select Society for Promoting the Reading and Speaking of the English Language in Scotland

3243: 2991: 2908: 2769: 2721: 2563: 2553: 2522: 2217: 2140: 1890: 1853: 1811: 1781: 1752: 1686: 1623: 1499: 1415: 1383:

The Scots assembled a force of about 12,000, some of which were returned veterans of the

1367: 1056: 939: 906: 894: 827: 799: 770: 712: 661: 657: 589: 585: 581: 554: 343: 338: 333: 316: 48: 6725:

Changing Values in Medieval Scotland: a Study of Prices, Money, and Weights and Measures

3626: 2786: 2763:

Until 1707, The Privy Council met in what is now the West Drawing Room at the Palace of

826:

that had been in place since the fourteenth century, marrying first the French princess

11560: 11423: 11290: 11063: 11058: 11000: 10913: 10737: 10660: 10645: 10452: 9148: 3969: 3965: 3957: 3650:(c. 1510–79?), whose best known work "Si quis diligit me" (text from John 14:23), is a 3301:, and to do for St Andrews what he had done for Glasgow, he was appointed Principal of 3239: 3230: 3226: 3123: 3115: 3095: 2935: 2626:

were given responsibility for dealing with the issue. The 1574 act was modelled on the

2144: 2108: 2023: 1925: 1915: 1877: 1769: 1519: 1503: 1376: 1316: 1242: 1199: 1120: 1116: 1080: 807: 669: 606: 448: 199: 10220: 9281: 8540:

The Evil Necessity: British Naval Impressment in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World

8357:

Cavalier Generals: King Charles I and his Commanders in the English Civil War, 1642–46

3708:

of 1529 and English writers, particularly the 1561 edition of the Psalter produced by

2492: 1067:

While these events progressed Queen Mary had been raised as a Catholic in France, and

11651: 11604: 11399: 11362: 11357: 11342: 11322: 11148: 11053: 11043: 10752: 10727: 10722: 10324: 10208: 10187: 10166: 10137: 10103: 10082: 10061: 10037: 10013: 9961: 9940: 9919: 9898: 9874: 9853: 9832: 9811: 9787: 9766: 9745: 9724: 9703: 9679: 9658: 9634: 9597: 9576: 9552: 9524: 9503: 9480: 9452: 9431: 9410: 9389: 9368: 9347: 9326: 9305: 9261: 9240: 9206: 9185: 9105: 9084: 9060: 9039: 9018: 8997: 8973: 8952: 8931: 8910: 8886: 8865: 8809: 8788: 8767: 8746: 8725: 8704: 8683: 8662: 8641: 8607: 8586: 8565: 8544: 8518: 8496: 8475: 8449: 8423: 8402: 8381: 8360: 8339: 8318: 8297: 8276: 8255: 8231: 8210: 8189: 8168: 8147: 8113: 8092: 8055: 8031: 7994: 7973: 7952: 7928: 7907: 7886: 7865: 7841: 7817: 7796: 7775: 7754: 7733: 7712: 7688: 7667: 7643: 7622: 7601: 7577: 7556: 7535: 7514: 7493: 7472: 7435: 7414: 7393: 7372: 7351: 7330: 7309: 7285: 7264: 7243: 7222: 7201: 7180: 7157: 7133: 7109: 7088: 7067: 7046: 7025: 7004: 6983: 6962: 6941: 6920: 6899: 6878: 6857: 6852:

S. J. Brown, "Religion and society to c. 1900", in T. M. Devine and J. Wormald, eds,

6836: 6815: 6791: 6770: 6749: 6728: 6707: 6686: 6665: 6644: 6623: 6602: 6581: 6560: 6539: 6502: 6481: 6460: 6439: 6418: 6397: 6376: 6355: 6334: 6313: 6292: 6271: 6247: 6226: 6205: 6184: 6163: 6142: 6121: 6100: 6066: 6045: 6024: 6003: 5982: 5958: 5932: 5911: 5890: 5869: 5835: 5814: 5794: 5770: 5668: 5647: 5626: 5605: 5568: 5565:

Britannia's Children: Emigration from England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland since 1600

5544: 5514: 5493: 5472: 5451: 5430: 5409: 5375: 5351: 5330: 5309: 5285: 5264: 5238: 5214: 5193: 5172: 5151: 5130: 5109: 5088: 5067: 5046: 5025: 5001: 4980: 4959: 4935: 4914: 4893: 4869: 4848: 4827: 4806: 4785: 4764: 4743: 4722: 4701: 4680: 4659: 4638: 4614: 4588: 4567: 4546: 4525: 4504: 4458: 4437: 4416: 4395: 4374: 4353: 4332: 4308: 4287: 4266: 4245: 4221: 4200: 4179: 4162: 4141: 4117: 4073: 4056:, undertaken in 1581 for Mark Kerr, Commendator of Newbattle and the long gallery at 3997: 3906: 3811: 3569: 3565: 3294: 3134:, besides varying levels of fortress artillery in the garrison castles of Edinburgh, 3131: 2709: 2662: 2515: 2414: 1945: 1872: 1841: 1807: 1803: 1527: 1439: 1411: 1360: 982: 815: 791: 780: 688: 391: 8336:

The Campaigns of Montrose: A Military History of the Civil War in Scotland 1639–1646

2976: 2704:

of medieval kings, suggesting a claim to absolute authority within the kingdom. His

2589:

In the seventeenth century, the pursuit of witchcraft was largely taken over by the

985:

when they invaded in 1547. Particularly important was the work of the Lutheran Scot

11455: 11450: 11387: 11253: 11113: 11014: 10488: 10457: 10405: 10390: 8470:

E. M. Furgol, "Warfare, weapons and fortifications: 3 1600–1700" in M. Lynch, ed.,

7390:

The History of the Scottish Parliament volume 1: Parliament and Politics, 1235–1560

6082:

R. H. Campbell, "The Anglo-Scottish Union of 1707. II: The Economic Consequences",

3878: 3874: 3827: 3573: 3407: 3135: 3091: 3086:

disappeared altogether, while matchlock muskets were replaced by the more reliable

3020: 3006: 2922: 2913: 2317: 2245: 2156: 2152: 1969: 1929: 1849: 1723: 1707: 1681: 1674: 1523: 1407: 1388: 1345: 1328: 1128: 1108: 902: 878: 751:

and walls and the beginnings of a tradition of portraiture and landscape painting.

728: 696: 617: 588:. Scotland hovered between dominance by the English and French, which ended in the 550: 413: 175: 169: 9136:

A Language Suppressed: The Pronunciation of the Scots Language in the 18th Century

9123:

A Language Suppressed: The Pronunciation of the Scots Language in the 18th Century

6894:

B. P. Levak, "The decline and end of Scottish witch-hunting", in J. Goodare, ed.,

6873:

B. P. Levak, "The decline and end of Scottish witch-hunting", in J. Goodare, ed.,

3734:

trumpets, drums, fifes, bagpipes and tabors. Like her father she played the lute,

3701: 2621:

Parish Church, ordered to be established for beggars and other offenders from 1593

2496:

Plan of Edinburgh in 1764, the largest city in Scotland in the early modern period

1734:, who opposed them. Similar divisions began to emerge in Scottish political life. 917:. and sent the five-year-old Mary to France, as the intended bride of the dauphin 11656: 11480: 11460: 11078: 10962: 10435: 10395: 9288: 9154: 7282:

The Architecture of Scottish Government: from Kingship to Parliamentary Democracy

4081: 4031: 3981: 3961: 3839: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3638:

The outstanding Scottish composer of the first half of the sixteenth century was

3381: 3322: 3286: 3266: 3138:, and Stirling. As part of the British Army, Scottish regiments took part in the 3051: 3027:. The Scots also returned to West Indies and in 1629 took part in the capture of 3015: 2806: 2725: 2627: 2389: 2360: 2274: 2263: 2177: 2130: 1965: 1957: 1949: 1911: 1868: 1827: 1577: 1548: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1232: 1211: 1182: 641: 601: 501: 187: 7989:

M. McLeod, "Warfare, weapons and fortifications: 2 1450–1600" in M. Lynch, ed.,

2677:, which was evolving in this period from into an ornamental and honorific cult. 2521:

Compared with the situation after the redistribution of population in the later

1776:, Stadtholder of the Netherlands, but when in 1688, James produced a male heir, 1555:

Scotland, with Hamilton emerging as the leading figure. In 1647 he brokered the

873: 11465: 10182:

R. Tittler, "Portrait, politics and society", in R. Tittler and N. Jones, eds,

9827:

R. Mason, "Renaissance and Reformation: the sixteenth century", in J. Wormald,

9159: 9155:"The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)" 6746:

The Cambridge Social History of Britain 1750–1950: People and Their Environment

4040: 3850: 3744: 3726: 3597: 3532: 3477: 3370: 3358: 3207: 3083: 2697: 2658: 2506: 2474: 2431: 2418: 2367:. Below the lairds were a variety of groups, often ill-defined. These included 2240: 2181: 2164: 2096: 1981: 1953: 1544: 1332: 1254: 1250: 1174: 1170: 1060: 994: 935: 931: 889:. Failure of the pro-English to deliver a marriage between the infant Mary and 831: 736: 732: 577: 163: 157: 9291:", Association of Scottish Literary Studies (2000), retrieved 18 October 2011. 6767:

A Companion to Tudor Literature Blackwell Companions to Literature and Culture

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to his court, although almost nothing of this secular chamber music survives.

2986:

The earliest image of Scottish soldiers wearing tartan, from a woodcut c. 1631

2203: 11671: 11484: 11248: 11188: 11157: 11033: 10445: 5684: 4077: 4053: 4009: 3993: 3973: 3920: 3835: 3748: 3647: 3605: 3489: 3354: 3349:. and he would be a major influence of later Enlightenment figures including 3127: 3111: 3000: 2834: 2764: 2717: 2571: 2291: 2282: 2160: 1860: 1719: 1484: 1471:

developed into a long and protracted conflict, both the King and the English

1392: 973: 910: 823: 263: 6765:

K. A. Edwards, "Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart Scotland", in K. Cartwright,

6329:

A. Grant, "Late medieval foundations", in A. Grant and K. J. Stringer, eds,

3187:

Carving of a seventeenth-century classroom with a dominie and scholars from

2772:

of 1688–89. The council was abolished after the Act of Union on 1 May 1708.

1964:

The Scottish parliament voted on 6 January 1707, by 110 to 69, to adopt the

1063:; in reality, Mary saw her son for the last time when he was ten months old. 11243: 11193: 11138: 10707: 10380: 8446:

A History of Scottish Architecture: from the Renaissance to the Present Day

4057: 3886: 3854: 3676:, which were spiritual satires on popular ballads composed by the brothers 3585: 3581: 3528: 3524: 3485: 3394: 3390: 3274: 3039: 2972: 2689: 2576: 2304: 2300: 2268: 1698:. Official attempts to suppress these led to a rising in 1679, defeated by 1636: 1456: 1372: 1352: 1089: 1030: 1002: 864: 844: 811: 328: 11406: 3437: 3254: 2685: 2233:

used German techniques to solve the drainage problems of his coal mine at

1836: 1286:

were largely unsuccessful, with insufficient funds and willing colonists.

8440: 8438: 8436: 5955:

Scottish Society, 1707–1830: Beyond Jacobitism, Towards Industrialisation

3933: 3910: 3902: 3858: 3668: 3643: 3609: 3398: 3281:

were abandoned and Greek became compulsory in the first year followed by

3278: 3151: 3028: 3011: 2890: 2618: 2502: 2427: 2385: 2258: 2045: 2018: 1894: 1695: 1419: 1283: 998: 977: 926: 558: 3069: 2916:

by James V in 1532, from the Great Window in Parliament House, Edinburgh

2543: 2518:

in 1755, which showed the inhabitants of Scotland as 1,265,380 persons.

2343: 10650: 10473: 4044: 3520:

Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody

3497: 3421: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3326: 3234: 3183: 3119: 3079: 2826: 2741: 2510: 2376: 2249: 2148: 2013: 1795: 1690: 1564: 1547:

and surrendered to the Scots forces under Leslie besieging the town of

1035: 840: 819: 677: 653: 620:(1637–40), ending in defeat for Charles and helping to bring about the 181: 9721:

Defining Strains: The Musical Life of Scots in the Seventeenth Century

9700:

Defining Strains: The Musical Life of Scots in the Seventeenth Century

8433: 3261:(1694–1746), one of the founding fathers of the Scottish Enlightenment 2320:, founded in 1695 was suspected of Jacobite sympathies and so a rival 1127:

in 1568, she took refuge in England. In Scotland the regents fought a

10987: 3735: 3714: 3577: 3548: 3512:

On the true significance of comets against the vanity of astrologers.

3493: 3441: 3429: 3203: 3087: 3059: 2968: 2927: 2631: 2364: 1748: 1551:

in July 1646. Montrose abandoned the war and left for the continent.

1472: 1463:, led a successful pro-royalist campaign in the Highlands in 1644–45. 1258: 1246: 1178: 1166: 1096:, father of her infant son, and her abduction by and marriage to the 1010: 960: 905:, followed up by the occupation of the strategic lowland fortress of 740: 704: 632:

who was defeated and executed. Scotland ultimately accepted his son,

597: 10509: 8315:

The Bishops' Wars: Charles I's Campaigns Against Scotland, 1638–1640

8273:

The Irish and British Wars, 1637–1654: Triumph, Tragedy, and Failure

8252:

The Irish and British Wars, 1637–1654: Triumph, Tragedy, and Failure

8165:

An Apprenticeship in Arms: The Origins of the British Army 1585–1702

3849:

The unique style of great private house in Scotland, later known as

3233:, which established a solid institutional foundation for schools on 2813:, which was rebuilt on the orders of Mary Queen of Scots from 1561. 2551:

meet the Devil in the local kirkyard, from a contemporary pamphlet,

1300: 1052: 989:. His execution with other Protestant preachers in 1528, and of the 11297: 11068: 10540: 8562:

A History of Clan Campbell: From The Restoration to the Present Day

7369:

Scots and Britons: Scottish Political Thought and the Union of 1603

3972:. Among his most significant work was his own Palladian mansion at 3870: 3656: 2674: 2462: 2439: 2393: 2379:, lesser landholders and free tenants, who were often described as 1556: 1320: 1141: 893:, the son of Henry VIII of England, that had been agreed under the 629: 542: 9342:

M. Spiller, "Poetry after the Union 1603–1660" in C. Cairns, ed.,

8131:

The Princelie Majestie: The Court of James V of Scotland 1528–1542

7730:

A History of Private Law in Scotland: I. Introduction and Property

6938:

The Old Poor Law in Scotland: the Experience of Poverty, 1574–1845

4761:

A History of the Modern British Isles, 1603–1707: The Double Crown

4197:

A History of the Modern British Isles, 1529–1603: the Two Kingdoms

3580:, later being recorded and noted in books by collectors including 3375: 2442:(derived through both males and females), in Scotland kinship was 2000:. Roxburghe was replaced by Argyll in 1725 and he and his brother 9977: 3866: 3862: 3721: 3705: 3282: 3154:

in 1740, but the growth of Highland regiments was delayed by the

2963: 2844: 2713: 2701: 2665:

re-built for James V to suggest an open-air Renaissance courtyard

2582: 2443: 2401: 2372: 2307:

were produced, but the most important areas of manufacturing was

2234: 2221: 2092: 1948:

and her descendants. However, the Scottish Parliament's parallel

1856:

received a charter to raise capital through public subscription.

1396: 990: 795: 744: 9384:

R. D. S. Jack, "Poetry under King James VI", in C. Cairns, ed.,

9321:

R. D. S. Jack, "Poetry under King James VI", in C. Cairns, ed.,

9256:

R. D. S. Jack, "Poetry under King James VI", in C. Cairns, ed.,

8294:

Fighting for Identity: Scottish Military Experience c. 1550–1900

1150:

The Royal Arms of Scotland as used until 1603, from a window in

934:

and English troops led to the besieging of the French forces in

695:

emerged as a key figure and the heads of names and clans in the

11394: 10158: 8657:

A. Mackillop, "Highland Regiments 1750–1830" in M. Lynch, ed.,

3937: 3798: 3689: 3560: 3290: 2822: 2705: 2397: 2380: 2368: 1279: 1202:, who led the government until 1592. In 1586, James signed the 640:

of 1650-1652 which Scotland lost to a parliamentary army under

9869: