335:
up of three or more separate cultivars - one for the root system, which is generally selected for good stability and resistance to soil-borne diseases, one for the trunk, which modifies the overall height of the tree, and one for the productive limbs and buds, which actually produces the fruit. Frequently, the root system stock is the most resistant to cold damage - both by natural selection and by protection from the cold air by the earth. When frost severely damages a tree, the more productive branch and bud cultivar may be killed off, leaving the root to sprout new stalks. In the case of oranges and other citrus, this results in sweet orange trees being frozen back so that the more hardy, cold-tolerant sour orange rootstock puts out new growth.
245:
256:
334:
Dwarfing fruit trees acts through a reduction in the nutrients which travel from the roots through the trunk to the leaves and buds. Many commercial orchards of various species use this technique to improve the overall health and productivity of the individual trees. An individual tree may be made
111:
Humans have encouraged the deliberate development of dwarf breeds of many domestic animals, including horses, cattle, dogs, and chickens. Some have been breeds of smaller animals that were not originally selected for size, but are now held to specific sizes by a breed standard. In many cases, the
115:
As the genetic mutations that cause dwarfing occur in many species, dwarf animals can be the offspring of normal-appearing animals. Even in breeds which have not been selected for dwarfing, some genetic lines may show a tendency to produce dwarfs, which may be encouraged by deliberate breeding.
102:
breed, Shetland collie breed of dogs, and various pony breeds of horses developed in this manner. In the case of the
Shetland sheep and collies, it is likely that environmental conditions, such as a lack of abundant fodder, led to farmers selecting smaller animals who continued to reproduce on
34:
of plants is changed to become significantly smaller than standard members of their species. The effect can be induced through human intervention or non-human processes, and can include genetic, nutritional or hormonal means. Used most specifically, dwarfing includes pathogenic changes in the
343:
Dwarfing genes are widely used in creating more productive food plants, such as grains. One condition that results in loss of grain crops is called 'lodging', where heavy ears of almost ripe grain bend the stalk until the grain touches the ground, becomes wet, and spoils. During the
89:
Dwarfing can produce more practical breeds that can fit in small accommodations, or may appeal aesthetically, as well as other associated side effects. Smaller stature may be a deliberate goal of breeding programs, or it may be a side effect of other breeding goals.
511:
Scholthof, H. B.; Scholthof, K. B. G.; Jackson, A. O. (1995), "Identification of Tomato Bushy Stunt Virus Host-Specific
Symptom Determinants by Expression of Individual Genes from a Potato Virus X Vector",
528:
Chouinard, A.; Filion, L. (2005), "Impact of
Introduced White-Tailed Deer and Native Insect Defoliators on the Density and Growth of Conifer Saplings on Anticosti Island, Quebec",
287:." The majority of dwarfing in plants occurs not from the damage environmental stresses inflict on them, but instead by hormones produced in response to the stress.
103:
limited food over larger animals who did not reproduce well on limited diets. In this case, the emphasis was on selecting for survival and reproduction, not size.
60:
98:
In some husbandry conditions, humans created dwarf breeds, or allowed them to develop, without specifically selecting for smaller animals. It is likely that the
475:
Else, M. A.; et al. (1996), "Stomatal
Closure in Flooded Tomato Plants Involves Abscisic Acid and a Chemically Unidentified Anti-Transpirant in Xylem Sap",
116:
This often takes the form of in-breeding to concentrate recessive genes, and can result in other genetic abnormalities being established in the population.
128:
112:
exact physiological mechanism that alters the growth of individuals in that breed is not well known, and some breeds have multiple mechanisms at play.
491:
Okamoto, T.; Tsurumi, S.; Shibasaki, K.; Obana, Y.; Takaji, H.; Oono Y.; Rahman, A. (2008), "Genetic
Dissection of Hormonal Responses in the Roots of
433:
Johnson, K.A. and Watson, A. D. J. "Skeletal
Disorders" Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 5th Ed. Saunders(2000) Philadelphia Vol 2 pg 1898
641:"Positional cloning of rice semidwarfing gene, sd-1: rice "green revolution gene" encodes a mutant enzyme involved in gibberellin synthesis"
600:"Decreased shoot stature and grain alpha-amylase activity following ectopic expression of a gibberellin 2-oxidase gene in transgenic wheat"
563:
Swarup, R.; Perry, P.; Hagenbeek, D.; Van Der
Straeten, D.; Beemster, G. T. S.; et al. (2007), "Ethylene Upregulates Auxin Biosynthesis in
162:
445:
Hutchings, M. J.; de Kroon, H. (1994), "Foraging in Plants: The Role of
Morphological Plasticity in Resource Acquisition",
547:
Zhang, Y.; Turner, J. G. (2008), "Wound-Induced
Endogenous Jasmonates Stunt Plant Growth by Inhibiting Mitosis",
299:. Such responses include, but are not limited to: less frequent cell divisions and reduction of cell elongation.
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51:
In animals, including humans, dwarfism has been described in several ways. Shortened stature can result from
275:, but can also undergo natural, morphological changes to acclimatize to environmental stresses such as
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52:
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in commercial use are propagated as dwarf or semi-dwarf trees for ease of picking and spraying.
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365:
181:
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act as a signal to the various tissues of plants inducing one or more responses, the class of
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resulting in a dwarfed stature. Plants dwarfed due to environmental stress are said to be "
249:
136:
74:
and other conditions. Any of these conditions can be established in a population through
8:
320:
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75:
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dog breed), in contrast to non-pathogenic proportional reduction in stature (such as the
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Some animal breeds that have been formally subject to dwarfing include:
356:) resulted in crops that yielded significantly more harvestable grain.
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56:
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280:
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311:, dwarfing can be considered a desirable characteristic in modern
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structure of an organism (for example, the bulldog, a genetically
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185:
40:
638:
639:
Monna L, Kitazawa N, Yoshino R, et al. (February 2002).
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260:
27:
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responsible for dwarfing in plants due to injury are called
567:
Seedlings to
Enhance Inhibition of Root Cell Elongation",
255:
348:, research that identified wheat reduced-height genes (
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Appleford NE, Wilkinson MD, Ma Q, et al. (2007).
677:
315:. This kind of dwarfing can be attained through
267:As with animals, plants can be dwarfed through
495:Grown Under Continuous Mechanical Impedance",
279:, light, drought, flood, cold, infection, and
327:on to dwarfing rootstocks. Almost all modern
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195:Poultry (Bantam chickens, Call Ducks)
86:, or some combination of the above.
13:
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14:
707:
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43:, a small sighthound dog breed).
259:Lack of the plant growth factor
16:For the disorder in humans, see
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591:
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352:) and a rice semidwarf gene (
463:"Drought resistance explained"
455:
427:
1:
421:
323:, or more often, scions are
7:
359:
220:Equines (Miniature Donkey,
10:
712:
263:can cause dwarfing (right)
46:
15:
381:Genomics of domestication
239:
53:growth hormone deficiency
26:is a process in which a
213:Guinea Cracker Cattle,
209:Cattle (Dwarf Brahman,
376:Fruit tree propagation
264:
252:
94:Nonpurposeful dwarfing
61:portal systemic shunts
658:10.1093/dnares/9.1.11
258:
247:
371:Dwarfism in chickens
137:Florida White Rabbit
321:genetic engineering
269:genetic engineering
107:Purposeful dwarfing
76:genetic engineering
617:10.1093/jxb/erm166
396:Deep-sea gigantism
317:selective breeding
273:selective breeding
265:
253:
190:Miniature Pinscher
125:American Fuzzy Lop
80:selective breeding
72:diabetes mellitus
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411:Island gigantism
406:Insular dwarfism
386:Green revolution
346:Green Revolution
250:Japanese juniper
155:Netherland Dwarf
129:Britannia Petite
84:insular dwarfism
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610:(12): 3213–26.
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447:Adv. Ecol. Res.
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416:Prostrate shrub
391:Habit (biology)
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339:Dwarfing grains
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229:Miniature horse
170:English Bulldog
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37:achondroplastic
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12:
11:
5:
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587:. 30 May 2018.
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497:Plant Physiol.
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303:Dwarfing trees
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289:Plant hormones
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211:Lowline cattle
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200:Nigerian Dwarf
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174:French Bulldog
166:
108:
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100:Shetland sheep
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92:
69:hypothyroidism
48:
45:
30:of animals or
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6:
4:
3:
2:
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697:
696:Organism size
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477:Plant Physiol
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401:Foster's rule
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293:plant hormone
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233:Shetland Pony
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215:Dexter cattle
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65:renal disease
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29:
25:
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686:Horticulture
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309:horticulture
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277:soil quality
266:
226:Hackney Pony
141:Jersey Wooly
118:
114:
110:
97:
88:
50:
23:
22:
651:(1): 11–7.
604:J. Exp. Bot
574:: 2186–2196
565:Arabidopsis
519:: 1157-1172
502:: 1651–1662
493:Arabidopsis
152:Holland Lop
133:Dwarf Hotot
680:Categories
569:Plant Cell
530:Ecoscience
514:Plant Cell
422:References
297:jasmonates
204:Pygmy Goat
163:Mini Satin
57:starvation
691:Livestock
535:: 506-518
482:: 239-247
452:: 159–238
281:herbivory
235:, others)
222:Fell Pony
192:, others)
178:Chihuahua
165:, others)
123:Rabbits (
667:11939564
626:17916639
549:PLoS ONE
360:See also
313:orchards
159:Mini Rex
145:Lionhead
32:cultivar
24:Dwarfing
18:Dwarfism
645:DNA Res
554:: e3699
325:grafted
285:stunted
198:Goats (
186:Whippet
47:Animals
41:whippet
665:
624:
585:"News"
329:apples
248:Dwarf
240:Plants
168:Dogs (
150:(UK),
148:Polish
131:(US),
366:Dwarf
261:auxin
182:Corgi
82:, or
28:breed
663:PMID
622:PMID
271:and
653:doi
612:doi
500:146
480:112
354:sd1
350:Rht
307:In
682::
661:.
647:.
643:.
620:.
608:58
606:.
602:.
572:19
540:^
533:12
450:25
438:^
319:,
231:,
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127:,
78:,
67:,
63:,
59:,
55:,
669:.
655::
649:9
628:.
614::
552:3
517:7
465:.
217:)
206:)
20:.
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